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14 20ayh

The document outlines the static characteristics of measurement instruments, including accuracy, precision, resolution, and dead zone. It also discusses measurement errors, categorizing them into gross, systematic, and random errors, and explains the concepts of loading effects and types of analog meters based on their operational principles. Additionally, it describes the three types of torques necessary for the operation of indicating instruments: deflecting, controlling, and damping torques.

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27 views7 pages

14 20ayh

The document outlines the static characteristics of measurement instruments, including accuracy, precision, resolution, and dead zone. It also discusses measurement errors, categorizing them into gross, systematic, and random errors, and explains the concepts of loading effects and types of analog meters based on their operational principles. Additionally, it describes the three types of torques necessary for the operation of indicating instruments: deflecting, controlling, and damping torques.

Uploaded by

thomasshelby0367
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Static Characteristics

▪ Accuracy – degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the
true value of the variable under measurement.
▪ Precision – it is a measure of reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., precision is a
measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one another.
▪ Resolution – it is the smallest change in the instrument that can be detected. It is
sometimes referred as sensitivity.
▪ Dead zone – the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument is called dead zone of that instrument.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 14


Measurement of Errors
▪ In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the measurand.

▪ The difference between the true or exact value and the measured value of the unknown
quantity is known as the absolute error of the measurement.
Absolute error, 𝛿𝐴 = 𝜀0 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴
where, 𝐴𝑚 - Measured value; A – true or exact value
Relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the unknown quantity, i.e.,
𝜀0 𝛿𝐴
relative error = 𝜀𝑟 = =
𝐴 𝐴

When the absolute error is very small (or negligible), seems 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴, and thus, relative error can
be expressed as,
𝜀0 𝛿𝐴
𝜀𝑟 = =
𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 15


Measurement of Errors Contd..
Relative error is further expressed as,
𝜀
Percentage error = 𝜀𝑟 × 100 = 𝐴 0 × 100
𝑚

The limits of deviations from specified values are defined as limiting or guarantee errors.

Such limits can be expressed as, 𝐴𝑚 ± 𝛿𝐴

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 16


Types of Errors
Errors are categorized in three main types –

❑ Gross Error – errors caused due to mistakes in observation or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measurement results.

❑ Systematic Error – errors that remain constant or change according to definite law on
repeated measurement of the given quantity. These are of two types, such as, instrumental
error, and environmental error.
❑ Random Error – errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain any law.

Loading Effects
The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in undistorted form is called
loading effect. This results in loading error.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 17
Analog Meters: Principle
Classified according to the principle of operation they utilize.
❑ Magnetic effect (moving coil, moving iron, electrodynamometer)

❑ Heating effect (thermocouple, hotwire instruments)

❑ Electrostatic effect (electrostatic voltmeters)

❑ Electromagnetic effect (induction wattmeter, energy meter)

❑ Hall effect (speed sensors)

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 18


Analog Meters: Operating Torques
Three types of torques are needed for satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument. These are
❑ Deflecting torque: The deflecting or operating force is required for moving the pointer from zero
position. The system producing deflecting force is called deflecting system or moving system.
❑ Controlling torque: This force is required in an indicating instrument in order that the current
produces deflection of the pointer proportional to its magnitude. The system producing a controlling
force is called a controlling system. Basic functions of this system are:
➢ To produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force at the final steady position of
pointer in order to make the deflection of the pointer definite for a particular magnitude of
current.
➢ To bring the moving system back to zero when the force causing the instrument to deflect is
removed.
❑ Damping torque: A damping force generally works in an opposite direction to the movement of the
moving system. This opposite movement of the damping force, without any oscillation or very small
oscillation brings the moving system to rest at the final deflected position quickly.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 19


Operating Torques Contd..
When the deflecting torque is much greater than the controlling
torque, the system is called underdamped.
If the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, it is called
critically damped.
When deflecting torque is much less than the controlling torque, the
system is under overdamped condition.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 20

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