AI/Unit-I(a)

Artificial Intelligence: An Introduction

Intelligence:
Psychologists have proposed various definitions. Some of them are:
 Intelligence is the ability to acquire, understand and apply knowledge, or the ability to
exercise thought and reason.
 The ability to reason, to trigger new thought, to perceive and learn intelligence is
Artificial Intelligence (AI):
 AI is the branch of computer science, which deals with the study and creation of
computer system that have some form of intelligence. It means system learn new
concepts, tasks, reason and draw useful conclusions about the world around us.
System that can understand a natural language, have a visual scene and perform other
type of feats that require human type of intelligence.
 Developing computer programs to solve complex problems by application of
processes that are analogous to human reasoning processes.

What AI is not?
To gain a better understanding of AI, it is useful to know what AI is not.
 AI is not the study and creation of conventional computer system.
 AI is not the study of mind or of the body, or of the language.

Today, artificial intelligence is used in a wide variety of applications, including engineering,

technology, the military, opinion mining, sentiment analysis, and many more. It is also used
in more advanced domains, such as language processing and applications for aerospace.
AI is everywhere in today's world, and people are gradually becoming accustomed to its
presence. It is utilized in systems that recognize both voices and faces.
In addition to this, it can provide you with shopping recommendations that are tailored to
your own purchasing preferences. Finding spam and preventing fraudulent use of credit cards
is made much easier when you have this skill. The most cutting-edge technology currently on
the market are virtual assistants like Apple's Siri, Amazon's Alexa, Microsoft's Cortana, and
Google's own Google Assistant. It's possible that you're already familiar with the technology
involved in artificial intelligence (AI). Are you?
AI has become very popular all over the world today. It imitates human intelligence in
machines by programming them to do the same things people do. As a technology, AI is
going to have a bigger impact on how people live their daily lives. Everyone wants to connect
to Artificial Intelligence as a technology these days. Before we can understand AI, we need to
know and talk about some basic things. For example, what is the difference between
knowledge and intelligence? The key to starting this unit is the answer to this question.
The accumulation of information and abilities that a person has gained through their life
experiences is known as knowledge. While intelligence refers to one's capacity to put one's
knowledge into practise. To put it simply, knowledge is what we have learned over the years,
and it expands as time passes. Because of this, it represents the culmination of everything that
we have realized over the course of our lives. It is important to highlight that having
information does not automatically make one intelligent; rather, intelligence is what makes
one smart.
There is a well-known proverb that says "marks are not the measure of intelligence." This is
due to the fact that intelligence is not a measurement of how much information one possesses.
In fact, it is the measure of how much we comprehend and put into practise. People who are
knowledgeable may gain a lot of information, but an intelligent person understands how to
comprehend, analyze, and use the information. You could have a lot of knowledge but still be
the least intelligent person in the room. Knowledge and intelligence are inextricably linked,

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and each contributes to the other's development. Knowledge enables one to learn the
understandings that others have of things, whereas intelligence is the foundation for one's
ability to grasp the things themselves.
Now that we have an understanding of the distinction between intelligence and knowledge,
our next issue is: what exactly is artificial intelligence? Incorporating intelligence into a
machine is related to the field of Artificial Intelligence, whereas both concepts, namely the
representation of knowledge and its engineering, are the basis of traditional AI research.
In a nutshell, incorporating intelligence into a machine is related to the field of Artificial
Intelligence. Knowledge engineering is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) that applies
rules to data in order to simulate the way in which an expert would think about the
information. It does this by analysing the structure of a job or a decision in order to figure out
how one arrives at a conclusion.
Knowledge and intelligence are two important concepts, and we were able to gain an
understanding of the fundamental distinction between the two terms.
Now that we have your attention, let's talk about what artificial intelligence actually is. The
meaning of Artificial Intelligence will be covered in this section; however, before we get
started, it is important to note that the field of Artificial Intelligence is related to the process
of incorporating intelligence into machines; the specifics of this process, as well as the
mechanism itself, will be covered in this unit as well as the subsequent units of this training.

According to the concepts presented earlier, there are four distinct objectives that might be
pursued in the field of artificial intelligence. These objectives are as follows:
• The creation of systems that think in the same way as people do.
• The creation of systems that are capable of logical thought.
• The creation of machines that can mimic human behaviour.
• The creation of systems that behave in a logical manner
In addition, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the intelligence that is incorporated into machines;
in other words, AI is the ability of a machine to display human like capabilities such as
reasoning, learning, planning, and creativity. We learned this information because AI is the
ability of a machine to display human-like capabilities.

On the basis of the functionalities the AI can be classified based on Type 1 and Type 2

Here’s a brief introduction the first type of AI i.e., Type 1 AI. Following are the three stages
of Type 1 - Artificial Intelligence:
a) Artificial Narrow Intelligence-(ANI)
b) Artificial General Intelligence-(AGI)
c) Artificial Super Intelligence-(ASI)

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The various categories of Artificial Intelligence are discussed as follows:

a) Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI), also called Weak AI or Narrow AI: Weak AI is a
term for thinking that is "simulated." Such systems seem to act intelligently, but they don't
have any awareness of what they are doing.
For example, a chatbot might talk to you in a way that seems natural, but it doesn't know who
it is or why it's talking to you. Artificial intelligence is a system that was built to do a certain
job.
b) Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): Strong or General Artificial Intelligence, also
called "actual" thinking. That is, acting like a smart human and thinking like one with a
conscious, subjective mind. For instance, when two humans talk, they probably both know
who they are, what they're doing, and why Systems with strong or general artificial
intelligence can do things that people can do. These systems tend to be harder to understand
and more complicated. They are set up to handle situations where they might need to solve
problems on their own without help from a person. Uses for these kinds of systems include
self-driving cars and operating rooms in hospitals.
c) Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) - Super intelligence: The term "super intelligence"
usually refers to a level of general and strong AI that is smarter than humans, if that's even
possible. The ASI is seen as the logical next step after the AGI because it can do more than
humans can. This includes making decisions, making rational decisions, and even things like
building emotional relationships. Their is a marginal difference between AGI and ASI.

Turing Test
Alan Turing, who is the most well-known name among the pioneers, thought about how to
test an A.I. product to see if it was intelligent. Alan Turing came up with the idea for the
Turing Test in 1950 (Turing).
For the purpose of the test, There are three rooms that will be used for the test. In one of the
rooms, there is a computer system that is said to be smart. In each of the other two rooms,
there is one person sitting. One of the people, who we'll call C, is supposed to ask questions
of the computer and the other person, who we'll call B, without knowing who each question is
for and, of course, with the goal of figuring out who the computer is. On the other hand, the
computer would reply in a way that would keep C from finding out who it is.
The only way for the three of them to talk to each other is through computer terminals. This
means that the identity of the computer or person B can only be determined by how
intelligent or not the responses are, not by any other human or machine traits. If C can't figure
out who the computer is, then the computer must be smart. More accurately, the computer is
smart if it can hide its identity from C.

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AI Techniques

Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques are methods, algorithms, and approaches used to create
intelligent systems capable of learning, reasoning, and problem-solving. These techniques
enable AI systems to perform tasks that would otherwise require human intelligence.

Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques are a set of computational methods that enable
machines to learn from data, recognize patterns, make predictions, and perform tasks that
would typically require human intelligence. These techniques have revolutionized many
industries, from healthcare to finance to transportation, and have the potential to transform
the world in ways we can’t even imagine. AI techniques can be broadly categorized into three
categories: supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. Each of
these techniques has its own strengths and weaknesses, and can be applied to a wide range of
problems and applications. As the field of AI continues to advance, we can expect to see even
more innovative and powerful techniques emerge.

AI problems span a very broad spectrum. They appear to have very little in common except
that they are hard. But there are varieties of techniques to find the solution of the same. But
before we begin examining closely the individual techniques, it is enlightening to take a
broad look at them to see what properties they ought to possess.
Intelligence requires knowledge and knowledge possesses some less desirable properties,
including:
 It is voluminous.
 It is hard to characterize accurately.
 It is constantly changing.
 It differs from data by being organized in a way that corresponds to the ways it will be
used.
Therefore AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be represented in
such a way that:
 The knowledge captures generalizations. In other words, it is not necessary to
represent separately each individual situation. Instead, situations that share important
properties are grouped together. If knowledge does not have this property, inordinate
amounts of memory and updating will be required. So we usually call something
without this property "data" rather than knowledge.
 It can be understood by people who provide it. Although for many programs, the bulk
of the data can be acquired automatically but in many AI domains it must be provided
by people in terms they understand.
 It can easily be modified to correct errors and to reflect changes in the world and in
our worldview.
 It can be used in a great many situations even if it is not totally accurate or complete.

Application of AI:
Games
Game playing shares the property that people who do them well are considered to be
displaying intelligence. Despite this, it appeared initially that computers could perform well
act those tasks simply by being fast at exploring a large number of solution paths and
selecting the best one and if we apply this rule to day to day life then we can understand that,
it is basic rule of problem solving. Almost in every case for every problem in a particular

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situation we may have various possible solutions but if we want to solve the problem
correctly then we have to choose a right path then only we can overcome the problem.
Same strategy we adopt in game playing, if we want to be a winner then we have to
select right option among the various possible options. By adopting this approach we can
design best possible game (AI based). But it may not be winner all the time. We can see this
in real life problem for example Deep Blue (name of AI based computer system) is defeated
by the Garry Cosparov but next time Deep Blue first was able to defeat the world champion.

Theorem Proving
Theorem proving has the property that people who do them well are considered to be
displaying intelligence.
 The Logic Theorist was an early attempt to prove mathematical theorems. It was able
to prove several theorems from the Qussells Principia Mathematica.
 Gelernters’ theorem prover explored another area of mathematics: geometry.
There are three types of problems in A.I.
 Ignorable problems, in which solution steps can be ignored;
 Recoverable problems in which solution steps can be undone;
 Irrecoverable in which solution steps cannot be undone.
Theorem proving falls into the first category i.e. it is ignorable suppose we are trying to solve
a theorem, we proceed by first proving a lemma that we think will be useful. Eventually we
realize that the lemma is not help at all. In this case we can simply ignore that lemma, and
can start from beginning.

Natural Language Processing

Perception and communication are essential components of intelligent behaviour.
They provide the ability to effectively interact with our environment. Humans perceive and
communicate through their five basic senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, and
their ability to generate meaningful utterances. Two of the senses, sight and hearing are
especially complex and require conscious inferencing. Developing programs that understand
natural language and that comprehend visual scenes are two of the most difficult tasks facing
AI researchers.
Developing programs that understand a natural language is a difficult problem
because:
 Natural languages are large.
 They contain infinity of different sentences. No matter how many sentences a person
has heard or seen, new ones can always be produced.
 There is much ambiguity in a natural language. Many words have several meanings
such as can, bear, fly, and orange, and sentences can have different meanings in
different contexts.
This makes the creation of programs that “understand” a natural language, one of the
most challenging tasks in AI. It requires that a program transform sentences occurring as part
of a dialog into data structures that convey the intended meaning of the sentences to a
reasoning program. In general, this means that the reasoning program must know a lot about
the structure of the language, the possible semantics, the beliefs and goals of the user, and a
great deal of general world knowledge.
Developing programs to understand natural language is important in AI because-
 A natural form of communication with systems is essential for user acceptance.
 Further more, one of the most critical tests for intelligent behaviour is the ability to
communicate effectively. AI programs must be able to communicate with their human

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counterparts in a natural way, and natural language is one of the most important
mediums for that purpose.

Vision Processing
Accurate machine vision opens up a new domain of computer application. These
applications include mobile robot navigation, complex manufacturing tasks, analysis of
satellite images, and medical image processing. In this section, we investigate how we can
transform raw camera images into useful information about the world.
A video camera provides a computer with an image represented as a two-dimensional
grid of intensity levels. Each grid element, or pixel, may store a single bit of information (that
is, black/white) or many bits (perhaps a real-valued intensity measure and colour
information). A visual image is composed of thousands of pixels. What kinds of things might
we want to do with such an image? Here are four operations, in order to increasing
complexity:
1. Signal Processing: Enhancing the image, either for human consumption or as input to
another program.
2. Measurement Analysis: For images containing a single object, determining the two-
dimensional extent of the object depicted.
3. Pattern Recognition: For single-object images, classifying the object into a category
drawn from a finite set of possibilities.
4. Image Understanding: For images containing many objects, locating the objects in the
image, classifying them, and building a three-dimensional mode of the scene.
Image understanding is the most difficult visual task, and it has been the subject of the
most study in AI. While some aspects of image understanding reduce to measurement
analysis and pattern recognition, the entire problem remains unsolved, because of
difficulties that include the following:
 An image is two-dimensional, while the world is three-dimensional. Some
information is necessarily lost when an image is created.
 One image may contain several objects, and some objects may partially occlude (to
stop/obstruct) others.
 The value of a single pixel is affected by many different phenomena, including the
colour of the object, the source of the light, the angle and distance of the camera, the
pollution in the air, etc. It is hard to separate these effects.

Speech Processing
Natural language understanding systems usually accept typed input, but for a number
of applications this is not acceptable. Spoken language is a more natural form of
communication in many human-computer interfaces. Speech recognition systems have been
available for some time, but their limitations have prevented widespread use. Below are five
major design issues in speech systems. These issues also provide dimensions along which
systems can be compared with one another.
 Speaker Dependence versus Speaker Independence: A speaker-independent
system can listen to any speaker and translate the sounds into written text. Speaker
independence is hard to achieve because of the wide variations in pitch and accent. It
is easier to build a speaker-dependent system, which can be trained on the voice
patterns of a single speaker. The system will only work for that one speaker. It can be
retrained on another voice, but then it will no longer work for the original speaker.
 Continuous versus Isolated-Word Speech: Interpreting isolated-word speech, in
which the speaker pauses between each word, is easier than interpreting continuous
speech. This is because boundary effects cause words to be pronounced differently in

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different contexts. For example, the spoken-phrase “could you” contains a j sound,
and despite the fact it contains two words, there is no empty space between them in
the speech wave. The ability to recognize continuous speech is very important,
however, since humans have difficulty speaking in isolated words.
 Real Time versus Offline Processing: Highly interactive applications require that a
sentence be translated into text as it is being spoken, while in other situations, it is
permissible to spend minutes in computation. Real-time speeds are hard to achieve,
especially when higher-level knowledge is involved.
 Large versus Small Vocabulary: Recognizing utterances that are confined to small
vocabularies (e.g., 20 words) are easier than working with large vocabularies (e.g.,
20,000 words). A small vocabulary helps to limit the number of word candidates for a
given speech segment.
 Broad versus Narrow Grammar: An example of a narrow grammar is the one for
phone numbers: S  XXX-XXXX, where X is any number between zero and nine.
Still, no speech system is 100 per cent accurate.
Robotics
Robots have found numerous applications in industrial settings. Robot manipulators are able
to perform simple repetitive task, such as bolting and fitting automobile parts, but these
robots are highly task-specific. It is a long-standing goal in robotics to build robots that can
be programmed to carry out a wide variety of tasks.
A manipulator is composed of a series of links and joints, usually terminating in an end-
effector, which can take the form of a two-pronged gripper, a humanlike hand, or any of a
variety of tools. One general manipulation problem is called pick-and-place, in which a robot
must grasp an object and move it to a specific location. For example, consider Figure, where
the goal is to place a peg in a hole.

Figure: A Pick-and-Place Task

Expert System
Expert Systems are a recent product of Artificial Intelligence. They began to emerge as
university research systems during the early 1970s. They have now become one of the more
important innovations of AI since they have been shown to be successful commercial
products as well as interesting research tools.
Application Domain of Expert System include chemistry, biology, engineering,
manufacturing, aerospace, military operations, finance, banking, meteorology, geology,
geophysics and more. The list goes on and on.
“An expert system is set of programs that manipulate encoded knowledge to solve problems
in a specialized domain that normally requires human expertise. An expert system’s

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knowledge is obtained from expert sources and code of in a form suitable for the system to
use in its inference or reasoning processes. The expert knowledge most be obtained from
specialists or other sources of expertise, such as texts, journal articles and data base.”

Search Knowledge
In order to solve the complex problems encountered in artificial intelligence, one needs both
a large amount of knowledge and some mechanisms for manipulating that knowledge to
create solutions to new problems. That is if we have knowledge that it is sufficient to solve a
problem, we have to search our goal in that knowledge. To search a knowledge base
efficiently, it is necessary to represent the knowledge base in a systematic way so that it can
be searched easily. Knowledge searching is a basic problem in Artificial Intelligence. The
knowledge can be represented either in the form of facts or in some formalism. A major
concept is that while intelligent programs recognize search, search is computationally
intractable unless it is constrained by knowledge about the world. In large knowledge bases
that contain thousands of rules, the intractability of search is an overriding concern. When
there are many possible paths of reasoning, it is clear that fruitless ones not be pursued.
Knowledge about path most likely to lead quickly to a goal state is often called search control
knowledge.
Other Applications of AI

Artificial intelligence is the most important factor in the transformation of economies

straight from the ground up, and it is contributing as an efficient alternative. It has a lot of
potential to perform optimization in any industry, whether it smart cities or the health sector
or agriculture or any other prospective sector of relevance, and below we have included a few
of the systems in which AI is functioning as the major source of competitive advantage:
a) Healthcare: The application of AI in healthcare can help address issues of high barriers to
access to healthcare facilities, particularly in rural areas that suffer from poor connectivity
and a limited supply of healthcare professionals. This is especially true in areas where the
supply of healthcare professionals is limited. The deployment of use cases like as AI-driven
diagnostics, personalized treatment, early diagnosis of potential pandemics, and imaging
diagnostics, amongst others, is one way to accomplish this goal.
b) Agriculture: AI has the potential to bring in a food revolution while simultaneously
satisfying the ever-increasing need for food (global need to produce 50 percent more food
and cater to an additional 2 billion people by 2050 as compared to today). It also has the
ability to resolve issues such as inadequate demand prediction, a lack of secure irrigation, and
the abuse or misuse of pesticides and fertilizers. These are only some of the problems that
it could solve. The increase of crop output through real-time advising is one example of a use
case. Other use cases include the advanced detection of pest infestations and the forecast of
crop prices to advise sowing methods. All of the stages of the agricultural value chain
indicated above in figure 5 have the potential for the application of artificial intelligence and
other associated technologies to have an impact on the levels of production and efficiency at
those stages.
c) Smart Mobility, including Transports and Logistics: Autonomous fleets for ride sharing,
semi-autonomous features such as driver assistance, and predictive engine monitoring and
maintenance are all possible use cases for smart mobility, which includes transportation and
logistics. Other areas where AI can have a positive impact include self-driving trucks and
delivery, as well as better traffic control.
d) Retail: The retail industry was one of the first to use AI solutions. For example,
personalized suggestions, browsing based on user preferences, and image-based product
search have all been used to improve the user experience. Other use cases include predicting

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what customers will want, keeping track of inventory better, and managing deliveries more
efficiently.

e) Manufacturing: AI-based solutions are expected to help the manufacturing industry the
most. This will make possible the "Factory of the Future" by allowing flexible and adaptable
technical systems to automate processes and machinery that can respond to new or
unexpected situations by making smart decisions. Impact areas include engineering (AI for
R&D), supply chain management (predicting demand), production (AI can cut costs and
increase efficiency), maintenance (predictive maintenance and better use of assets), quality
assurance (e.g., vision systems with machine learning algorithms to find flaws and
differences in product features), and in-plant logistics and warehousing.
f) Energy: In the energy sector, possible use cases include modelling and forecasting the
energy system to make it less unpredictable and make balancing and using power more
efficient. In renewable energy systems, AI can help store energy through smart metres and
intelligent grids. It can also make photovoltaic energy more reliable and less expensive. AI
could also be used to predict maintenance of grid infrastructure, just like it is in
manufacturing.
g) Smart Cities: Integrating AI into newly built smart cities and infrastructure could also
help meet the needs of a population that is moving to cities quickly and improve the quality
of life for those people. Some possible use cases include controlling traffic to reduce traffic
jams and managing crowds better to improve security.
h) Education and Skilling: Quality and access problems in the education sector might be
fixed by AI. Possible uses include adding to and improving the learning experience through
personalized learning, automating and speeding up administrative tasks, and predicting when
a student needs help to keep them from dropping out or to suggest vocational training.
i) Financial industry: The financial industry also uses AI. For example, it helps the fraud
department of a bank find and flag suspicious banking and finance activities like unusual
debit card use and large account deposits. AI is also used to make trading easier and more
efficient. This is done by making it easier to figure out how many securities are being bought
and sold and how much they cost.
Top Used Applications of Artificial Intelligence
• Tools and checkers for plagiarism
• Recognizing faces;
• Putting an AI autopilot on commercial planes
• Applications for sharing rides (E.g.: Uber, Lyft)
• E-mail spam filters; voice-to-text features; search suggestions
• Google's predictions based on AI (E.g.: Google Maps)
• Protecting against and stopping fraud.
• Smart personal assistants (E.g.: Siri, Alexa)
There are various ways to use artificial intelligence. The technology can be used in different
industries and sectors, but the adoption of AI by different sectors has been affected by
technical and regulatory challenges, but the biggest factor has been how it will affect business.

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