Unit No 2

1. Illustrate the basic concepts of sampling.

Answer: Sampling is a fundamental concept in statistics and research, enabling us to make inferences
about a larger population by examining a more minor, representative subset. Below are the basic
concepts of sampling, illustrated with explanations:

1. Population

 The entire group of individuals or items you want to study or draw conclusions about.

 Example: All the residents of a city.

2. Sample

 A subset of the population selected for the study.

 Example: 1,000 residents chosen randomly from the city.

3. Sampling Frame

 A list or database from which the sample is drawn.

 Example: A list of registered voters in the city.

4. Sampling Techniques

Sampling methods are broadly classified into two types:

a. Probability Sampling

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

 Simple Random Sampling: Selecting individuals randomly.

o Example: Drawing names from a hat.

 Systematic Sampling: Selecting every nth individual from a list.

o Example: Every 10th voter on the list.

 Stratified Sampling: Dividing the population into strata (groups) and sampling from each
group proportionately.

o Example: Sampling from different age groups.

 Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and sampling entire clusters.

o Example: Sampling from specific neighbourhoods.

b. Non-Probability Sampling
Not every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

 Convenience Sampling: Choosing individuals who are most straightforward to access.

o Example: Surveying shoppers at a mall.

 Judgmental Sampling: Selecting based on the researcher's judgment.

o Example: Interviewing industry experts.

 Quota Sampling: Ensuring specific quotas from groups.

o Example: Sampling 50% males and 50% females.

 Snowball Sampling: Participants refer others to join the sample.

o Example: Network referrals for hard-to-reach populations.

5. Sample Size

 The number of individuals included in the sample. Larger samples generally yield more
accurate results but require more resources.

6. Sampling Error

 The difference between the population parameter and the sample statistic.

 Example: The average age of a sample differs slightly from the actual average age of the
population.

7. Representative Sample

 A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

 Example: If 60% of the population is female, the sample should also have approximately 60%
females.

Diagrammatic Representation:

Population vs. Sample:

Population: [ ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ]

Sample: [● ● ● ● ●]

Sampling Techniques Flowchart:

Sampling Techniques

├── Probability Sampling

│ ├── Simple Random

 │ ├── Systematic

│ ├── Stratified

│ └── Cluster

└── Non-Probability Sampling

├── Convenience

├── Judgmental

├── Quota

└── Snowball

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2. Explain sampling, its procedure, and implications.

Answer: Sampling: Definition
Sampling is selecting a subset of individuals, items, or observations from a larger population
to analyse and draw conclusions about the entire group. It allows researchers to study a
manageable number of subjects and extrapolate findings to the population, saving time and
resources.

Procedure of Sampling
1. Define the Objective
o Identify the purpose of the study and the population characteristics to focus
on.
o Example: Determine the average household income in a city.
2. Identify the Target Population
o specify the group from which the sample will be drawn.
o Example: All households in the city.
3. Develop a Sampling Frame
o Create a list of all the elements in the population. This serves as the database
for selecting the sample.
o Example: A city’s census data or voter list.
4. Choose a Sampling Method
 o Decide between Probability Sampling (e.g., random sampling) or Non-
Probability Sampling (e.g., convenience sampling) based on the study
objectives.
o Example: Randomly selecting 500 households from the voter list.
5. Determine the Sample Size
o Use statistical formulas or guidelines to decide the subjects for reliable
results.
o Example: Calculate that a sample of 500 households provides a 95%
confidence level with a 5% margin of error.
6. Select the Sample
o Apply the chosen sampling method to extract the sample from the sampling
frame.
o Example: Using a random number generator to pick households.
7. Collect Data
o Conduct surveys, interviews, or observations to gather information from the
sample.
o Example: Distribute income questionnaires to selected households.
8. Analyze Data and Generalize Findings
o Use statistical tools to analyse the data and infer conclusions about the entire
population.
o Example: Conclude the average income of city residents.

Implications of Sampling
1. Advantages
o Cost-Effective: Reduces expenses by analysing a smaller group instead of the
whole population.
o Time-Saving: Faster to collect and analyse data from a sample.
o Feasibility: Enables studies on large populations that are otherwise
impractical.
o Detailed Analysis: Resources can be focused on smaller, high-quality data
collection.
2. Limitations
 o Sampling Error: The sample may not perfectly represent the population,
leading to inaccuracies.
o Bias: Improper sampling methods can introduce bias, affecting reliability.
o Generalization Issues: Findings may not apply to the population if the sample
isn’t representative.
3. Ethical Implications
o Researchers must ensure the sampling process is fair and unbiased and
respect participants’ privacy and consent.
o Ethical issues can arise if vulnerable populations are excluded or exploited.
4. Practical Applications
o Sampling is widely used in business (market research), healthcare (drug
trials), government (policy surveys), and academia (social studies).

Would you like help with examples, diagrams, or statistical methods used in sampling?

3. Compare census and sample survey. Explain the sampling procedure in detail.

Answer: Comparison of Census and Sample Survey

Aspect Census Sample Survey

Collects data from every Collects data from a selected
Definition
member of the population. subset of the population.
Representative portion of the
Scope Entire population.
population.
It is time-consuming and Time-efficient and cost-
Time and Cost
expensive. effective.
Depending on sample
High, as no estimation is
Accuracy representativeness may
needed.
involve sampling errors.
Used when high accuracy is Used when quick results are
Use essential, e.g., national needed, e.g., opinion polls or
population census. market research.
It is less feasible for large
More viable for large
Feasibility populations due to resource
populations.
constraints.

Sampling Procedure in Detail

Sampling involves the systematic selection of a subset of the population. The detailed procedure
includes the following steps:
1. Define the Research Objective

 Clearly outline the purpose of the study and the information needed.

 Example: Understand customer satisfaction levels in a retail chain.

2. Define the Population

 Specify the group of interest that the study aims to understand.

 Example: All customers who visited the retail chain in the last six months.

3. Develop a Sampling Frame

 Create a list or database of all the members of the population. This forms the foundation for
selecting the sample.

 Example: A database of all customer transactions in the last six months.

4. Select a Sampling Technique

 Choose the method based on the study objectives, available resources, and the need for
randomness or bias minimisation.

Probability Sampling (Random Selection):

 Ensures every individual has an equal chance of selection.

o Simple Random Sampling: Random selection of individuals.

o Systematic Sampling: Selection at regular intervals (e.g., every 10th entry).

o Stratified Sampling: Population divided into subgroups (strata), and samples taken
from each stratum.

o Cluster Sampling: Divides the population into clusters, and entire clusters are
sampled.

Non-Probability Sampling (Non-Random Selection):

 Individuals are selected based on convenience or judgment.

o Convenience Sampling: Sampling individuals most straightforward to access.

o Judgment Sampling: The researcher selects based on expertise.

o Quota Sampling: Ensures specific quotas are filled.

o Snowball Sampling: Participants refer others.

5. Determine Sample Size

  Use statistical methods or guidelines to calculate an appropriate sample size.

 Factors affecting sample size:

o Population size.

o Desired confidence level (e.g., 95%).

o Margin of error (e.g., ±5%).

 Example: Calculate that 400 participants are needed for a population of 10,000.

6. Select the Sample

 Apply the chosen method to extract the sample from the sampling frame.

 Example: Using a random number generator to pick 400 customer IDs.

7. Data Collection

 Use surveys, interviews, or experiments to collect information from the selected sample.

 Ensure data collection methods are consistent and unbiased.

8. Analyze Data

 Use statistical tools to process and analyse the data. Conclude the entire population based
on the sample.

9. Evaluate Sampling Errors and Bias

 Assess potential errors (e.g., sampling error, non-sampling error) and take corrective
measures if necessary.

 Ensure findings are reliable and valid.

10. Generalize Results

 Extend findings from the sample to the population, considering limitations and assumptions.

 Example: Conclude customer satisfaction trends for the retail chain based on the sample
data.

Would you like an example or a diagram to illustrate this procedure?

 4. Discuss the different types of sampling design with infinite & finite calculation.

Answer: Types of Sampling Design

Sampling design refers to the method used to select a sample from a population for research or
analysis. There are two primary types of sampling designs: Probability Sampling (where each
element has a known, non-zero chance of selection) and Non-Probability Sampling (where some
elements may not have a known chance of selection). The choice of sampling design depends on the
study's objective, accuracy requirements, resources, and population characteristics.

1. Probability Sampling Designs

In probability sampling, every population element has a known chance of being selected. These
methods are often used when generalizability and unbiased estimates are critical.

a. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

 Procedure: Use a random method like a random number generator or drawing names to
select the sample.

 Example: Selecting 100 students randomly from a class.

b. Systematic Sampling

 Elements are selected at regular intervals from a list.

 Procedure: Pick every nth element after selecting a random starting point.

 Formula: Interval (k) = Population size (N) / Sample size (n)

 Example: If you need a sample of 100 from a list of 1,000, pick every 10th individual.

c. Stratified Sampling

 The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on characteristics (e.g., age, gender).
Samples are drawn from each subset.

 Procedure: Ensure proportional representation from each stratum.

 Example: In a survey on employee satisfaction, stratify by departments (e.g., HR, Marketing,

Finance) and then randomly sample from each.

d. Cluster Sampling

 The population is divided into clusters (often geographically). Some clusters are randomly
selected, and all members are surveyed.

 Procedure: Identify and randomly select a subset of clusters to sample.

 Example: Sampling several schools in a city and surveying all students in those schools.

e. Multistage Sampling

 A combination of different sampling methods (e.g., stratified sampling followed by random

sampling within each stratum).
  Procedure: Apply different sampling techniques at various stages to refine the sample.

 Example: First, cluster sampling will be used to choose regions, and then stratified sampling
will be used to select districts within the areas.

2. Non-Probability Sampling Designs

In non-probability sampling, not every element has a known chance of being selected. This approach
is less rigorous but more practical for exploratory studies.

a. Convenience Sampling

 The sample is chosen based on ease of access.

 Procedure: Select individuals who are most straightforward to reach or available.

 Example: Surveying people in a shopping mall.

b. Judgmental (Purposive) Sampling

 The researcher selects participants based on their judgment of who would provide the most
helpful information.

 Example: Interviewing industry experts for a market research study.

c. Quota Sampling

 The researcher ensures that specific subgroups are represented in the sample based on
predefined quotas.

 Example: Ensuring the sample includes 30% males and 70% females.

d. Snowball Sampling

 Participants refer other participants, which is helpful for hard-to-reach or niche populations.

 Example: Researching a rare medical condition by asking initial participants to refer others.

Infinite vs. Finite Population Sampling Calculation

The calculation for sample size varies depending on whether the population is finite or infinite. The
formula for estimating sample size is based on desired confidence levels, margin of error, and
population size.

1. Infinite Population (Large or Unknown Population Size)

The sample size formula is simpler when the population is infinite or sufficiently large (e.g., more
than 30,000).

Formula:
Where:

 n = Sample size

 Z = Z-score (based on confidence level, e.g., 1.96 for 95% confidence)

 p = Estimated proportion (if unknown, use 0.5 for maximum variability)

 E = Desired margin of error (e.g., 5% = 0.05)

Example:

 Desired Confidence Level = 95% (Z = 1.96)

 Proportion (p) = 0.5 (assuming maximum variability)

 Margin of Error (E) = 5% (0.05)

The sample size calculation will be as follows:

So, you need a sample size 384 for an infinite or large population.

2. Finite Population (Known Population Size)

When the population is finite (i.e., the total number of individuals is known), we adjust the sample
size using the finite population correction (FPC) factor.

Formula:

Where:

 NN = Population size (total number of individuals)

 The rest of the variables are as defined above.

Example:

 Desired Confidence Level = 95% (Z = 1.96)

 Population Size (N) = 10,000

 Proportion (p) = 0.5

  Margin of Error (E) = 5% (0.05)

The sample size calculation will be as follows:

So, you need a sample size 370 for a finite population of 10,000.

Summary of Key Differences

Aspect Infinite Population Finite Population

Simplified formula without The formula includes finite
Formula Used
finite correction. population correction (FPC).
The sample size is typically The sample size is smaller
Sample Size Impact more significant due to the since the population size is
lack of population adjustment. known and adjusted.
It is more complex and
Calculation Complexity Less complex, no need for FPC. requires population size
adjustment (N).

Would you like further clarification on any specific sampling design example or help solve a problem
using these formulas?

5. Elaborate on various probabilistic sampling types. Also, explain the advantages &
disadvantages of probability

Answer: Probabilistic Sampling Types

Probabilistic sampling, also known as random sampling, is a method where each member of the
population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected. This approach ensures that the sample
accurately represents the population, yielding more reliable and generalisable results.

Here are the main types of probabilistic sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

 Description: In this method, each individual in the population has an equal chance of being
selected. It is the most straightforward and essential form of probabilistic sampling.

 How it Works: A sample is selected randomly using a random number generator or a random
draw (e.g., lottery method).

 Example: Choosing 100 students randomly from a class of 1,000.

 Advantages:
 o Easy to implement and understand.

o No bias in the selection process.

o Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

 Disadvantages:

o Requires a complete and accurate list of the population (sampling frame), which
might be hard to obtain.

o This may lead to samples not representative of the entire population, especially if
the population is large and heterogeneous.

2. Systematic Sampling

 Description: Systematic sampling involves selecting every nth member from the population
after a random starting point. The interval (n) is determined by dividing the total population
by the desired sample size.

 How it Works: First, select a random starting point, then choose every kth element from the
population list.

 Formula: Interval (k) = Population size (N) / Sample size (n)

 Example: If you have a list of 1,000 individuals and need a sample of 100, you select every
10th person on the list.

 Advantages:

o Simple and quick to implement.

o Ensures a more even distribution across the population.

 Disadvantages:

o If the population has an inherent pattern, it can lead to bias (e.g., if every 10th
individual shares similar characteristics).

o Not suitable for populations with periodic patterns or cycles.

3. Stratified Sampling

 Description: Stratified sampling divides the population into distinct subgroups (strata) with
similar characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income level). Then, a random sample is drawn from
each stratum. This method ensures that every subgroup is represented.

 How it Works: The population is divided into homogeneous strata, and then a random
sample is taken from each stratum, proportionally or equally.

 Example: If you’re studying a population of employees, you could stratify by department

(e.g., HR, Marketing, Finance) and randomly sample within each department.

 Advantages:
 o Ensures representation of all relevant subgroups, improving the estimates' precision.

o Reduces sampling error compared to simple random sampling.

 Disadvantages:

o Requires detailed knowledge of the population to define strata.

o More complex and time-consuming to implement.

4. Cluster Sampling

 Description: In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters (often based on
geographic location or other natural divisions), and then some of these clusters are randomly
selected. All individuals within the chosen clusters are surveyed.

 How it Works: The population is divided into clusters; some clusters are selected randomly,
and all members of the selected clusters are included in the sample.

 Example: A researcher studying educational performance might randomly select several

schools (clusters) and survey all students within those schools.

 Advantages:

o More cost-effective for large and geographically dispersed populations.

o Easier to implement than other methods, especially when a sampling frame is not
readily available.

 Disadvantages:

o Higher sampling error can be introduced if clusters are heterogeneous (i.e., different
within each cluster).

o More resources may be required to collect data from entire clusters.

5. Multistage Sampling

 Description: This combines several sampling methods (e.g., cluster sampling followed by
simple random sampling within clusters). It's used when the population is large and diverse.

 How it Works: First, a random sample of clusters is selected. Then, within the selected
clusters, another form of random sampling (e.g., simple random or stratified) is applied to
choose individual elements.

 Example: First, randomly select several districts (clusters) in a city, then choose households
within those districts using simple random sampling.

 Advantages:

o Useful when the population is large and geographically spread out.

o Flexible and adaptable to complex populations.

  Disadvantages:

o Can be more complex and time-consuming to administer.

o May increase sampling error due to multiple stages of selection.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

Advantages:

1. Objectivity:

o Probability sampling minimises selection bias since every member of the population
has a known and non-zero chance of being selected.

2. Generalizability:

o Results from a probabilistic sample can be generalised to the broader population

with a known margin of error, which is not always possible with non-probability
sampling.

3. Precision:

o Probability sampling methods, such as stratified sampling, can improve the accuracy
of estimates by ensuring that specific subgroups of interest are represented.

4. Statistical Analysis:

o With probability sampling, the statistical properties of the sample (e.g., mean,
variance) can be used to estimate the population parameters and calculate
confidence intervals.

5. Lower Bias:

o Since the sample is selected randomly, the likelihood of bias is reduced compared to
non-probability sampling methods.

Disadvantages:

1. Cost:

o Probability sampling can be expensive, especially for large populations. It requires

extensive planning, infrastructure, and, sometimes, access to a complete population
list.

2. Time-Consuming:

o It can be time-consuming to select a sample, especially for large populations.

Methods like stratified sampling or multistage sampling require more steps and
organisation.

3. Complexity:
 o Some probability sampling methods, such as stratified and multistage sampling, are
complex and require careful planning and execution to ensure the sample is
representative.

4. Requires a Complete Sampling Frame:

o For probability sampling to work effectively, a complete and accurate list of the
population is necessary, which may not always be available or feasible to compile.

5. Potential for Over-Sampling or Under-Sampling:

o If the strata or clusters are not well-defined, some groups may be over- or under-
represented, affecting the study’s validity.

Summary of Probability Sampling Methods:

Sampling Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Requires a complete
Random selection of
Simple Random Easy to implement, list of populations,
individuals from the
Sampling unbiased selection. which may not be
population.
representative.
Quick and It can introduce bias if
Select every nth
Systematic Sampling straightforward to there's a pattern in
element from a list.
implement. the list.
Divide the population Ensures Requires knowledge of
Stratified Sampling into strata and sample representation from population
from each. all subgroups. characteristics.
It can introduce higher
Select whole clusters
Cost-effective for large sampling error if
Cluster Sampling randomly and sample
populations. clusters are
within them.
heterogeneous.
Combination of More complex and
Flexible and beneficial
Multistage Sampling sampling methods in time-consuming to
for large populations.
stages. implement.

Would you like further elaboration on a specific sampling method or a detailed example of applying
one of these techniques?

6. What is probability Sampling? Give the difference between probability and

non-probability sampling.

Answer: Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a type of sampling method in which each member of the population has a
known, non-zero chance of being selected. It ensures that the sample accurately represents the
population, making it possible to generalise the findings to the larger group with a known confidence
level. The core principle of probability sampling is random selection, where every individual has an
equal or known chance of being included in the sample.

Types of Probability Sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

2. Systematic Sampling: Selection is based on a fixed interval (e.g., every nth individual from a
list).

3. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and a sample is taken
from each subgroup.

4. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, some selected, and all individuals
within the selected clusters are surveyed.

5. Multistage Sampling: Combines various probability sampling methods in stages, often

starting with clusters and then using random sampling within clusters.

Differences Between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Aspect Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Selection is based on the
Random selection of elements, with a
researcher's judgment or
Selection Process known probability of selection for
convenience without a known
each member.
probability of selection.
There is no guarantee of
Generally ensures that the sample is
representativeness; results may
Representation representative of the population,
not apply to the entire
allowing for generalisation.
population.
There is a low risk of bias, as every
There is a higher risk of bias due
Bias individual has a known chance of
to subjective selection methods.
selection.
High accuracy and reliability, as the Lower accuracy; findings may not
Accuracy sample reflects the population’s reflect the actual population
diversity. characteristics.
It can be time-consuming and
It is more cost-effective and
expensive due to the need for a
Cost and Time quicker, as it doesn’t require a
complete list of the population and
complete population list.
random selection.
Convenience Sampling,
Simple Random Sampling, Stratified
Examples Judgment Sampling, Quota
Sampling, Cluster Sampling.
Sampling, Snowball Sampling.
Statistical techniques like confidence Limited ability to apply statistical
Use of Statistical
intervals and significance tests can be inference due to the non-random
Inference
applied. nature of the sample.
Suitable for large-scale surveys and Suitable for exploratory research
Applicability research where generalisation is or when generalisation is not a
essential. priority.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

Advantages:

1. Unbiased Representation: Since each individual has a known chance of being selected, the
sample is more likely to represent the population.

2. Generalizability: The results can be generalised to the entire population, provided the
adequate sample size.

3. Statistical Analysis: Allows advanced statistical methods, such as confidence intervals and
hypothesis testing, to infer results about the population.

4. Accuracy: Reduces sampling bias, leading to more reliable results.

Disadvantages:

1. Cost: Probability sampling methods, especially those involving large populations, can be
expensive and require a lot of resources.

2. Time: It can be time-consuming, mainly when compiling a sampling frame or conducting

random selection.

3. Complexity: Some probability sampling methods (e.g., stratified or multistage sampling)

require careful planning and implementation.

4. Requires Complete Population List: For methods like simple random sampling, a complete
list of the population is needed, which may not always be available.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling

Advantages:

1. Cost-Effective: Generally cheaper and faster than probability sampling because it doesn’t
require a sampling frame or random selection.

2. Flexible: This can be more practical for qualitative research or exploratory studies.

3. Convenient: Quick to implement when the researcher needs to access a specific group or has
limited resources.

Disadvantages:

1. Bias: The sample may not be representative, as it’s chosen based on convenience or
judgment.

2. Limited Generalizability: Findings from non-probability sampling cannot be confidently

generalised to the entire population.

3. Lack of Statistical Precision: Non-probability sampling doesn't allow for the same statistical
inferences (e.g., confidence intervals) as probability sampling.

Summary Table
 Aspect Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Random, with a known probability Non-random, based on
Selection
of selection. judgment or convenience.
Bias Low bias. There is a high risk of bias.
More cost-effective and
Cost Expensive and time-consuming.
quicker.
Results can be generalised to the
Generalizability Limited generalizability.
population.
High accuracy and
Accuracy Lower accuracy.
representativeness.
Statistical Analysis Suitable for statistical inference. Limited statistical analysis.

Would you like more detailed examples of when to use each type of sampling? Or perhaps a case
study to illustrate how probability sampling can be applied?