Section 1: Cell Theory and Skills

1.​ Three main principles of the cell theory:

○​ All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

○​ The cell is the basic unit of life.

○​ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

2.​ Microscope’s contribution to cell theory:

○​ The invention of the microscope allowed scientists to observe cells, leading to

the discovery of microorganisms and cell organelles.

○​ Improved microscope technology enabled the visualization of cell division,

supporting the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

3.​ Exceptions to the cell theory:

○​ Striated muscle cells: They have multiple nuclei within a single membrane,

deviating from the typical single-nucleus structure.

○​ Giant algae (e.g., Acetabularia): A single cell can grow up to several

centimeters in length, which is unusual for cells.

Section 2: Microscopes

1.​ Parts of a light microscope and functions:

○​ Eyepiece (ocular lens): Magnifies the image.

○​ Objective lenses: Provides different magnifications.

○​ Stage: Holds the specimen.

○​ Light source: Illuminates the specimen.

○​ Coarse/fine focus: Adjusts the clarity of the image.

○​ Light microscopes: Lower resolution (~200 nm) and magnification (~1000x).

○​ Electron microscopes: Higher resolution (~0.2 nm) and magnification

(~1,000,000x).

3.​ Magnification formula:​

Magnification=Image sizeActual size\text{Magnification} = \frac{\text{Image

size}}{\text{Actual size}}Magnification=Actual sizeImage size​

Section 3: General Cell Structure

1.​ Labeled diagrams of an animal and plant cell. (Diagram required)

2.​ Functions of organelles:

○​ Nucleus: Controls cell activities and contains DNA.

○​ Mitochondrion: Produces ATP via aerobic respiration.

○​ Ribosome: Synthesizes proteins.

○​ Rough ER: Transports and modifies proteins.

○​ Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies substances.

○​ Golgi apparatus: Packages and modifies proteins.

○​ Lysosome: Contains digestive enzymes.

○​ Plasma membrane: Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Section 4: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell Structure

1.​ Labeled diagrams of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (Diagram required)

○​ DNA location: Prokaryotic cells have free-floating DNA; eukaryotic cells

have DNA in the nucleus.

○​ Membrane-bound organelles: Present in eukaryotes, absent in prokaryotes.

○​ Size: Prokaryotic cells are smaller (~1-5 µm); eukaryotic cells are larger

(~10-100 µm).

○​ Examples: Bacteria (prokaryotes), plants/animals (eukaryotes).

Section 5: Functions of Life

1.​ Seven functions of life:

○​ Metabolism

○​ Reproduction

○​ Growth

○​ Response to stimuli

○​ Homeostasis

○​ Nutrition

○​ Excretion

2.​ Example: Paramecium

○​ Metabolism: Uses enzymes for biochemical reactions.

○​ Reproduction: Asexually by binary fission.

○​ Growth: Increases in size by absorbing nutrients.

○​ Response: Moves away from harmful stimuli.

○​ Homeostasis: Regulates water balance using contractile vacuoles.

○​ Nutrition: Feeds on microorganisms using cilia.

Section 6: Eukaryotic Cell Structure: Comparisons & Atypical Examples

1.​ Plant vs. animal cells:

○​ Plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts; animal cells do not.

○​ Plant cells have large vacuoles; animal cells have small or no vacuoles.

2.​ Atypical examples:

○​ Fungal cells: Can have multiple nuclei within a single cell structure.

○​ Red blood cells: Lack a nucleus when mature.

Section 7: Cell Types & Structures Skills

1.​ Identifying different cell types from images. (Visual-based question)

2.​ Structure-function relationships:

○​ Red blood cells: Biconcave shape increases surface area for oxygen transport.

○​ Nerve cells: Long extensions (axons) allow transmission of nerve signals.

○​ Muscle cells: Contain many mitochondria for energy.

Section 8: Drawing Cells Skills

1.​ Biological drawing of a prokaryotic cell from an electron micrograph. (Drawing

required)

2.​ Drawing guidelines:

○​ Clearly label structures.

○​ Avoid shading.

Section 9: Endosymbiotic Theory (HL)

1.​ Definition:

○​ The theory suggests that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells

through symbiosis.

2.​ Evidence from mitochondria and chloroplasts:

○​ They have their own DNA.

○​ They have a double membrane.

○​ They replicate independently through binary fission.

3.​ Evolution of eukaryotic cells:

○​ A larger prokaryotic cell engulfed smaller bacteria that evolved into

mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Section 10: Cell Differentiation and Multicellularity (HL)

1.​ Cell differentiation:

○​ Process where unspecialized cells develop into specialized cells.

○​ Important for function and efficiency in multicellular organisms.

2.​ Stem cell differentiation example:

treating spinal cord injuries).

3.​ Multicellularity and emergent properties:

○​ Multicellularity allows specialization.

○​ Emergent properties arise when cells work together (e.g., muscle tissue

enabling movement).

Section 11: Application and Data-Based Questions

1.​ Bacterial growth analysis:

○​ Growth rates increase in optimal conditions (e.g., warm temperature, nutrient

availability).

2.​ Cell fractionation experiment:

○​ Different centrifugation speeds separate cell components (e.g., nucleus at low

speed, mitochondria at higher speed).

Section 12: Extended Response Questions

1.​ Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic structural differences:

○​ Presence of nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and complexity of cell

organization.

○​ Functional implications: Prokaryotes are efficient for rapid reproduction,

while eukaryotic compartmentalization allows specialized functions.

2.​ Stem cells in medical research:

○​ Can treat diseases (e.g., Parkinson’s, leukemia).