GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

KIBABII UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES(FESS)
GEO 321: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Course Lecturer: Nelly Masayi
Purpose of the course:
This course provides students with skills in Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the course the course the student should be able to:
i) Understand developments in cartography, remote sensing and computer assisted mapping
ii) Analyze Spatial Data using GIS

Course Content
Introduction to Maps and Cartography
Introduction to Arc GIS Desktop (Arc View, Arc Catalogue, Arc Toolbox)
Basic Components of GIS
Vector and Rastor Data
Adding Marginal information on maps Using Arc GIS 10.8
Data Analysis of Vector Data
a. Selection of Features in Arc map
b. Overlaying of Features
c. Clipping of a point feature
d. Clipping of a line feature
e. Clipping of an area image
f. Clipping of a raster image
g. Labelling of features
h. Overlaying of features
i. Buffering of Point Feature
j. Buffering of Area
k. Use of Symbology
CAT 1

Data Analysis of Raster Data

a. Clipping of a raster images
b. Compositing of raster images
Elevation Data
a. Creating Contours
b. Creating digital elevation models
c. Creating hill shades

Transport Analysis
a. Shortest Distance to a particular structure

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

b. Number of structures 50 metres from a road

Remote Sensing: Active Verses Passive Sensors
Data Analysis of Raster Data
a. Land Use Land cover Change Analysis
b. Supervised Classifications
c. Unsupervised Classifications
d. Use of Python in automatic GIS tasks
CAT 2
Output Generation-Exporting Data and Presenting Data in Different Formats
Global Positioning System (Data Collection and Data Entry)
Core References
1) 1) Kraak, M. and Ormeling, F. (2009). Cartography: Visualization of Spatial
Data.
London: Prentice Hall.

Further Reading
1) Slocum, T. A., McMaster, R. B., Kessler, F. C. and Howard, H. H. (2009). Thematic
Cartography and Geovisualization. London: Prentice Hall.
2) Peterson, G. N. (2009). GIS cartography: a guide to effective map design. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
McMaster DN, (1978) Map reading for East Africa, Longman
Brewer, C. A. (2008). Designed Maps: A Sourcebook for GIS Users. Redlands, CA: Esri
Press
History of Cartography volume 1 & 2. Cartography in prehistoric, ancient, and medieval
Europe and the Mediterranean-Edited by J. B. Harley and David Woodward
Web. Links: en.wikipedia.org/.../History_of_cartography.www.maphistory.info/
academic.emporia.edu/.../h_map.htm

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system including software, hardware,
people, and geographic information. It plays a role of creating, editing, querying, analyze, and
display map information on the computer. A geographic information system (GIS) is a designed to
capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. The first
known use of the term "Geographic Information System" was by Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968
in his paper "A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning". Tomlinson is also
acknowledged as the "father of GIS. GIS stores information about the world as a collection of
thematic layers that can be linked together by geography.

Geographic – 80% of government data collected is associated with some location in space
Information - attributes, or the characteristics (data), can be used to symbolize and provide further
insight into a given location
System – a seamless operation linking the information to the geography – which requires hardware,
networks, software, data, and operational procedures.

COMPONENTS OF GIS
GIS is an integration of five basic components

People-
People are user of Geographic Information System. They run the GIS software. Hardware
and software have seen tremendous development which made people easy to run t he GIS
software. These tasks may be creating simple map or performing advance GIS analysis.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

The people are main component for the successful GIS. People develop procedures and define
the task of GIS.

Data
The most important and expensive component of the Geographic Information System is
Data which is generally known as fuel for GIS. GIS data is combination of graphic and
tabular data. GIS data can be stored as vector or raster. Both type of data can be created
in house using GIS software or can be purchased. The process of creating the GIS data from
the analogue data or paper format is called digitization. Digitization process involves
registering of raster image using few GCP (ground control point) or known
coordinates. This process is widely known as rubber sheeting or georeferencing. Polygon,
lines and points are created by digitizing raster image. Raster image itself can be registered
with coordinates which is widely known as rectifying the image. Availability of accurate data
affects the kind of results.

GIS Data Types:

Raster: Raster image store information in a cell-based manner. It can be aerial photo,
satellite image, Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Raster images normally store continuous
data.
Vector: Vector data are discrete. It store information in x, y coordinate format. There are
three types of Vector data: Lines, Points and Area.

Hardware
Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Nowadays there are a different range
of computer, it might be Desktop or server based. Arc GIS Server is server based computer
where GIS software runs on network computer or cloud based. For computer to perform well
all hardware component must have high capacity. Some of the hardware components are:
Motherboard, Hard driver, processor, graphics card, printer. These all component
function together to run a GIS software smoothly. Hardware capability affects processing
speeds, ease of use and type of output available. The parts of Hardware include
Motherboard: It is board where major hardware parts are installed or It is a place where all
components gets hooked up.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Hard Drive: It is also called hard disk, place to store data.

Processor: Processor is the major component in computer, it performs calculation. It is
called as Central processing Unit (CPU).
RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) where all running programs load temporarily.
Printer: It is output device and used to print image, map or document. There are various
type of printer available in market.
External Disk: These are portable storage space such as USB drive, DVD, CD or external
disk.
Monitor: It is a screen for displaying output information. Nowadays there are various type
of monitor: CRT (cathode ray tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting
Diodes) and more
Software-
Software’s provide tools to run and edit spatial information. It helps to query, edit, run
and display GIS data. It uses RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) to store
the data. Few GIS software list: ArcGis, ArcView 3.2, QGIS, SAGA GIS.
Software Components include:
GIS Tools: Key tools to support the browsing of the GIS data
RDBMS: Relational Database Management System to store GIS data. GIS Software retrieve
from RDBMS or insert data into RDBMS.
Query Tools: Tools that work with database management system for querying, insertion,
deletion and another SQL (Standard Query Language).
GUI: Graphical User Interface that helps user and Software to interact well.
Layout: Good layout window to design map
Procedures-
Analysis requires a well-defined consistent methods and procedures to produce accurate
results. For successful GIS operation a well-designed plan and business operation rules are
important. Methods can vary with different organizations. Any organization has documented
their process plan for GIS operation.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS CARRIED OUT BY GIS

Two types of data are input into a GIS, spatial and attribute. The data input process is the operation
of encoding both types of data into the GIS database formats. A wide variety of data sources exist
for both spatial and attribute data.
1. Capturing data
Data is input in form of coordinates or as tabular (attributes)
The most common general sources for spatial data are:
• hard copy maps
• aerial photographs
• remotely-sensed imagery
• point data samples from surveys; and
• existing digital data files
Attribute data has an even wider variety of data sources. Any textual or tabular data than can be
referenced to a geographic feature, e.g. a point, line, or area, can be input into a GIS. Attribute data
is usually input by manual keying or via a bulk loading utility of the DBMS (Data Base Management
System) software.
2. Querying data
A GIS must be able to provide utilities for finding specific features based on location or attribute
values. The ability to query and retrieve data based on some user defined criteria is a necessary
feature of the data storage and retrieval subsystem.
The ability to retrieve data is based on the unique structure of the DBMS and command interfaces
are commonly provided with the software. Most GIS software also provides a programming
subroutine library, or macro language, so the user can write their own specific data retrieval routines
if required.
Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data subset, based on some user defined formula.
These data subsets are often referred to as logical views. Often the querying is closely linked to the
data manipulation and analysis subsystem. Many GIS software offerings have attempted to
standardize their querying capability by use of a Standard Query Language (SQL). This is especially
true with systems that make use of an external relational DBMS (Data Base Management System).
Through the use of SQL, GIS software can interface to a variety of different DBMS packages. This
approach provides the user with the flexibility to select theirown DBMS. This has direct implications

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

if the organization has an existing DBMS that is being used for to satisfy other business
requirements. Often it is desirable for the same DBMS to be utilized in the GIS applications.
3. Editing Data and Updating Data
The primary function in the data storage and retrieval subsystem involves the editing and updating
of data. Frequently, the following data editing capabilities are required:
interactive editing of spatial data;

interactive editing of attribute data;

the ability to add, manipulate, modify, and delete both spatial features and attributes
(independently or simultaneously) ; and the

ability to edit selected features in a batch processing mode.

Updating involves more than the simple editing of features. Updating implies the resurvey and
processing of new information. The updating function is of great importance during any GIS project.
The life span of most digital data can range anywhere from 1 to 10 years. Commonly, digital data
is valid for 5 to 10 years. The lengthy time span is due to the intensive task of data capture and input.
However, often periodic data updates are required. These frequently involve an increased accuracy
and/or detail of the data layer. Changes in classification standards and procedures may necessitate
such updates. Updates to a forest cover data layer to reflect changes from a forest fire burn or
a harvest cut are typical examples.
Many times data updates are required based on the results of a derived GIS product. The generation
of a derived product may identify blatant errors or inappropriate classes for a particular layer. When
this occurs updating of the data is required. In this situation the GIS operator usually has some
previous experience or knowledge of the study area.
Commonly the data update process is a result of a physical change in the geographic landscape.
Forest fires are a prime example. With this type of update new features are usually required for the
data layer, e.g. burn polygons. As well, existing features are altered, e.g. forest stands that were
affected. There is a strong requirement for a historical record keeping capability with this type of
update process. Users should be aware of this requirement and design their database organization to
accommodate such needs. Depending on the particular GIS, the update process may involve some
data manipulation and analysis functions.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Given a map, GIS is able to update the map by adding title, legend, scale and grid lines.
4. Spatial Analysis
Spatial analysis involves the interactions within a GIS to answer questions, support decisions, and
reveal patterns. Spatial analysis includes all of the transformations, manipulations, and methods that
can be applied to geographic data to turn them into useful information. Spatial analysis can range
from simple analysis to very sophisticated analysis. In the context of GIS, analysis is “Deriving new
information from existing data” It is also the manipulation of data to solve a problem e.g. identify
all areas within 500m of a lake. The data manipulation and analysis subsystem in GIS allows the
user to define and execute spatial and attribute procedures to generate derived information A GIS
must be able to answer questions regarding the interaction of spatial relationships between multiple
data sets. GIS carries out various analysis operations.

i. Simple Query
It includes the identification of objects and their attributes either by location or attribute query. They
are the most basic of analysis operations, in which the GIS is used to answer simple questions posed
by the user. No changes occur in the database and no new data are produced.

ii. Buffering involves the ability to create distance buffers around selected features, be it
points, lines, or areas. Buffers are created as polygons because they represent an area
around a feature. Buffering is typically used with point or linear features.
The generation of buffers for selected features is frequently based on a distance from that
feature, or on a specific attribute of that feature. Buffering is also referred to as corridor or zone

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

generation with the raster data model. Usually, the results of a buffering process are utilized in
a topological overlay with another data layer. For example, to determine the volume of timber
within a selected distance of a cutline, the user would first buffer the cutline data layer. They
would then overlay the resultant buffer data layer, a buffer polygon, with the forest cover data
layer in a clipping fashion. This would result in a new data layer that only contained the forest
cover within the buffer zone. Since all attributes are maintained in the topological overlay and
buffering processes, a map or report could then be generated. In simple terms, buffering involves
creation of an area of interest around an object. It is often used in proximity analysis and
environmental impact assessment. Buffering can be done both on a line image, point or area. It
can also be done on a raster image.

iii. Measuring

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Measurements are simple numerical values that describe aspects of geographic data. They include
measurement of simple properties of objects, such as length, area, or shape, and of the relationships
between pairs of objects, such as distance or direction.

Measuring distance is a very important component of GIS. In geography, we measure the length of
a section of a River or Road. You can measure distance on maps using the Measure Distance
tool which is located in the expanded toolbox. It is important to make tool active, by clicking on
the desired start location. The latitude and longitude coordinates of your starting point are
automatically registered in the Information Panel. By adding another node you complete one line,
and the position of the second node and the distance between the two nodes is given.

On the Data toolbar, click the Measure tool . When you click the Measure tool,
the Measure window appears. This dialog box allows you to set different options for how you
measure, including whether to measure lines, areas, or features; use snapping; and set which units
are reported. Measurements are displayed inside the window, so it is easy to copy and paste them
into other applications. The Measure window contains tools for measuring distance and features. By
default, the distance (line) measurement tool is enabled until you choose a different option from the
Measure window. The measure window also gives one an opportunity to measure area and
perimeter.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

iv. Clipping
In GIS, to clip is to overlay a polygon on one or more target features (layers) and extract from
the target feature (or features) only the target feature data that lies within the area outlined by
the clip polygon. In other words, the boundaries of the second polygon are imposed on the first
polygon.

Land Use of Eastern Province clipped from Kenyan Land Use(clipping of vector image)

v. Visualization and interaction

A geographic information system provides an opportunity to visualize and interact with
geographic data. GIS contains a variety of functions for portraying attribute distributions and
transforming spatial objects. You can also interact with a GIS to turn raw data into information
useful for answering spatial and temporal questions. When portraying information, attributes (or
classes of attributes) can be displayed with a variety of graphic symbols and used as labels to
communicate information and findings. Additionally, you can manipulate the shape of spatial
objects to enhance interpretability.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Fig: Visualization by use of different colours and by use of graduated colours(same colour, different
shade)
iv. Overlaying: Superimposing one or more map so that you end up having a new map.
Overlaying involves superimposing two or more map layers to produce a new map layer.
Example: a new genetically engineered variety of wheat grows well in dry environments, with
long growing seasons and alkaline soils. Given the availability of data on the length of the
growing season, moisture regime and soil alkalinity, where is the best place to plant the wheat?.
overlaying (superimposing) several maps showing (separately) water-budget, growing season
length, soil pH, sodium content, and so on. The GIS analysis can establish the locations where
all the favorable soil conditions coincide, as the places where the wheat will grow best

5. Storing data `
Data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form which
permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and accurate updates to
be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a database management system
(DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded and maintained in a
proprietary file format. In contemporary geographic information systems, geospatial data is stored
as digital data.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Digital data is stored on a variety of physical media, depending on how quickly the data needs to
be accessed, how much data needs to be stored, and whether the data needs to continue to exist when
the digital device is turned off or rebooted.
• Random access memory (RAM) is made with silicon transistors to quickly store and access
data that is being actively used. RAM is fast but more expensive than other forms of memory,
and the data is lost when the device is turned off or rebooted
• Magnetic hard disks are spinning platters coated with magnetic material that stores data in
magnetic patterns on the disk. Hard drives can store very large amounts of data (in the
terabytes), but this data takes longer to access than RAM. Hard drives are a reliable,
established technology. Data on a hard drive remains even after the hard drive is powered
down, but hard drives do not last forever and will eventually fail, often taking their data with
them
• Flash memory is made with transistors like RAM, but built with a special structure (floating-
gate MOSFET) that allows the data to persist even if the power is turned off. Flash memory
has become ubiquitous in consumer devices (SD cards, thumb drives, smartphones, etc)
because it has high capacity and has become inexpensive over the past decade. Flash memory
is slowly replacing magnetic hard disks with solid-state drives that are faster and use less
power. However, flash memory is limited in the number of times it can be written to, so
solid-state drives do not last as long as magnetic hard drives and are prone to unexpected
failures
• Optical disks as compact disks (CDs) and digital versatile disks (DVDs) store bits as
indentations in aluminum or chemical films that are then encased in plastic disks. Optical
disks have high capacity and are inexpensive to manufacture in bulk. However, they are
generally used only for data that will not change for extended periods of time, and they are
commonly used to archive and backup data from magnetic and flash drives. It is
uncertain how long data on a CD or DVD can be expected to last, and optical disks are rapidly
becoming obsolete
• Magnetic floppy disks store data in a similar manner to magnetic hard disks, except on a
removable plastic disk nestled in a protective case. You may occasionally encounter old data
stored on floppy disks, although this technology is obsolete and unreliable. You should
migrate any important data off these disks and onto a hard drive as soon as possible so the
data is not lost to physical degradation

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

• Magnetic tape is a roll of plastic film coated with a magnetic material and used to store bits
in a similar way as magnetic hard drives. Although tape is one of the oldest technologies for
storing digital data, tape drives are still used to back up hard drives for long-term storage

6. Displaying data
A gis must be able to have tools for visualizing geographic features using a variety of symbology.

7. Output
GIS must be able to display data/results in a variety of formats, such as maps reports, and graphs.
The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps, and tabular
reports representing derived information products. Maps, Charts and Reports are part of the output.

CHARACTERIZING GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES

All geographic features on the earth's surface can be characterized and defined as one of three basic
feature types. These are points, lines, and areas.
Point data exists when a feature is associated with a single location in space. Examples of point
features include a fire lookout tower, an oil well or gas activity site, and a weather station.
Linear data exists when a feature's location is described by a string of spatial coordinates.
Examples of linear data include rivers, roads, pipelines, etc
Areal data exists when a feature is described by a closed string of spatial coordinates. An area feature
is commonly referred to as a polygon. Polygonal data is the most common type of data in natural
resource applications. Examples of polygonal data include forest stands, soil classification areas,
administrative boundaries, and climate zones. Most polygon data is considered to be homogeneous
in nature and thus is consistent throughout.

DATA STRUCTURE
GIS data can be separated into two categories: spatially referenced data which is represented by
vector and raster forms (including imagery) and attribute tables which is represented in tabular
format. Within the spatial referenced data group, the GIS data can be further classified into two
different types: vector and raster. Most GIS software applications mainly focus on the usage and

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

manipulation of vector geodatabases with added components to work with raster-based

geodatabases.

a) Vector Based GIS

Vector is a data structure, used to store spatial data. Vector data is split into three types:
polygon(areas), line (or arc) and point data. An xy coordinates system references the real world
location.

Point data is most commonly used to represent nonadjacent features and to represent discrete data
points. Points have zero dimensions; therefore you can measure neither length nor area with this
dataset. Examples would be schools, points of interest, and in the example below, bridge and culvert
locations. Point features are also used to represent abstract points. For instance, point locations could
represent city locations or place name

Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features. Common examples would be rivers, trails, and
streets. Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be used to measure
length. Line features have a starting and ending point. Common examples would be road
centerlines and hydrology. Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from one
another are line types (solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line
thicknesses. In the example below roads are distinguished from the stream network by designating
the roads as a solid black line and the hydrology a dashed blue line.

Polygons are used to represent areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large scale map), lake, or
forest. Polygon features are two dimensional and therefore can be used to measure the area and
perimeter of a geographic feature. Polygon features are most commonly distinguished using either a
thematic mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or in the case of numeric gradation, a color
gradation scheme could be used.

Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much smaller scale. They help reduce
clutter by simplifying data locations. As the features are zoomed in, the point location of a school is

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

more realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing the physical location of the
campus. Line features of a street centerline file only represent the physical location of the street.

b) Raster Based GIS

Raster data (also known as grid data) represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces. Raster data is
cell-based and this data category also includes aerial photographs and satellite imagery, digital
pictures, or even scanned maps. Instead of using xy coordinates, the raster model assigns values to
cells that cover coordinate locations. In this data structure every pixel is given a single value, hence
there is no compression when many like values are encountered. In its simplest form,
a raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a grid) where
each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. It is very appropriate in
storing data collected in grid format. The amount of detail you can show for a particular feature
depends on the size of the grid. Raster is used for continuous data such as elevation, slope, surfaces.
There are also three types of raster datasets: thematic data, spectral data, and pictures (imagery).

An example of a thematic raster dataset is called a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Each cell
contains one value representing the dominate value of that cell. Raster datasets are intrinsic to most
spatial analysis. Data analysis such as extracting slope and aspect from Digital Elevation Models
occurs with raster datasets. Spatial hydrology modeling such as extracting watersheds and flow lines
also uses a raster-based system. Spectral data presents aerial or satellite imagery which is then often

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

used to derive vegetation geologic information by classifying the spectral signatures of each type of
feature.

RASTER DATA ANALYSIS

Raster data analysis is based on cells and rasters. Raster data analysis can be performed at the level
of individual cells, or groups of cells, or cells within an entire raster. A number of raster data
operations use a single raster; others use two or more raster. Raster analysis include:

Raster clip
Cuts out a portion of a raster dataset. An existing raster or vector layer can be used as the clip extent.

A clip of LakeVictoria from a landsat image.

Composite Bands
Creates a single raster dataset from multiple bands. You may have received some satellite data where
each band of data is contained in a single file—for example, band5.tif, band6.tif, and band4.tif. To
render these raster datasets together to create a color composite, each band needs to be contained
within a single raster dataset (for example, allbands.tif).

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Band 5 Band 6 Band 4

Composite Band 5, 6, 4

ELEVATION SURFACES
Elevation surfaces define height values across the extent of a map or scene. For example, when you
create features, you can specify the x,y location as you edit, but the z-value of the feature can be
derived from an elevation surface.
Spatial analysis of elevation surfaces may include
a. Digital Elevation Model
A digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D computer graphics representation of elevation data to
represent terrain, commonly of a planet, moon, or asteroid. DEM is an important tool for topographic
parameterization especially for erosion, drainage analysis, hill slope hydrology among many other
studies.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Contours

Contour lines (or isohypses) are isolines showing equal elevation. Contour lines connect points of
equal elevation, and are therefore isogonic lines. This is the most common way of numerically
showing elevation, and is familiar from topographic maps. The vertical distance (elevation
difference) between contour lines is called the contour interval. The choice of a contour interval
depends on the map scale, the degree of relief, and the needs of the user for whom the map is
prepared. Contour lines are defined as lines linking points on a map which are the same height above
a certain fixed level. This fixed level is often sea level. However sea level is variable, so mapping
authorities usually define a fixed level called a datum. Contour lines are abstract; they do not exist
in reality. However a large amount of relevant information can be derived from them. This includes:
• the locations of high points; and
• the shape and slope of the ground
• the position and nature of ridge lines and valleys

Characteristics of Contours
All contours have the same characteristics. These characteristics include.
• As with all types of isolines, the distance between adjacent contour lines indicates the
steepness of the slope. When contour lines are close together, they represent a steep slope,
whereas when lines are far from each other, they represent a gradual slope. On concave
surfaces, contours are closer near the top. On convex surfaces, contours are closer near the
bottom

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

• Every fifth or tenth contour starting at sea level is an index contour, which is drawn as a
heavier line and is labelled.

• As contour lines represent points of equal elevations on the ground, they cannot merge or
cross each other on a map, except on vertical surfaces such as cliffs, caves or walls. However,
these contours are seldom mapped.

• As contour lines represent level lines, they are perpendicular to the lines of steepest slope.

• On uniform slopes, the contours are spaced evenly.

Alternatively, irregular spacing of contours
indicates irregular slopes.

• Contours tend to parallel standing bodies of water

such as lakes and ponds.

• Contours crossing flat man-made surfaces such as roads and sidewalks, or large rivers should
be perpendicular to the edges of this surface. This is the most violated principal of contouring
in computer generated maps, and is caused by lack of sufficient field data to accurately
contour the features. If the scale of the map is sufficiently large, then the crown of the road
surface should also appear as a slight curvature in the contour line when it crosses the road
at angles that are perpendicular to the edges.

• Contours are consistent. For instance, if the contour interval is 2-m, then successive contours
must be consecutive multiples of two. As an example, successive contours of 122, 124, 128,
130 can never occur since the interval of 126 was skipped.
• A single contour line cannot lie between two
surfaces of higher or lower elevation. This
would indicate a knife-edge in nature. Due to
erosion, this type of surface does not naturally
exist.

• Contours in depressions are indicated by

hachuring to make depressions and knolls
easily distinguished on maps.

• Every fifth contour that is evenly divisible by

five times the contour interval is highlighted
and labeled.

Hill shade
Hillshading is a technique used to create a realistic view of terrain by creating a three-
dimensional surface from a two-dimensional display of it. Used as a background, hillshades provide

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

a relief over which you can draw raster data or vector data. In Arc gis, hill shades can be generated
from digital elevation models.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

REMOTE SENSING
In order to study large areas of the Earth’s surface geographers use devices known as remote sensors.
These sensors are mounted on platforms such as helicopters, planes, and satellites that make it
possible for the sensors to observe the Earth from above.

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without

making physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to
the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the
surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g.
electromagnetic radiation emitted from aircraft or satellites. Remote sensing is the art and
science of recording, measuring, and analyzing information about a phenomenon from a
distance.

Types of Sensor

A passive sensor system needs an external energy source. In most cases this source is the
sun. These sensors generally detect reflected and emitted energy wave lengths from a
phenomenon. The source of the object illumination is independent of the sensor and it is
a natural source). Passive systems are much more common than active systems Examples
of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices,
and radiometers.

The sun provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing. The sun's energy
is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it
is for thermal infrared wavelengths. Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy
when the naturally occurring energy is available. For all reflected energy, this can only
take place during the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected
energy available from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal
infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the amount of energy is large enough to
be recorded. Passive sensors detect sunlight radiation reflected from the earth and thermal
radiation in the visible and infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most passive
sensors make use of a scanner for imaging, e.g. LANDSAT. Equiped with spectrometers
they measure signals at several spectral bands simultaneously, resulting in so-called
multispectral images which allow numerous interpretations.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

➢ Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
➢ Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will
come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
➢ Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
➢ Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted
from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and
record the electromagnetic radiation.
➢ Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
➢ Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
➢ Application (G) -the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply
the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to
better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.

Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own energy source for illumination. The
sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The sensor
can be an active system (where the satellite or the aircraft provides the source of
illumination, this technique is used when no suitable natural source of radiation exists.
The radiation reflected or backscattered from that target is detected and measured by the
sensor. Advantages for active sensors include the ability to obtain measurements anytime,
regardless of the time of day or season. Active sensors can be used for examining
wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by the sun, such as microwaves, or to better
control the way a target is illuminated. However, active systems require the generation
of a fairly large amount of energy to adequately illuminate targets. Some examples of
active sensors are a laser fluorosensor and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR).

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Most sensors record information about the Earth’s surface by measuring the transmission
of energy from the surface in different portions of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
Because the Earth’s surface varies in nature, the transmitted energy also varies. This
variation in energy allows images of the surface to be created. Human eyes see this
variation in energy in the visible portion of the EM spectrum. Sensors detect variations
in energy in both the visible and non-visible areas of the spectrum.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Traditional aerial
photographs were black and white pictures based on camera and film technology.
Such photographs related to one region of the EM spectrum. Satellite images are
generally captured using sensors and digital technology. A sensor often records
simultaneously in several different regions of the spectrum creating multi-images
taken at the same time. The regions of the spectrum scanned are called “bands.

A single band image shows features in various grey tones but if several images are
combined, they can form a color composite. A true color composite is based on using
the red, green, and blue portions of the visible region of the EM spectrum. This type
of composite relates to what the human eye would see if a person was on a satellite
or aircraft looking down at the Earth.

Other band combinations form false color composites. A false color composite
generally enhances certain features on an image, features that might not be as
apparent on a true color composite. Using different color composites is one way that
a remote sensing specialist detects features on the Earth.

Remote sensing can be used for applications in several different areas, including:
a. Geology and Mineral exploration
b. Hazard assessment
c. Oceanography
d. Agriculture and forestry
e. Land degradation
f. Environmental monitoring

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

g. Remote Sensing Emerges as an Important Tool for Habitat and Species Conservation.

Advantages of RADAR Imaging

• All-weather Operation: the transmitted and reflected microwave energy penetrates through
cloud cover, dust, haze, and rain.
• Sunlight independent-Day or Night Operation: Radar sensors can operate both day or
night since they do not require an external energy source
• Radar penetrates vegetation and soil: can gain information about surface layer from mm to
m depth
• Can give information about moisture content of soil layer.
• Various applications: oceanography, hydrology, geology, glaciology, agriculture and
forestry services

Disadvantages of Radar Imaging

• Complicated analysis, cost-intensive
• Radar signals contain no spectral characteristics
• The pulse power is mostly low and can be influenced or interfered by other radiation sources

Advantages of remote sensing

➢ Relatively cheap and rapid method of acquiring up-to-date information over a large
geographical area. Example: Landsat 5 covers each area of 185x160km at a ground resolution
of 30m every 18 days, cost of the original digital data is $5 000 (6 200 ha $-1, each hectare
contains approximately 11 observations. Even with the cost of ground truthing this is very
economical.
➢ It is the only practical way to obtain data from inaccessible regions, e.g. Antarctica,
Amazonia.
➢ At small scales, regional phenomena which are invisible from the ground are clearly visible.
Examples: faults and other geological structures. A classic example of seeing the forest
instead of the trees.
➢ Cheap and rapid method of constructing base maps in the absence of detailed land surveys.
➢ Easy to manipulate with the computer, and combine with other geographic coverages in the
GIS.

Disadvantages of remote sensing

➢ They are not direct samples of the phenomenon, so must be calibrated against reality. This
calibration is never exact, a classification error of 10% is excellent.
➢ They must be corrected geometrically and geo-referenced in order to be useful as maps, not
only as pictures. This can be easy or complicated.
➢ Distinct phenomena can be confused if they look the same to the sensor, leading to
classification error. Example: artificial & natural grass in green light (but infrared light can
easily distinguish them).
➢ Phenomena which were not meant to be measured (for the application at hand) can interfere
with the image and must be accounted for. Examples for land cover classification:
atmospheric water vapor, sun vs. shadow (these may be desirable in other applications).
➢ Resolution of satellite imagery is too coarse for detailed mapping and for distinguishing
small contrasting areas

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1

GEO 321: GIS 2021/2022

Land Use Land Cover Classification

LULC Classification is the process of appointing land cover classes to pixels and categorize them.
For instance, water, metropolitan, wood- land, horticulture, buildings, woodlands, agriculture,
grasslands, mountains, and highlands. The general goal of picture grouping is to naturally arrange
all pixels in a picture into land cover classes or subjects.

Principles of image interpretatation

1. Shape
It refers to the general configuration of the outlines. e.g., road has linear shape, building,
polygon and trees as random shape
2. Size- Space occupied by the object in the image. It helps distinguish objects by measuring
them. We can have the smallest
3. Shadow- Sense inclination angle on the object while recapturing image. It helps interpret
manmade features. Helps interpret shape, i.e. valleys hills and terrains
4. Color- It appears in multispectral image. Use of human image makes it easy to interpret
5. Tone- Change in tones of one colour. Short plants light, trees dark colour. Dry land, light
colour while wet land have dark colour
6. Texture- Repetition of intensity of colour in the image
7. Pattern- Repetance and arrangement of objects. Arranged patterns may shows human made
features

Unsupervised classification
It is where the outcomes (groupings of pixels with common characteristics) are based on the software
analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes. The computer uses techniques to
determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can specify which
algorism the software will use and the desired number of output classes but otherwise does not aid
in the classification process. However, the user must have knowledge of the area being classified
when the groupings of pixels with common characteristics produced by the computer have to be
related to actual features on the ground (such as wetlands, developed areas, coniferous forests, etc.).

Supervised classification
It is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are representative of
specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training sites as references
for the classification of all other pixels in the image. Training sites (also known as testing sets or
input classes) are selected based on the knowledge of the user. The user also sets the bounds for
how similar other pixels must be to group them together. These bounds are often set based on the
spectral characteristics of the training area, plus or minus a certain increment (often based on
“brightness” or strength of reflection in specific spectral bands). The user also designates the number
of classes that the image is classified into. Many analysts use a combination of supervised and
unsupervised classification processes to develop final output analysis and classified maps.

DR. NELLY MASAYI TO Ombasa’s class 1