0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 views155 pages

CH 1 I Traffic Engineering Autosaved

The document is a comprehensive overview of Traffic Engineering, covering its definition, scope, and various studies related to traffic volume, speed, and accidents. It discusses traffic control devices, road intersections, and the importance of road lighting, as well as the characteristics of road users and vehicles. Additionally, it outlines the objectives of traffic engineering aimed at improving safety, efficiency, and the overall flow of traffic.

Uploaded by

Sanjaya Poudel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 views155 pages

CH 1 I Traffic Engineering Autosaved

The document is a comprehensive overview of Traffic Engineering, covering its definition, scope, and various studies related to traffic volume, speed, and accidents. It discusses traffic control devices, road intersections, and the importance of road lighting, as well as the characteristics of road users and vehicles. Additionally, it outlines the objectives of traffic engineering aimed at improving safety, efficiency, and the overall flow of traffic.

Uploaded by

Sanjaya Poudel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 155

Pokhara University

Transportation Engineering -II

Chapter -1
Traffic Engineering
Chapter -1: Traffic Engineering

Contents:
1.1 Introduction and Scope of Traffic Engineering
1.1.1 Definition and Scope of traffic engineering
1.1.2 Traffic characteristics

1.2 Traffic Studies


1.2.1 Traffic volume studies
1.2.2 Traffic speed studies
1.2.3 Origin and destination studies
1.2.4 Traffic flow characteristics
1.2.5 Traffic Capacity studies
1.2.6 Parking studies
1.2.7 Accident studies
2
Chapter -1: Traffic Engineering

Contents:
1.3 Traffic control Devices
1.3.1 Traffic signs
1.3.2 Traffic signals
1.3.3 Road marking and Traffic Island
1.4 Road Intersections
1.4.1 Basic requirements of intersections
1.4.2 Types of intersections and their configuration
1.4.3 Channelized and Un-channelized intersections
1.4.4 Rotary Intersection
1.4.5 Grade separated intersections: Types & Sketches
3
Chapter -1: Traffic Engineering

Contents:
1.5 Road lighting
1.5.1 Importance of road lighting
1.5.2 Factors influencing night visibility
1.5.3 Requirements of level of illumination in roads
1.5.4 Lighting system: selection of height and spacing of light
poles and layouts.

4
Introduction: Traffic
Traffic
• Users including pedestrians, ridden or herded animals,
vehicles, streetcars, buses and other conveyances,
either singly or together, while using the public way for
purposes of travel.
• Sometimes traffic is also a delay that involves
transportation or movement through a designated
location
• Police office who regulates traffic – (only in Nepal ?)

5
Traffic

Homogeneous traffic Heterogeneous traffic Heterogeneous traffic


(Beijing) (India) (Kantipath)

6
Introduction: Traffic Engineering
• Engineering which deals with the proper design and
layout of the road and ensures easily and safe flow of
traffic.
– It includes, study for regulations of traffic,
characteristics of traffic, controlling and guiding
measures for traffic, flow of traffic at junctions,
parking areas, traffic survey, engineering elements
of road system affecting traffic operation,
improvement of traffic facilities in existing towns.

7
Traffic Engineering
• ITE
– Institute of Traffic Engineers, U.S.A. defines “traffic engineering
is that phase of engineering which deals with planning and
geometric design of streets, highways, abutting lands, and with
traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to the safe,
convenient (suitable) and economic transportation of persons
and goods.”
– Various techniques and methods to make the movement of
traffic smoother and easier

8
Scope of Traffic Engineering
• The basic objective of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free
and rapid flow of traffic with least number of traffic accidents.
• Traffic engineering includes a variety of engineering and
management skills and following are the major aspects:
1. Traffic characteristics
– Vehicular and traveler
2. Traffic study and analysis
– Traffic volume study
– Speed studies
• Spot speed study
• Speed and delay study
– Origin and destination (O & D study)
– Traffic flow characteristics
– Traffic capacity study
– Parking study
– Accident studies
9
Scope of Traffic Engineering ……

3. Traffic operation
– Control and regulation ( signs, signals, marking,
regulations)
4. Designs: Intersections
– Level and grade separated
– Parking – on street and off street parking
– Terminals
– Lighting
5. Traffic planning and analysis
6. Traffic administration and management – 3E’s
(Engineering, Enforcement and Education)
7. Research
10
Objectives of Traffic Engineering
• To achieve smooth and easy flow of traffic
• To have safe convenient, rapid and economic transport
of persons and goods
• To improve the speeds of vehicles
• To increase the traffic carrying capacity of the roads
• To make the streets safe for the movement of both
pedestrians and vehicles
• To reduce the delay in road journeys
• To reduce the chances of accidents to a minimum
• To remove traffic congestion 11
Human-Vehicle-Environment System

Laws and Enforcement Driver personality


Physiological
Roadway/Roadside Environment Knowledge
Skill and habits
Geometry
Motives
Weather and light
Attitudes
Surface condition
Traffic
Control and direction messages
Driver’s decision/action process Fig: Human-Vehicle-
Vehicle attributes
Sensory Environment Operating
Mechanical control Perception System (FHWA, 1980)
Comfort Analysis
Protection Decision
Information sources
FHWA: Federal
Response
Highway Administrator,
U.S Department of
Sensory field Driver action
Transportation
Visual (sense of seeing)
Tactile (sense of touch) Vehicle response
Auditory (hearing)
Olfactory (sense of smelling) 12
Human-Vehicle and Environment operating system

• When speaking to the human-vehicle and


transportation, it is necessary to deal with the vehicle
and the environment
• Society now demands a broader consideration of
transportation impact to safety, aesthetic and effects on
the social and physical environment
• Proper driver education imparts knowledge about the
human-vehicle-environment interaction, develops
driving skills and affects the attitude of the driver. It has
the potential for creating safer driving practice, resulting
reduced accidents
13
Human-Vehicle and Environment operating system

• The law and their enforcement provide guidance and


motivation for safer and efficient driver behaviour
• Laws therefore should be realistic and comprehensive to
be effective
• The roadway and roadside environment include both the
physical and ambient conditions while the vehicle
characteristics includes the mechanical control system
and information sources provided to the driver
• Sensory field consists of many pieces of information that
the driver uses.

14
Elements of Driver’s Decision Process
• Driver’s decision process includes the classical
chain of sensing, perceiving, analyzing, deciding
and responding
• Capabilities and limitations of road users in term
of experience, impairment (deficiency), physical
and mental skills, motivation etc. is important
• Perception and reaction
– Perception is the process of extracting the information
from the environment

15
PIEV Theory

16
PIEV concept (Driver’s Decision Process)
• The important psychological characteristics of road
user contains the activities of perception,
intellection, emotion and volition (decision) (PIEV)
and the total time is PIEV time
• Perception – the process of perceiving the
sensations received through the eyes, ears,
nervous system and brain. This time depend on
psychological and physical built up of individuals
• Intellection – process of identification of the stimuli
(incitements)
• Emotion – determination of the appropriate
response to the stimuli
• Volition – physical response resulting from decision
17
PIEV concept……contd
• Driver and Stop sign
– Driver first sees the sign – perception
– Recognizes it as a stop sign – intellection
– Decided to apply the brake to stop – emotion
– Finally, puts his/her foot on brake pedal – volition

• PIEV concept may vary from person to person


and may be affected by
• Complexity of task
• Users expectations
• Age
• Fatigue
• Alcohol/drug influence
• Physical impairment
18
Traffic Characteristics

• Can be categorized in to
– Road user characteristics
– Vehicular characteristics
• The road users are
– Motorists
– Pedestrians
– Cyclists
– Cart drivers/rickshaw peddlers
– Highway/street child or adults talking or playing on
or around the road

19
Road user Characteristics
• Road user characteristics may be due to
following factors:
– Physical
– Mental
– Psychological
– Environmental

20
Road user characteristics
• Physical characteristics
– Permanent characteristics
» Vision and sensing
» Hearing and smelling
» Gender
– Temporary characteristics
» Alcoholic drink effect
» Drug effect
» Accident proneness
» Fatigue
» Illness
21
Road user characteristics…
Vision and sensing
–Good vision is prerequisite for
safe driving
–Visual acuity (alertness)
–Field of vision
•Acute vision 2.5°
•Clear vision 12-15° (locating traffic
sign and signals)
•Peripheral vision 120-150° (total visual
field the eyes are able to see objects)
22
Road user characteristics …
Vision and sensing
• Colour also affects the vision
• Glare recovery (@ 6 sec for 100 kmph)
• Design speed = 100 kmph = (100/3.6)m/s = 27 m/s
Loss (time 6sec)= 27*6 = 166.7m (moves as blind)
• Can reduce by wearing eye glasses
• Depth perception

23
Road user characteristics …

Hearing/smelling
– Sound of horn and sound of nearing vehicle itself
can alert a pedestrian to safely
– Elderly person with falling eyesight can perceive
better through hearing than seeing
– It has found that drivers having hearing problems
can have 1.8 times more accidents
– Helps in detecting overheated engine, burning
brakes, fire etc.

24
Road user characteristics…
–Gender
– Males drive faster and are ready to drink and drive than
female
– Females are less experienced in the art of driving and
sometimes fail to look before taking actions or fail to see
hazards
–Alcoholic drink effect
– Depresses the central nervous system
– Accident rate increases rapidly after a concentration of
80mg/100ml of blood
– A maximum of 20mg/100ml of blood may be allowable in
England
–Effect of drugs
– Accidents 25
Road user characteristics…
– Accident proneness
• Drivers under 30 years are more likely to have accidents
• Women are less likely than men to have certain type of
accidents
– Fatigue
• Tired drivers usually have lack of concentration
• Drinking coffee helps to reduce fatigue
– Illness
• Illness may cause physical inability to drive, mental
tension and lack of concentration

26
Road user characteristics…
• Mental characteristics
– Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can
affect the road user characteristics
– Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour,
driving practice, rules of roads and psychology of road
users will be quite useful for safe traffic operation
– Understanding the traffic regulation and special instruction
and timely action depends on intelligence and literacy
• Psychological characteristics
– Emotional factors
• Attentiveness, general attitude towards traffic and its regulations
• Maturity
• Distractions caused by non-traffic events, absent mind, fear, anger,
worries reduce attentiveness to traffic situations
• Environmental characteristics
– Various environmental conditions as traffic characteristics,
atmospheric condition, roadway and ambient environment
27
Vehicular characteristics
Vehicular Characteristics are important for
highway design and traffic performance.
a. Static characteristics
b. Vehicle kinematics
c. Dynamic characteristics
– Tire friction and braking characteristics

28
Static characteristics
• Wide variety of sizes and types of vehicles with
different operating and performance
characteristics
• Dimensions (IRC)
– Length: controls capacity, maneuverability, OSD
• Length Single unit 2 axle 10.67 m
• Single unit more than 2 axle 12.19m
• Semi trailer, tractor combination 15.24 m
• Tractor and trailer combination more than 2 axle 18.29 m

29
Static characteristics…
• Width – controls lane width, parking capacity, shoulder
– 2.44m max (road capacity decreases with increase in
width)
• Height – controls clearance of overhead structures –
3.81m (single deck), 4.72m (double deck)
• Weight – controls structural design and underlying
drainage structures – [8.2t (old)] 10.2t (new) for single
axle and 14.5t multi-axles
• Minimum turning angles – controls minimum radius of
the curves
• Driver’s eye height – controls sight distance (SD)
• Clearance below chassis
• Headlight height
30
Vehicle kinematics
• Fundamental relation of force and acceleration is: F = ma
• For uniform acceleration, a = constant
Speed-acceleration function:
$%
$&
=a dv = adt
%
( 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡
%!
𝑣 − 𝑣' = at
𝑣 = 𝑣' + at ………… (1)
Distance-time function:
𝑑𝑥
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣! + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡
" #
𝑥 = 𝑣!𝑡 + #
a𝑡 …………….. (2) 31
Vehicle kinematics…
Distance - speed function
!! "!"!
𝑥= ………………… (3)
#$
Where,
a = acceleration,
v = speed,
v0 = initial speed,
x = distance,
t = time

32
Numerical Example - 1

• A truck traveling at 45 km/h is approaching a stop


sign. At time t0 and at a distance of 20 m the
truck begins to slow by decelerating at 5m/sec2.
Will the truck be able to stop in time?
Solution:
Given,
Ø v = 45 km/h
Ø x = 20 m (distance at which the truck begins to slow)
Ø a = - 5 m/sec2 (deceleration)
Ø Find t and S
Traffic Engineering 33
Solution:
• 𝑣' = 45 kmph = 12.5 m/s
• a = -5 m/s2
Therefore, We know, 𝑣 = 𝑣' + at ; where v is final velocity = 0 m/s
• 0 = 12.5 – 5*t
t = 2.5 sec
The distance covered by the truck in these 2.5 sec is;
" # "
𝑥 = 𝑣!𝑡 + #
a𝑡 12.5* 2.5+ #
* −5 ∗ 2.5# = 15.62 m < 20 m

This indicates that the truck will stop just in time.

34
Vehicle kinematics…
For non uniform acceleration
• Special case – acceleration varies inversely to speed

………………….(a)

From the above equation, α attainable is maximum, when dv/dt = 0


α − β𝑣 = 0
α
𝑣 = = 𝑣!"#
β
Integrating above equation (a) between 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣$

35
Vehicle kinematics…

The equation for distance as a function of time is


𝑑𝑥
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡

Integrating,

Acceleration-time relationship

36
Vehicle kinematics…
For non uniform acceleration
In Summary :

37
Numerical Example - 2

• A car driver travelling at 50 kmph behind another


truck decides to overtake it and accelerate. If the
rate of acceleration ‘a’ is given by the relation,
dv/dt = (1.2 − 0.015v)
• where ‘v’ is velocity in m/s and ‘t’ is time in s, Find
i. the rate of acceleration after 8 seconds
ii. time taken to attain a speed of 100 kmph.
iii. Distance traveled by car in 160 seconds.

38
Solution:
Given,
• dv/dt = 1.2 -0.015v ; Comparing with
we get, α = 1.2 and β = 0.015
v0= 50 kmph = 13.89 m/s
As per question,
i) After 8 second, t = 8 sec; acceleration = ?
(use acceleration time relation) and find a = 0.88 m/sec2

ii) Time taken to attain 100 kmph ?


(From Velocity time relation) ; using v =100 kmph = 27.78 m/s
find t = 15.7 sec
39
Solution:

iii) distance traveled by car in 160 sec ?


(Use Distance Time relation) and find x =8792.5 m

40
Dynamic characteristics
• Speed of vehicle affects sight distance, super
elevation, length of transition curves, limiting
radius of horizontal curves, length of vertical
curves, design gradient, design and control
measures on intersection
• Vehicle in motion has to overcome the following
resistances
– Air resistance
– Rolling resistance
– Grade resistance
– Frictional resistance
– Internal resistance
41
Dynamic characteristics…
Braking Characteristics:
• Rate of retardation depends upon braking efficiency.
• The braking efficiency depends upon type of brakes, stopping
distance, spacing between two consecutive vehicles, OSD etc.
Braking Test
• When brakes are applied and if brake efficiency is 100%, it is
assumed that wheels of the vehicles are fully locked.
• For braking test at least 2 of these 3 parameters are required:
– Initial speed of vehicle (u m/s)
– Braking Distance; distance travelled from the instant the brakes
are applied to the instant vehicle stops ( L in meters)
– Duration; i.e time “t” in seconds, to stop vehicle to dead stop

42
Braking Test…
Using these parameters the avg. skid resistance of the pavement
is calculated. We know,
F=mxa
Also,
F = f x W { i.e Frictional Force Developed}
Where, W is the weight of vehicle.
Therefore,
f x W = (W/g) x a
𝒂
f=𝒈
where, f = avg. skid resistance
g = accln. due to gravity
a = acceleration
43
Numerical Example - 3

A vehicle travelling at a speed of 55kmph was


stopped within 2.5 seconds after the application of
brakes. Calculate the average skid resistance.
Solution:
v = u + at retardation, a = u/t

Also , F = m*a m = W/g and F = f * W

This gives skid resistance as :


f = a/g = u/(t*g) = 0.62

44
Numerical Example – 4 (Home Work)

i) A vehicle was stopped in 1.8 sec and the skid


marks measured was 7.5m. Determine the
average skid resistance.

ii) In a braking test, a vehicle traveling at a


speed of 32kmph was stopped by applying
brakes fully and the skid marks were 5.38m
in length. Determine the average skid
resistance of the pavement surface.
45
Traffic Control Devices

46
Traffic operation and regulations
• To provide safe and efficient traffic operations
• Should impress the public that these regulations and
control are on the public interest
• Traffic regulations should cover all the elements of
traffic system, i.e. road user, vehicle, roads and the
environment
• Traffic laws and regulations should be implemented by
legislative(governmental) laws so as to make them
obligatory to all the road users

47
Traffic operation and regulations…
• Traffic regulation and laws should cover the
following four phases
– Driver controls – driving licenses, driver tests, financial
responsibility and civil liability(problem)
– Vehicle controls – registration, requirements of
vehicles, equipment and accessories, max dimensions,
weight and inspection of vehicles
– Flow regulations – directions, turning and overtaking,
regulatory signs like one way, speed limit, pedestrian
controls etc.
– General control – accident reporting, street shops,
vehicle parking, removing obstructions like trees,
hoarding boards, co-ordination between different
concerned authorities while digging the road surface
for the construction purposes.
48
One-way streets
• One of the method to reduce accidents and to
ensure the smooth flow of traffic
• Traffic is allowed to move in one specified
direction
• Main advantage:
– Congestion reduced
– No head on collision – accident reduced
– Odd lane used (10m – 2 lane, if one way 3 lane)
– Parking permitted
– Less no of conflict point
– Increased average speed
– Improved pedestrian movement
49
Various types of conflict at an intersection
• Crossing conflict
• Diverging conflict
• Merging conflict

50
Conflict points

Major disadvantages
– Increased travel distance
– Loss of amenity
– Loss of business
– Possibility of confusion

51
CONFLICT LINE DIAGRAM

52
53
Traffic control devices
• Various aids and devices used to control, regulate
and guide traffic may be called as traffic control
devices
• General requirements
– Attention
– Meaning
– Time for response
– Respect of road users
• Major traffic control devices
– Signs
– Signals
– Markings
– Islands
54
Traffic control devices…
Traffic Signs
• Traffic sign is a measure to convey specific information to
the driver quite in advance, so that s/he may become
careful.
Functions:
• They give timely warning of hazardous situations.
• They are of great help in regulating traffic by imparting
messages to the drivers about the need to stop, give way
and limit their speeds.
• They give information as highway, route, directions and
points of intersect.

55
Traffic signs…
– Sign should be placed such that they could seen and
recognized by the road users easily and in time
– Location is about 0.5m away from kerb edge
– On roads without kerb the nearest edge may be 2.0m
to 3.0m from the edge of carriageway
– Sign posts painted with 25cm black and white bands
– Traffic signs can be categorized as
• Regulatory signs
– Mandatory signs – stop, yield
– Prohibitory signs – no entry, no parking, one way
• Warning (cautionary) signs
• Informatory signs

56
Traffic signs…

57
Regulatory signs
• Regulatory signs are meant to inform the road users
of certain laws, regulations and prohibitions; the
violation of these signs is a legal offence.
• 33 types of sign (A1 to A33) is defined by Traffic Sign
Manual.
• Major regulatory signs
– Stop and give way signs
– Prohibitory signs
– No parking and no stopping signs
– Speed limit and vehicle control signs
– Restriction ends sign
– Compulsory direction control and other signs

58
Warning signs
• Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn the road
users of certain hazardous conditions that exist on or
adjacent to the roadway
• In the shape of equilateral triangle with its apex pointing
upward
• Have white background, red barrier and black symbols
• Should be located in the sufficient distance in advance of
the hazardous situation
• The distances are 120, 90, 60 and 40m resp. on National or
state highway, major district roads, other district road and
village road; on urban road this distance is 50
• Commonly used warning signs – right/left hand curve,
right/left hair pin bend, narrow bridge, slippery road,
cycle/pedestrian crossing, school zone, Y/T intersection,
falling rock, round about, hump, barrier etc.
• 48 types of Warning signs (B01 – B48)
59
Informatory signs
• Used to guide the road users along routes, inform
them to the destination and distance and provide
with the information to make travel easier, safe
and pleasant.
• Signs are rectangular with blue background and
white/black letters/symbols
• Can be categorized into
– Direction and place identification signs
– Facility information signs
– Other useful information signs
– Parking signs
– Flood gauge

60
Traffic Sign Manual ( Vol-1)

Prepared By:
Traffic Engineering And Safety Unit
Design Branch, Department Of Roads
Ministry Of Works And Transport

61
Road marking
• Certain lines, patterns, words, symbols or
reflectors on the pavement, kerb, side of
islands or on fixed objects within or near the
roadway
• Required on important roads, curvatures and
intersections to promote road safety and
ensure easy flow of traffic

62
Road marking
• Various types of road markings
– Pavement Marking
• Centre line marking
• Lane line
• No passing zone marking
• Turn marking
• Stop lines
• Cross walk lines
• Approach to obstruction
• Parking space limits
– Kerb marking
– Object marking
– Reflector unit markings

63
Road marking…
• Pavement marking
– Generally of white paints
– Yellow line marking are used to indicate parking
restrictions and for continuous center line and
barrier line marking
– Longitudinal solid lines are used as guiding or
regulating lines and are not meant to be crossed
by the driver
– Transverse solid lines indicate the position of stop
lines for vehicular traffic

64
Road marking…
• Kerb Marking: Road kerbs at straight roads are
marked properly to indicate pavement limit.
• Object Marking: Hazardous obstructions like
signs, signals, level crossing gates, traffic islands,
narrow bridge, culverts etc should be clearly
marked.
• Reflector Unit: Hazardous obstructions are
indicated by fixing reflector units reflecting yellow
light at night. Light of reflector unit should be
visible from a distance of about 150m.
65
Road markings…

100

66
Road Marking…

67
Traffic islands
• Raised area constructed within the roadway to
establish physical channels through which the
vehicular traffic may be guided
• Benefits
– Reduce conflict area
– Control speed
– Control angle of conflict
– Prevent prohibited movements
– Protect right turning vehicles
– Pedestrian refuge
– Can be put sign and signals
– Serves for lighting
68
Traffic islands
Types
• Divisional islands – also called median island, it
separate opposing flow of traffic in roads having more
than 4 lanes, possibility of head on collision and other
accidents are reduced
• Channelizing islands – used to guide traffic into proper
channel, normally triangular in shape, particularly
useful at intersections having large areas
• Central /Rotary islands – enlarged highway
intersection where all the approaching vehicles are
forced to move around a large centrally situated island
before weave out into desired road
• Pedestrian loading islands – at regular bus stops and
similar places
69
70
Traffic Signal

71
Traffic signals
• Traffic signal are control devices which could
alternately direct the traffic to stop and
proceed at intersections using red and green
traffic light signals.
• Main requirements of signals are to draw
attention, provide meaning and time to
respond and to have minimum waste of time

72
Traffic signals…
• Types of traffic signals
– Traffic control signals
• Fixed time signal
• Manually operated signal
• Traffic actuated(automatic) signal
– Pedestrian signal
– Special traffic signal (Flashing Beacon)

73
Traffic signals…
Vehicle Control Traffic Signal: 3 colour lights indicators
• Red Light: Traffic is prohibited from proceeding
beyond the stop line.
• Green Light: Vehicular traffic may proceed beyond
the stop line and may turn in any direction, subject
to normal priority rules being observed and provided
that the turn is not prohibited by a supplementary
light signal.
• Amber Light: Conveys same prohibition as red signals
except where vehicles are so close to the stop line
that they cannot safely stop before stop line, they
should proceed
74
Traffic signals…
Pedestrian Control Traffic Signal:

• Red Standing man: Pedestrian are prohibited from


crossing the road
• Green Walking man: Pedestrian may cross the road
with care.
• Flashing Green man: Pedestrian are prohibited from
crossing the road except where they have started to
cross the road, in which case they should continue to
cross the road.
75
Traffic signals…

Vehicle Control Traffic Signal Pedestrian Control Traffic Signal

76
Traffic signals…
• Advantages of the traffic signals
– Increase in the traffic handling capacity of road
junction
– Improvement of quality of traffic flow
– Safe crossing of the vehicles
– Help to reduce accidents
– Permit pedestrians to cross safely
– Economical compared to the manual method
– Provide orderly movement of vehicles
– When the signal system is co-ordinated, there is
reasonable speed along the major road traffic
77
Traffic signals…
• Limitations/disadvantages
– Rear-end collision may increase
– Improper design may cause violation of the
control system (vehicle actuated signal system)
– Stops working due to electric power
– Confusion for the road users if not working
properly

78
Various terms used in traffic signals
• Cycle
– The period of time required for one complete sequence of
signal indicators
• Phase
– A part of the signal cycle allocated to a traffic movement of a
combination of the traffic movement is called phase
• Interval
– Any of the division of the signal cycle during which signal
indication do not change
• Queue length
– The level of service is measured by the vehicle delay, the
queue length.
• Level of service
– The engineer has to design the signal with the sequence and
duration of individual phases to serve all approaching traffic
at a desired level of service 79
Warrants for signal installation
• Traffic control signal should not be installed unless
one or more of the following warrants are met
– Minimum vehicular volume
• Avg. traffic volume for 8hr on both approaches should
be at least 650 veh/hr on major street with single lane
and 800veh/hr on street with more 2 or more lanes
• Minor street – one direction, at least 200veh/hr on
single lane street and 250veh/hr with 2 or more lanes
– Interruption of continuous flow
• Flow on the major street with 1000 to 1200 veh/hr that
there is undue(unwanted/excessive) delay or hazard to
traffic on minor road with a traffic of 100 to 150veh/hr
in one direction only during any 8hr of an average day
80
Warrants for signal installation…
– Minimum pedestrian volume warrant
• 150 or more pedestrians per hour cross a major street
with over 600 veh/hr on both approaches
– Accident experience warrant
• 5 or more accidents occurred within 12 months
– Combination of warrants
• When no signal warrant is justified but indicating two
or more warrants of I, II or III above are satisfied to the
extent of 80% or more of the stated volume

81
Signal Design
• Trial cycle method
• Approximate method
• Webster’s method
• IRC Guideline for signal design

82
General Design Data for Signal Design
1. Cycle length for two phase signal is mostly 40 to
60 seconds
2. Timing of yellow or amber color varies from 3 to
5 seconds, higher values being adopted for higher
speed. Timing for green light may be nearly 20
seconds.
3. Timing for red light is slightly less than that of
green.
4. Clearance of pedestrian time is calculated on the
basis of pedestrian walking speed considered as
1.2 m/s.
83
1. Trial Cycle Signal Design
• Principle of Signal Design

Let A and B are two roads intersecting at a point and it is


required to design cycle length for the intersection.
1. For 15 minutes take traffic counts on roads A and B,
simultaneously at the same intersection.
2. Let N1 and N2 be traffic count of 15 minutes on roads
A and B respectively.
3. Assume trial cycle length of C seconds.
4. Based on assumed value of C, calculate the number of
cycles in 15 minutes period as follow:
() ∗+, .,,
-
= -

84
Trial Cycle Signal Design …

5. Assume 2.5 seconds headway time and calculate Green


light periods GA and GB for roads A and B respectively as:
#.) ∗N1∗+ #.) ∗N2∗+
GA= ,!! and GB= ,!!
Assume yellow (amber) period YA and YB for A and B roads.

6. Calculate the cycle time,


C = GA + GB + YA + YB
7. If the calculated cycle length C works out approximately
equals to the assumed cycle C, the cycle length is accepted
as design cycle, otherwise trials are repeated again.

8. Draw Phase Diagram after completion.


85
Numerical Example 1
• The 15 minute traffic counts on a cross roads 1
and 2 are observed as 150 and 120 vehicles
per lane respectively. If the amber times
required are 4 and 3 seconds respectively for
two roads based on approach speeds. Design
signal timing by trial cycle method. Assume an
average time headway of 2.5 seconds during
green phase.

86
Solution:
• Assume C1 = 50 seconds.
%$$
• No. of cycles in 15 minute = = 18
&$
• Green time for road allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per
vehicle
'.& ∗N1∗* '.& ∗150∗&$
Ø Green time for road 1 : G1= = = 20. 83 sec
%$$ %$$
'.& ∗N!∗* '.& ∗120∗&$
Ø Green time for road 2 : G2= = = 16.67 sec
%$$ %$$
Ø Amber time A1 and A2 are 4 and 3 sec respectively (Given)
Ø Therefore, C = 20.83+16.67+4+3 = 44.50 sec.

• Here, Calculated cycle length is lower than assumed. So lower the


cycle length for next trial.
• Let C2 = 45 seconds and continue the same process ….

87
Phase Diagram

13 seconds 4 seconds 13 seconds

Phase 1

17 seconds 10 seconds 3 sec

Phase 2

88
Example 2 (Homework)
• The 15 minute traffic counts on a cross roads
A and B are observed as 178 and 142 vehicles
per lane respectively. If the amber times
required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively for
two roads based on approach speeds. Design
signal timing by trial cycle method. Assume an
average time headway of 2.5 seconds during
green phase.

89
2. Approximate Method (based on Pedestrian
Crossing Time)
• This method is on the basis of pedestrian crossing time. Here,
we are considering two phase signal unit together with
pedestrian signal.
• Let A and B be two cross roads with traffic volume na and nb
(na > nb) respectively. Then proceed as follow:
a. Assume amber period Aa and Ab for road A and B
respectively as :
– For low Speed (upto 50Kmph) = 3 secs
– For Medium Speed ( 50 -60 Kmph) = 4 secs
– For Higher speed (65 – 80 Kmph) = 5 secs
b. Taking pedestrian travel speed (vw) of 1.2 m/sec. find
pedestrian clearance time pa and pb for Road A and B with
width w𝑎 & 𝑤𝑏 as:
! ! ! !
𝑝𝑎 = ! = ! and 𝑝𝑏 = & = &
"" # .% "" # .%

90
c. Calculate minimum red timing ra and rb taking pedestrian
crossing time for crossing plus initial interval for pedestrian
to start crossing.
i.e ra = pa + 7 sec ; rb = pb+7 sec
d. Also Minimum Red time is equal to minimum Green of
cross road plus amber for cross road. If ga and gb are
minimum green timing for road A and B resp. then:
ra = gb +Ab and rb = ga + Aa
So,gb = ra –Ab and ga = rb - Aa
e. Based on approach volume, Green time calculated for
#! $!
Road A with higher traffic volume using : # = $
& &
$!
or, ga = $&
* gb

91
f. Calculate Total Cycle Length as : C’ = ga + Aa + ra = ga + Aa +
(gb+Ab) Adopt Cycle Length (C) by rounding off.
So, extra length is added for total cycle (∆C) = C – C’
g. Apply Correction for Ga and Gb to calculate corrected Green
Timing as :
-! -&
Ga = ga + - .-/
* ∆C and Gb = gb + - * ∆C
! !.-/
h. Calculate Correct Red Time Ra and Rb as : Ra = Gb +Ab and
Rb = Ga + Aa
i. Design of Pedestrian Signals (PS):
Let DWa and DWb be Do not walk periods and Wa and Wb are Walk
periods for Road A and B:
Then,
DWa = Rb and DWb = Ra
Wa = C – (DWa +pa) and Wb = C – (DWb +pb)
j. Draw Phase diagram. 92
Example: Approximate Method
An isolated signal with pedestrians indication is to be installed on a
right angled intersection with road A, 18m wide and road B, 12m
wide. The heaviest volume per hour for each lane of road A and B
are 275 and 225 respectively. The approach speeds are 50 and
40kmph for road A and B respectively. Design the timing of traffic
and pedestrian signals

93
Source : Everest Awaj, Kartik 21,2077 94
3. Webster Method
• This is the rational method. Here Optimum Signal
Cycle Co corresponding to least delay at the
signalized intersection is worked out. This
method also considers pedestrian crossing time.
• Let A and B be the two cross roads. Then proceed
as follows:
a. From the field work, determine the average
normal flows na and nb (na>nb) during design
period and saturation flow Sa and Sb for Road A
and B resp.
95
b. Find Ratio of average normal flow and saturated flow
%% %&
as: ya = and yb =
&% &&
[for mixed traffic convert all into PCU]
[Note: in absence of data for saturation flow consider
that 160 PCU/0.3m width of approach road]
c. Take all red time for pedestrian crossing (R) as 10-15
sec. If n is no of phases for design and L is total lost
time, then: 𝐿 = 2𝑛 + 𝑅
d. Now, the optimum signal cycle (Co) is given by :
!.# $%#
𝐶𝑜 = ! &' , where. y = ya + yb
[Adopt suitable round off value ]

96
e. Find green timing Ga & Gb for Road A & B as:
'% '&
𝐺$ = (𝐶 − 𝐿) and 𝐺( = (𝐶 − 𝐿)
' '

f. Provide amber timing Aa & Ab = 2sec for each

g. Calculate Red Timing Ra and Rb as :


Ra = C – (Ga + Aa) and Rb = C – (Gb + Ab)

h. Draw the Phase Diagram.

97
Example: Webster Method

The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads


A and B during design period are 400 and 250
PCU per hour, the saturation flow values on
these roads are estimated as 1250 and 1000
PCU per hour respectively. The all red time
required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design
two phase traffic signal by Webster’s method.

98
Solution:
• Ratio of volume to saturated flow for:
• road A , y𝑎 = 400/1250 = 0.32
• Road B, y𝑏 = 250/1000 = 0.25
• Sum of these ratio, Y = y𝑎+ y𝑏 = 0.32+0.25 = 0.57

• L=2*n+R = 2*2+12 = 16 secs

U.V WXV U.V ∗U\XV


• Then optimal cycle, 𝐶𝑜 = = =
U YZ U Y].V^
67.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 , Say Co = 67.5 sec
99
Now, Green Time:
'% ).+#
• 𝐺$ = 𝐶−𝐿 = 67.5 − 16 = 29 sec
' ).,-
'& ).#,
• 𝐺( = (𝐶 − 𝐿) = 67.5 − 16 = 22.5 sec
' ).,-
• All red for pedestrian crossing = 12 sec
• Provide Amber time of 2 sec for each clearance,

• Total Cycle time = 29+2+22.5+2+12 = 67.5 sec

• Draw Phase Diagram.


100
101
Example 2 : Webster Method
2017 Spring

• A four legged right intersection is to be


signalized with a fixed two phase signal. The
design flow and saturation flow are as :
North South East West
Design hourly volume 900 500 800 700
Saturation Volume 2500 2000 3200 3000
• The lost time may be assumed as 2 seconds
per arm. Determine the optimum cycle time
and allocate the green time in the two phases.
102
Solution:
• Ratio of volume to saturated flow for:
• road EW , y𝑎 = 1500/6200 = 0.24
• Road NS, y𝑏 = 1400/4500 = 0.31
• Sum of these ratio, Y = y𝑎+ y𝑏 = 0.31+0.24 = 0.55

• Total lost time = 2 sec in each arm = 2*4 = 8 sec


• L=2*n+R = 2*2+R =
• 8 secs = R = 4 sec.
U.V WXV U.V ∗_XV
• Then optimal cycle, 𝐶𝑜 = = =
U YZ U Y].VV
37.77 𝑠𝑒𝑐 , Say Co = 38 sec
103
Now, Green Time:
'% ).#.
• 𝐺$ = 𝐶−𝐿 = 38 − 8 = 13 sec
' ).,,
'& ).+/
• 𝐺( = (𝐶 − 𝐿) = 38 − 8 = 17 sec
' ).,,
• All red for pedestrian crossing = 4 sec
• Provide Amber time of 2 sec for each clearance,

• Total Cycle time = 13+2+17+2+4 = 38 sec

• Draw Phase Diagram.


104
Road Intersection

105
Road Intersection
Intersection is an area shared by two or more
roads. This area is designated for the vehicles to
turn to different directions to reach their desired
destinations. Its main function is to guide
vehicles to their respective directions.
Basic Requirements
i. The area of conflict should be small at the
intersection.
ii. The relative speed and the angle of approach of
vehicle should be small
iii. Sufficient visibility for vehicles approaching
iv. Sudden change of paths should be avoided
v. Geometric features (pavement width, turning
radius) should be adequately provided
vi. Proper sign to warn the drivers should be
provided
vii. Separate provision for the pedestrians and cyclist
should be provided
viii. Proper Night light
107
Intersection Control Strategy

1. Right of way Rule: Approaching first has right


of way. If arrives at same time- straight going
vehicle, vehicle on major road.
2. Stop Sign: All vehicle first stop then proceed.
3. Yield Sign: Give the way sign.
4. Manual Control: Traffic Police
5. Signalization: Green light –right of way.
6. Street Closure: No entry sign.

108
Conflict Point

Fig: Conflict Points (Crossing, Merging, Diverging)


109
Channelized & Unchannelized Intersection
Channelized Intersection: Vehicles approaching
an intersection are directed to definite paths by
islands, marking etc. and this method of control
is called channelization. Channelized intersection
provides more safety and efficiency. It reduces
the number of possible conflicts by reducing the
area of conflicts available in the carriageway.
110
The presence of traffic islands, markings etc.
forces the driver to reduce the speed.
channelizing island also serves as a refuge for
pedestrians and makes pedestrian crossing safer.

111
Advantage of Channelized Intersection:
1. Vehicles are confined to definite path.
2. Reduction of conflict area and conflict point.
3. Speed control of approaching vehicle.
4. Refuse pedestrian to use paved area.
5. Place for installation of Traffic Signal.
6. Blockage of Prohibited movement.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area
2. Difficult design
3. Travel time increment
112
Unchannelized Intersection: Intersecting area is
paved and there is absolutely no restriction to
vehicles to use part of intersection area.

113
Classification of Intersection
1. Intersection at Grade: Joins, Crosses and diverse at
same level.
2. Grade Separated Intersection: Grade-separated
intersections are provided to separate the traffic in the
vertical grade.

114
Grade Separated Intersection
• These are provided to separate the traffic in the vertical
grade: roads are separated at different levels.
• Eg: Flyovers (Overpass & Underpass) and Interchange.
• Advantages of Grade Separation
• Eliminates the stopping of vehicles while crossing the
roads.
• Provides safety and reduces the risk of accidents.
• Speed-limits for grade-separated roads are generally
higher hence, high speeds can be maintained at
intersections which results in saving of travel time.
• Can be provide for all likely angles of any two intersecting
roads. 115
Disadvantages of Grade Separation

• Grade separation and interchange construction


require a lot of money and land.
• Construction and design of grade separations and
interchanges is complicated and requires skilled
professionals.
• Cloverleaf, stack interchange types may tender
confusion for road users while interchanging roads.
Hence, the driver should know the direction of each
interchange ramp.

116
Some Grade Separated Intersections
1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a
popular form of three leg interchange. If one of
the legs of the interchange meets a highway at
some angle but does not cross it, then the
interchange is called trumpet interchange.

117
Trumpet Intersection
118
2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a
popular form of four-leg interchange found in the urban
locations where major and minor roads crosses. The
important feature of this interchange is that it can be
designed even if the major road is relatively narrow.

119
Indiana’s First Diverging Diamond Interchange Results in Increased Safety and $4.3
Million in Savings

-Source : http://www.cmtengr.com/2015/12/04/dd-interchange-savings/ 120


3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a two-level four leg
interchange and is used when two highways of high
volume and speed intersect each other with considerable
turning movements. The main advantage of cloverleaf
intersection is that it provides complete separation of
traffic. In addition, high speed at intersections can be
achieved.

121
Cover leaf Intersection
122
Flyover

123
Kalanki Under Pass

124
Rotary Intersection
A rotary Intersection is a specialized form of at
grade intersection layout for movement of traffic
in one direction round a central island in
clockwise direction to eliminate the necessity of
stopping by eliminating crossing through merging
and diverging.

125
Advantages:
1. Orderly and regimented flow.
2. Continuous and uniform flow
3. No Crossing of vehicle
4. Easy and clear turning
5. Best Suitable for 5 or more intersecting legs.
6. Self governing system i.e. no signalization.
7. Highest traffic capacity upto 3000 vehicle per hour from all
intersecting legs.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to manage if traffic density exceed capacity.
2. Large area coverage and flat topography requirement.
3. Even when low traffic, vehicle are forced to slow down
4. No stage development provision. 126
Design Requirements for Rotary Intersection:
1. Volume of traffic should more or less equal in all
intersecting legs.
2. Minimum Flow should be 500 and maximum flow
should be 3000 vehicle/hour from all intersecting legs.
3. The proportion of turning traffic is high.
4. Four or more intersecting legs requirement.
5. Other approach provision impossible.
Design Factors/Elements (IRC Guidelines)
1. Design Speed: Urban-30 Kmph, Rural -40 Kmph
2. Radius at Entry: 15-20 m for urban, 20-25m rural
3. Radius at exit: 1.5-2 times radius of entry
4. Radius at central Island: 1.33 times of radius of entry
127
5. Weaving Length: Minimum length of weaving length to
weaving width is 4:1.(WW=30-60m for urban and 45-
90m for rural)
6. Width of carriage way at entry and exit: Minimum
5m+Extrawidening.
7. Width of carriageway at weaving section: (e1+e2)/2+3.5
8. Entry and Exit angle: 60° at Entry and 30°at exit.
9. Super elevation: Maximum 7%.
9. Capacity of weaving section:
Qp= [280w(1+e/w)(1-P/3)]/(1+w/L)
e= Average width of rotary= (e1+e2)/2
W= width of weaving section=16-18m (two lane)
P= Proportion of weaving traffic= (b+c)/(a+b+c+d)
L= length of weaving section= Maximum -90 m.
128
Rotary Intersection Terminologies 129
Highway Lighting

130
Highway Lighting
• The rate of highway accidents and fatalities that occur during
night driving is several times higher in terms of vehicle
kilometer than that during day driving.
• One of the various causes of increased accident rate during
night may be attributed to poor night visibility.
• Road lighting is more important at intersections, bridge site,
level crossings and in places where there is restriction of
traffic movements.
• Lighting on rural roads has not yet become common,
evidently due to the cost consideration and less number of
pedestrians and other slow traffic using the facility at night.
• On urban roads where the density of population is also high,
road lighting has other advantages like feeling of security and
protection. 131
Importance of road lighting
• To reduce accidents in night driving which are caused by
insufficient lighting
• To see accurately and easily the carriageway and the
immediate surroundings in darkness.
• To avoid glare effect
• To ensure comfort and confident driving
• Indirect benefit: Reduction in crime, feeling security,
improves aesthetic appearance and extension of
business hour after sunset.

132
Some Definition
• Illumination – is the measure of the amount of the light flux
which falls on the surface
• Luminous flux (F) - the radiant power given by light source
• Lumen - the unit of luminous flux.
• Luminous Intensity - the Luminous flux emitted per solid angle
• Candela – Unit of Luminous Intensity
• Lantern – Group of lamps
• Outreach – The distance measure horizontally between the
center of the lantern and the center of the wall/column
• Overhang – the distance measure horizontally between the
center of the lantern and the center of the carriageway
• Mounting Height – the distance (height)between the center of
the lantern and the carriageway
133
Factors affecting night visibility
• Amount and distribution of light flux from the lamps.
• Size of object
• Brightness of object
• Brightness of the background
• Reflecting characteristics of pavement surface
• Glare on the eyes of the driver
• Time available to see an object

134
Requirements of level of illumination
• Distribution should be downward
• It should produce maximum uniformity of
pavement brightness
• It should cover the adjacent area 3-5 m beyond
the pavement edge.
• For main highways 30 lux, for main roads 15 lux
and for secondary roads 4-8 lux.

* Illumination (E) is the luminous flux incident per unit area upon a point on
a surface.
* The unit of illumination in the metric system is lux or lumen per square
meter.
135
Types of Lights
• The choice of lights is governed by life, wattage,
brightness, efficiency, colour and initial act.
• The following are the important types available:
(i) Tungsten filament lights
(ii) Tubular fluorescent lights
(iii) Sodium-vapour lamps
(iv) High-pressure mercury-vapour lamps.

136
(i) Tungsten Filament Lights
• These are the familiar and
inexpensive type; their use is
limited to minor
streets/walkways. They have
very low efficiency 8 to 14
lumens per watt, and have
relatively short life .
• When cost becomes the main
criterion, this is the automatic
choice, but the life is only for
about 1000 hours.
137
(ii) Tubular Fluorescent Lights
• Fluorescent lights are long narrow tubes with fluorescent
coating on their inner surface.
• With the excitation of the fluorescent powder by an electric
discharge at low pressures, a bright white light is emitted.
• The wattage is low and the efficiency is high-50-75 lumens per
watt .
• Their life extent is higher and can last for about 6000 hrs. They
are preferred for business streets which require good colour-
rendering properties.

138
(iii) Sodium Vapour Lamps:
• These lamps work on the principle of electric discharge
through sodium vapour. There are two types- low-
pressure discharge and high-pressure discharge; the
former emits monochromatic yellow light, with the
absence of dazzle, while the latter gives white light.
• The wattage of the low-pressure variety is 120 to 160,
with an efficiency of 120 lumens per watt; the high-
pressure variety has a wattage of 400, with an efficiency
100 lumens per watt.
• Life of about 8000 hours.
• Mostly used in Urban Streets of Nepal

139
Sodium Vapour Lamps

140
(iv) High-Pressure Mercury-Vapour Lamps
• Mercury vapour discharge lamps have a
wattage of 400, efficiency of 23-60 lumens per
watt, and a life of 7500 hours. They emit a
brilliant greenish white colour.

141
Luminaire Distribution of Light
• To have best utility of the luminaire or source of light, it is
necessary to have proper distribution of light and should
be downward to have maximum uniformity of pavement
brightness.
• Types of distribution
Ø Type –I : center mounting over streets up to 2 mounting
heights, narrow roads
Ø Type –II : mounting over curb line of narrow roads widths less
than 1.5 mounting height
Ø Type – III: mounting over curb line of street widths less than 2
mounting height; for medium width roads
Ø Type – IV : mounting over curb line of street widths greater
than 2 mounting height, for very wide highways
Ø Type – V : design to distribute light equally in lateral direction,
for center of highway and intersection
142
Fig: Light Distribution

143
Design of street lighting system
1.Height of mounting: usually mounting height is 6-10m
for urban roads.

2.Selection of types of lamps:


• Filament bulbs are used for minor street and pedestrian
walkways
• Fluorescent light used for shopping street but they have
short lamp life.
• High-pressure sodium light produce excellent luminous
efficiency, long life and acceptable color.
• Low pressure sodium light used in tunnels and on roads
where high illumination levels an more uniform lights
are required.
144
3. Spacing of lamps:
•In general spacing should be 35-45m and should not
exceed 55m.
•Rough guide; Spacing should be 3-5 times of mounting
height.
•Spacing may be determined by the quality of illumination
needed on different street.

-Maintenance factor usually 80%


- Coefficient of utilization is obtained from graph,
corresponding to the pavement width & mounting height.
145
146
4. Lateral placement:
•Street lighting poles should not be installed close to the
pavement edge.
IRC recommended;
•For roads with raised kerbs: min 0.3m (and desirable 0.6
m) from the edge of raised kerb.
•For roads without raised kerbs:- min.1.5m from the edge
of the carriageway. (subject to minimum of 5m from the
center line of the carriageway.)

147
Lighting Arrangements
• The different types of arrangements are
(i) Single-side
(ii) Both-sides-staggered
(iii) Central
(iv) Both-sides-opposite
(v) A combination of (iii) and (ii) or (iv)

148
Lighting layouts:

149
150
151
152
Numerical Example,
•Calculate the spacing between lighting units to
produce average lux of 5.5 in a street lighting system
for the following conditions:
•Street width = 15m, mounting height = 7.5m Lamp
size = 7000 lumen.

Solution:

153
154
Thank you !!!

• The contents of this lecture, including some text and images are taken/used
from different books, journals, internet sources, lecture notes etc. They are solely
used for not-for-profit academic teaching/learning activities. I express my
sincere thanks to the writers/ publishers of the used materials.

You might also like