NEPAL ENGINEERING

COUNCIL
Concept of Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering

Bishal Rimal
2024
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 2

Contents
1.4 Semiconductor devices: Semiconductor diode and its characteristics, BJT
Configuration and biasing, small and large signal model, working principle
and application of MOSFET and CMOS. (AExE0104)

1.5 Signal generator: Basic Principles of Oscillator, RC, LC and Crystal

Oscillators Circuits. Waveform generators. (AExE0105)

1.6 Amplifiers: Classification of Output Stages, Class A Output Stage, Class B

Output Stage, Class AB Output Stage, Biasing the Class AB Stage, Power
BJTs, Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Stages, and Tuned Amplifiers, op-amps.
Operational Amplifier
• An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a differential amplifier that amplifies the
difference of voltages applied to its two input terminals (differential input), and
provides a single- ended output.
• Amplifiers are devices which take a relatively weak signal as an input and
produce a much stronger signal as an output.

• V+: non-inverting input

• V−: inverting input
• Vout: output
• VS+: positive power supply
• VS−: negative power supply
LM741
IDEAL And PRACTICAL Characteristics Of Op-
Amp
Virtual Short Circuit and Virtual Ground
 Inverting Amplifier
• Inverting amplifier is one in which
the output is exactly 180 degree
out of phase with respect to
input(i.e. if you apply a positive
voltage, output will be negative).
• Output is an inverted(in terms of
phase) amplified version of input.
 Non Inverting Amplifier
• Non Inverting amplifier is
one in which the output is in
phase with respect to Vi
input(i.e. if you apply a
positive voltage, output will
be positive ).
• Output is an Non
inverted(in terms of phase)
amplified version of input.
Voltage Follower/ Buffer
Vi

Vi

Here if R2=0, Av=1

i.e V0=Vi

• Used to isolate stages from each other.

• Used as an impedance transformer.
• Reduce power consumption of the source
• Reduce distortion from overloading, distortion and other electromagnetic
interference.
Summer/ Adder

If Rf=R1=R2=R3
Then, V0= -(Vi1+Vi2+Vi3 )

Thus,
Output signal is the sum of all input signals.
Integrator Differentiator
 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 12
Which of the following electrical characteristics is not Find the output voltage of an ideal op-amp. If V1 and V2
exhibited by an ideal op-amp? are the two input voltages
a) Infinite voltage gain a) VO= V1-V2
b) Infinite bandwidth b) VO= A×(V1-V2)
c) Infinite output resistance c) VO= A×(V1+V2)
d) Infinite slew rate d) VO= V1×V2

Answer: c Answer: b
Explanation: An ideal op-amp exhibits zero output Explanation: The output voltage of an ideal op-amp is the
resistance so that output can drive an infinite number of product of gain and algebraic difference between the two
other devices. input voltages.
An ideal op-amp requires infinite bandwidth because
a) Signals can be amplified without attenuation Which is not the ideal characteristic of an op-amp?
b) Output common-mode noise voltage is zero a) Input Resistance –> 0
c) Output voltage occurs simultaneously with input voltage b) Output impedance –> 0
changes c) Bandwidth –> ∞
d) Output can drive infinite number of device d) Open loop voltage gain –> ∞

Answer: a Answer: a
Explanation: An ideal op-amp has infinite bandwidth. Explanation: Input resistance is infinite so almost any signal
Therefore, any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be source can drive it and there is no loading of the preceding
amplified without attenuation. stage.
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 13

Oscillator
• Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a periodic waveform on its
output without an external signal source. It is used to convert dc to ac.
• Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal of some type
without the need of an input.
• These signals serve a variety of purposes.
• Communications systems, digital systems (including computers), and test
equipment make use of oscillators
 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 14

Basic Principle of Oscillator

A Basic oscillator contains:
- a frequency selection feedback network
- an amplifier to maintain the loop gain at unity
Vs= input= 0 + V
Vs  A(f) Vo
Vo= Output +
A=Gain of amplifier and B gain of +ve feedback
Vf SelectiveNetwork
Vo  AV  A(Vs  V f ) and V f   Vo  (f)
Vo A
 
Vs 1  A Fig: An amplifier with positive feedback acts
If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero as an oscillator”.
is that loop gain A=1 which implies that
Noise signals and the transients associated
| A | 1 (Barkhausen Criterion) with the circuit turning on provide the initial
A  0 source signal that initiate the oscillation
 Oscillator Basics
Oscillators convert dc to __________. ac
In order for an oscillator to work, the
feedback must be __________. positive

An oscillator can’t start unless gain (A)

is _________ than feedback fraction (B). greater
For sinusoidal signal the overall phase
shift of the feedback loop should be 0/360/…n*360
Which among the following parameters acts as an initiator for the operation of
an oscillator in the absence of input signal?
a. Noise voltage b. Noise power c. Noise temperature d. All
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 16

Types of Oscillator
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 17

RC Oscillator
RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to frequencies of 1 MHz or less.
Two Types
• Wien-bridge
• phase-shift
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 18

RC wein Bridge Oscillator

Components:
• Op amp operating at non- inverting mode
No phase shift

• RC series branch (Zs): R-jXc

1  sRC R
Zs  Zp 
sC 1  sRC
• RC parallel branch (Zp): -jXc*R/(R-jXc)
• No phase shift by feedback as well.
 Note: s=jw for
Wien-bridge Oscillator frequency response

• The loop gain for the oscillator is;

 R2  Z p 
T s   As β s    1  
 R1  Z p  Z s 
R 1  sRC
• where; Z p  Zs 
1  sRC sC
 R2  
T s    1 
1

 R1  3  sRC  1 /sRC 
• For Oscillation frequency, fo/wo

 R  
T  j0   1  2 
1

 R1  3  j0 RC  1/j 0 RC  
  R  
T  j0   1  2 
1

Wien-bridge Oscillator  R1  3  j0 RC  1/j 0 RC  
Phase Shift Condition Magnitude Condition
Angle of T(j) be zero, i.e T(j) must T(j) =1 in magnitude
be real (for zero phase condition), the
imaginary component must be zero;  R  1   R2  1 
1  1  2    1   
 R1  3  0   R1  3 
R2
  3 1  2
R1
To ensure oscillation, the ratio R2/R1
must be slightly greater than 2.
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 21

RC wein Bridge Oscillator

Conclusion
1

RC
R2
2
R1
 R2  2 R1

1

3
 RC Oscillator
A properly designed Wien bridge oscillator
provides a __________ waveform. sine
The feedback fraction in a Wien bridge
oscillator is __________. 0.333

The feedback circuit in a wein bridge

oscillator provides __________ of phase shift. 0o
The gain of amplifier in wein bridge oscillator
should be at least 3

The ratio of feedback resistor and other resistor 2

of amplifier in wein bridge oscillator is
 RC Phase-Shift Oscillator
The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to provide 180º phase shift that when
coupled with the 180º of the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to sustain
oscillations.
The frequency of sustained oscillations
generated depends on the values of R and
C and is given by, f r  1
2 6 RC
At this frequency the gain of the
op-amp must be at least 29 to
satisfy Aβ = 1.
Now gain of the op-amp inverting
amplifier is given by,
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 24

Phase shift oscillator

• Total phase shift required= 360
• Amplifier phase shift= 180 (Non
Inverting mode of Op Amp or CE
configuration of BJT)
• One RC is selected to shift phase by 60
degree.
• For 3 same RC, total phase shift
=3*60=180 degree.

• Total phase shift= 180+180=360

 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 25
RC phase shift oscillators contain a minimum of
_________ Phase shift network. One phase shift network of an RC phase contain
_________ inductor.
a) 1
a) 1
b) 2
b) 2
c) 3
c) 3
d) 0
d) 0
Answer d
Answer: c
Explanation: RC phase shift oscillator contains a
minimum of three phase shift networks. There can be The phase shift network will produce a phase shift of
also four (with 45 degree phase shift each) and it 180 degrees at ___________
increases the stability of oscillation. a) Three different frequencies
b) One frequency
Amplifier gain for RC phase shift oscillation, to obey c) Two different frequencies
Barkhausen’s criteria should be minimum of d) Infinitely many frequencies
___________ Answer: b
a) 43
b) 4 Explanation: The phase shift oscillator will produce a
c) 10 phase shift of 180 degrees only at a particular frequency
d) 29 by which it is meant to oscillate.
Answer d
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 26
Frequency of oscillation for three section The feedback factor for RC phase shift
RC phase shift network is given by oscillator is ___________
___________
a) 1/18
a) 1/(ᴨ√6 RC)
b) 1/29
b) 2/(ᴨ√6 RC)
c) 1/11
c) 1/(2ᴨ√6 RC)
d) 1/33
d) 1/(2√6 RC)
Answer d
Answer: c
What will be oscillator frequency, if phase
Explanation: For an RC phase shift shift network of 3stages of RC phase shift
oscillator the frequency formula is oscillator contains a capacitor of 7nF and a
1/2πRC√2N where N is the total number of resistance of 10K in each stage?
RC stages. For a 3 stage circuit, the
frequency is 1/2πRC√6. a) 928 Hz
b) 1KHz
c) 1.2KHz
d) 895Hz
LC Oscillators
• Use transistors and LC tuned circuits or crystals in their feedback network.
• For generating high-frequency signals, LC Oscillator is preferred. At higher
frequencies, better results are obtained with LC-tuned oscillators. The
transistors (BJTs and FETs) used in the LC oscillators are used in the
frequency range of 100 kHz to 100 GHz.
• Examine Colpitts, Hartley

Fig: LC tank different configuration

Colpitts Oscillator
• The Colpitts oscillator is a type of
oscillator that uses an LC circuit in the
feed-back loop.
• The feedback network is made up of a
pair of tapped capacitors (C1 and C2)
and an inductor L to produce a
feedback necessary for oscillations.
• The output voltage is developed across
C1.
• The feedback voltage is developed
across C2.
Colpitts Oscillator
• If we replace BJT by pi model we can get
• KCL at the output node:
Vo Vo Vo
  g mVgs  0
1 R 1 - Eq (1)
sL 
sC1 sC 2
• voltage divider produces:
 1 
 
Vgs  
sC 2  - Eq (2)
V
 1  o
 sC  sL 
 2 
• substitute eq(2) into eq(1):
 
 1
Vo  g m  sC2  1  s 2 LC2   sC1   0
R 
Colpitts Oscillator
• Assume that oscillation has started, then Vo≠0
 1
2
 sC1  C2    g m    0
s LC2
s 3 LC1C2 
R  R
• Let s=jω  1  2 LC2 
 g m   
  j C1  C2    2 LC1C2  0
 R R 

• both real & imaginary component must be zero

1
• Imaginary component: o  - Eq (3)
 C1C2 
L 
 C1  C2 
Colpitts Oscillator
• both real & imaginary component must be zero
• Imaginary component: - Eq (4)
 LC2
2
1
 gm 
R R
• Combining Eq(3) and Eq(4):
C2
 gm R
C1
• to initiate oscillations spontaneously:
 C2 
g m R   
 C1 
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 32

Colpitts Oscillator
• Oscillation frequency

1
o  1
 C1C2  =
L  𝐿 ∗ 𝐶𝑒𝑞
 C1  C2 

• For ossicillator,

C 
g m R   2 
 C1 
Hartley Oscillator
• The Hartley oscillator is almost
identical to the Colpitts oscillator.
• The primary difference is that the
feedback network of the Hartley
oscillator uses tapped inductors (L1 and
L2) and a single capacitor C.

Feedback is achieved through the inductive divider circuit

used in the Hartley oscillator. The ratio L1/L2 determines
the feedback ratio and must be adjusted to ensure that
oscillations will start.
Hartley Oscillator
The analysis of Hartley oscillator is identical to that Colpitts oscillator
The frequency of oscillation:
1 1
o  =
L1  L2 C 𝐿𝑒𝑞 ∗ 𝐶
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 35
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 36

Find the true statement.

a) When a resistor is connected to an inductor, the electric
current in the circuit undergoes LC oscillations
b) When a resistor is connected to a capacitor, the electric
current in the circuit undergoes LC oscillations
c) When a charged capacitor is connected to an inductor,
the electric current in the circuit and charge on the
capacitor undergoes LC oscillations
d) All
• Answer C
Crystal Oscillator
• Most communications and digital applications require the use of oscillators with
extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output
fluctuation experienced by conventional oscillators.
• Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz wafer held between two
metal plates and housed in a a package as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (b).
Crystal Oscillator
• Piezoelectric Effect
• The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and exhibits a property called
the piezoelectric
• When a changing an alternating voltage is applied across the crystal, it vibrates at
the frequency of the applied voltage. In the other word, the frequency of the
applied ac voltage is equal to the natural resonant frequency of the crystal.
• The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of vibration. This phenomenon is
called piezoelectric effect.
 Crystal Oscillator
• Characteristic of Quartz Crystal R
• The crystal can have two resonant frequencies; CM
L
• One is the series resonance frequency f1 which occurs
when XL = XC. At this frequency, crystal offers a very C
low impedance to the external circuit where Z = R.
• The other is the parallel resonance (or antiresonance)
frequency f2 which occurs when reactance of the series
leg equals the reactance of CM. At this frequency, crystal
offers a very high impedance to the external circuit
Crystal Oscillator
• The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from
collector to the base so that it is excited in the series-resonance mode

BJ
T
FE
T
Crystal Oscillator
• Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the smallest that causes the crystal provides
the largest positive feedback.
• Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor CE
provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, RE to avoid degeneration.
• The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac signal from entering the dc
supply.
• The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance at circuit operating frequency but blocks
any dc flow between collector and base.
• The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency of the crystal and is given
by:
1
fo 
2 LCC
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 42
Like which of the following circuit does a
A quartz crystal has the following values:
quartz oscillator behaves like at stable
Rs = 6.4Ω, Cs = 0.09972pF and Ls =
resonant based frequency?
2.546mH. Calculate the fundamental
oscillating frequency of the crystal. a) RC
b) RLC
c) LC
d) RL
Ans: b
A quartz crystal has ____ value of Q
factor?
a) Greater
b) Lesser
c) Infinite
d) Zero
Answer a
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 43
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 44

Wave Generator
A waveform generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a standard
wave. There are two types of op-amp based waveform generators −
• Square wave generator
• Triangular wave generator
 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 45

Square wave generator Construction

A square wave generator is an electronic circuit which
generates square wave.
Observe that in the circuit diagram shown above, the
resistor R1 is connected between the inverting input terminal
of the op-amp and its output of op-amp. So, the
resistor R1 is used in the negative feedback. Similarly, the
resistor R2 is connected between the noninverting input
terminal of the op-amp and its output. So, the resistor R2 is
used in the positive feedback path.
A capacitor C is connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-amp and
ground. So, the voltage across capacitor C will be the input voltage at this inverting
terminal of op-amp. Similarly, a resistor R3 is connected between the non-inverting
input terminal of the op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across resistor R3 will be the
input voltage at this non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 46

Working
•Assume, there is no charge stored in the capacitor
initially. Then, the voltage present at the inverting
terminal of the op-amp is zero volts. But, there is some
offset voltage at non-inverting terminal of op-amp.
Due to this, the value present at the output of above
circuit will be +Vsat.
•Now, the capacitor C starts charging through a resistor R1.The value present at the output of
the above circuit will change to −Vsat, when the voltage across the capacitor C reaches just
greater than the voltage (positive value) across resistor R3.
•The capacitor C starts discharging through a resistor R1, when the output of above circuit
is −Vsat. The value present at the output of above circuit will change to +Vsat, when the
voltage across capacitor C reaches just less than (more negative) the voltage (negative value)
across resistor R3.
The output of the op-amp is forced to swing repetitively between positive saturation,
+Vsat and negative saturation, -Vsat.
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 47

Important Conclusion
1 Op amp
1 Capacitor
3 Resistors:
R1 is for negative feedback
R2 is for positive feedback
R3 between the non-inverting input terminal of the
op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across
resistor R3 will be the input voltage
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 48
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 49

Triangular Wave Generator

• A triangular wave generator is an electronic circuit, which generates
a triangular wave.

+
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 50
B. Rimal NEC License Exam 51

MCQs
How are the square wave output generated in op- Determine the expression for time period of a
amp? square wave generator
a) Op-amp is forced to operate in the positive a) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ R2) / ( R2)].
saturation region b) T= 2RC ln×[( 2R1+ R2) / ( R2)].
b) Op-amp is forced to operate in the negative c) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ 2R2) / ( R2)].
saturation region d) T= 2RC ln×[( R1+ R2) / (2 R2)].
c) Op-amp is forced to operate between positive
and negative saturation region
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
Answer: c Explanation: The time period of the output
waveform for a square wave generator is 1/f = T=
Explanation: Square wave outputs are generated 2RC ln×[(2R1+ R2)/( R2)].
where the op-amp is forced to operate in saturated
region, that is, the output of the op-amp is forced
to swing repetitively between positive saturation,
+Vsat and negative saturation, -Vsat.
 B. Rimal NEC License Exam 52
Determine the output frequency for the
circuit given below
a) 28.77 Hz
b) 31.97 Hz
c) 35.52 Hz
d) 39.47 Hz

Answer: d
Explanation: The output frequency
fo = 1/2RC×ln [ (2R1+ R2)/ R2]
= 1 / {(2×33kΩ ×0.33µF)×ln[(2×33kΩ
+30kΩ)/30kΩ]}
= 1/ (0.02175×ln 32) = 39.47 Hz.
Oscillator
Q. An oscillator converts ……………..
1. dc. power into d.c. power
2. dc. power into a.c. power
3. mechanical power into a.c. power
4. none of the above

Answer : 2

Q. In an LC transistor oscillator, the active device is ……………

1. LC tank circuit
2. Biasing circuit
3. Transistor
4. None of the above

Answer : 3

Q. In an LC oscillator, the frequency of oscillator is ……………. L or C.

1. Proportional to square of
2. Directly proportional to
3. Independent of the values of
4. Inversely proportional to square root of

Answer : 4

Q An oscillator produces……………. oscillations

1. Damped
2. Undamped
3. Modulated
4. None of the above
 Answer : 2

Q. An oscillator employs ……………… feedback

1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Neither positive nor negative
4. Data insufficient

Answer : 1

Q. An LC oscillator cannot be used to produce ……………….. frequencies

1. High
2. Audio
3. Very low
4. Very high

Answer : 3

Q. Hartley oscillator is commonly used in ………………

1. Radio receivers
2. Radio transmitters
3. TV receivers
4. None of the above

Answer : 1

Q. In a phase shift oscillator, we use …………. RC sections

1. Two
2. Three
3. Four
4. None of the above
 Answer : 2

Q. In a phase shift oscillator, the frequency determining elements are

…………
1. L and C
2. R, L and C
3. R and C
4. None of the above

Answer : 3

Q. A Wien bridge oscillator uses ……………. feedback

1. Only positive
2. Only negative
3. Both positive and negative
4. None of the above

Answer : 3

Q. The piezoelectric effect in a crystal is ……………

1. A voltage developed because of mechanical stress
2. A change in resistance because of temperature
3. A change in frequency because of temperature
4. None of the above

Answer : 1

Q. The crystal oscillator frequency is very stable due to ………………. of

the crystal
1. Rigidity
 2. Vibrations
3. Low Q
4. High Q

Answer : 4

Q. The application where one would most likely find a crystal

oscillator is ……………..
1. Radio receiver
2. Radio transmitter
3. AF sweep generator
4. None of the above

Answer : 2

Q. An oscillator differs from an amplifier because it ………

1. Has more gain
2. Requires no input signal
3. Requires no d.c. supply
4. Always has the same input

Answer : 2

Q. One condition for oscillation is ………….

1. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 180o
2. A gain around the feedback loop of one-third
3. A phase shift around the feedback loop of 0o
4. A gain around the feedback loop of less than 1

Answer : 3
Q. A second condition for oscillations is ……………….
1. A gain of 1 around the feedback loop
2. No gain around the feedback loop
3. The attention of the feedback circuit must be one-third
4. The feedback circuit must be capacitive

Answer : 1

Q In a certain oscillator Av = 50. The attention of the feedback circuit

must be …………
1. 1
2. 0.1
3. 10
4. 0.2

Answer : 4

Q. For an oscillator to properly start, the gain around the feedback

loop must initially be
1. 1
2. Greater than 1
3. Less than 1
4. Equal to attenuation of feedback circuit

Answer : 2

Q. In Colpitt’s oscillator, feedback is obtained …………….

1. By magnetic induction
2. From the centre of split Inductors
3. From the centre of split capacitors
4. None of the above
 Answer : 3

Q. The Q of the crystal is of the order of …………

1. 100
2. 1000
3. 50
4. More than 10,000

Answer : 4

Q. Quartz crystal is most commonly used in crystal oscillators because

………….
1. It has superior electrical properties
2. It is easily available
3. It is quite inexpensive
4. None of the above

Answer : 1

Q. In an LC oscillator, if the value of L is increased four times, the

frequency of oscillations is …………
1. Increased 2 times
2. Decreased 4 times
3. Increased 4 times
4. Decreased 2 times

Answer : 4

Q. An important limitation of a crystal oscillator is ……………

1. Its low output
 2. Its high Q
3. Less availability of quartz crystal
4. Its high output

Answer : 1

Q. The signal generator generally used in the laboratories is …………..

oscillator
1. Wien-bridge
2. Hartely
3. Crystal
4. Phase shift

Answer : 1