BREAD BOARD

What is a Breadboard?

A Breadboard is simply a board for prototyping or building

circuits on. It allows you to place components and connections
on the board to make circuits without soldering. The holes in
the breadboard take care of your connections by physically
holding onto parts or wires where you put them and
electrically connecting them inside the board. The ease of use
and speed are great for learning and quick prototyping of
simple circuits. More complex circuits and high frequency
circuits are less suited to breadboarding. Breadboard circuits
are also not ideal for long term use like circuits built on
perfboard (protoboard) or PCB (printed circuit board), but they
also don’t have the soldering (protoboard), or design and
manufacturing costs (PCBs).

Bread board
Why is it called a Breadboard ?

In the before times, boards used in the kitchen for cutting

bread were used by young circuit designers to build circuits on
with screws or nails driven into the board with wires wrapped
around them to complete circuits. This was an improvement
on ‘deadbug’ or direct solder connections, since the circuit
could be nailed down and secure as well as easily modified if
necessary for debugging or enhancements. The name has
stuck through to today, even though placing circuits on boards
for bread is only done for Instagram posts.
Why do you use a BreadBoard?
As mentioned before, a breadboard is handy because you can
set up circuits quickly and temporarily to test them and move
on to a more permanent arrangement after investigating how
it works on the breadboard. They are great for hobbyists and
tinkerers to set up projects as a standalone device, or as a
peripheral to an Arduino, Raspberry Pi, LaunchPad,
BeagleBone, and many other development boards. They come
in many sizes to fit projects large and small. Breadboards are
also inexpensive, and the parts that work with them are also
typically inexpensive too. If you want to make your project
more permanent, moving from a design on a breadboard to
protoboard or PCB will be easier than skipping to those harder
to manipulate boards.
If you’re just getting started, or are well down the path of
electronic design, you’ll run across breadboards. Getting to
know their strengths of quick and easy circuit creation, and
their weaknesses of impermanence and limitations in terms of
power handling and RLC (resistance, inductance, capacitance)
effects will help you create many fun and useful projects later.

light-emitting diode
What is LED?
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an
electric current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the
electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the
current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the

semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit
coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased. As
shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that
emitted light can come out.

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small
arrows denoting the emission of light.

Simple LED Circuit

The figure below shows a simple LED circuit.

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the
current and voltage.

How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n
while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the
junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.
The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard
diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes,
the energy is released in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon
electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and
electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric
current passed through it. As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the
light increases and reaches a maximum.

Integrated Chip
Definition of Integrated Chip
Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L, diodes
and transistors. They are built on a small single block or chip of a semiconductor
known as an integrated circuit (IC). All of them work together to perform a
particular task. The IC is easily breakable, so to be attached to a circuit board, it
is often housed in a plastic package with metal pins. Integrated circuits can
function as an oscillator, amplifiers, microprocessors or even as computer
memory.
 IC 7432

Construction of an IC
Components used in construction of an IC are not visible from the outside. They
are built into a semiconductor chip and cannot be removed. Capacitors with
values greater than 30 pF are typically not used in ICs, and inductors and
transformers are generally not mounted inside the chip of an IC. Thousands or
even millions of bipolar transistors and Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor (CMOS) FETs are used in the fabrication of an IC.
Integrated Circuit Manufacturing Process

Resistor Colour Code

We know that a resistor is a two-terminal device and is an important component
in building many electronic devices. The resistor is a component that is used to
limit or regulate the flow of electric current. We commonly see resistors printed
with different colours. It usually contains four bands of colours. To know the
value of resistors, one must know how to calculate the resistance colour code.
In this article, let us learn what is resistance colour code, how to read resistor
colour code, and examples to find resistance colour code.
All leaded resistors with a power rating up to one watt are marked with colour
bands. They are given by several bands and together they specify the resistance
value, the tolerance rate and sometimes the reliability or failure rates. The
number of bands present in a resistor varies from three to six. The first two
bands indicate the resistance value and the third band serves as a multiplier.
In this piece of article, let us discuss how to read resistor colour codes, look at
an example and learn a mnemonic to remember the number sequence.
Resistor Colour Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

 Jump wire
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, DuPont wire) is an electrical
wire, or group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or
sometimes without them – simply "tinned"), which is normally used to
interconnect the components of a breadboard or other prototype or test circuit,
internally or with other equipment or components, without
soldering.[1]Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors"
into the slots provided in a breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board,
or a piece of test equipment.

Jumper Wire Colours

Although jumper wires come in a variety of colours, they do not actually mean
anything. The wire colour is just an aid to help you keep track of what is
connected to which.
It will not affect the operation of the circuit. This means that a red jumper wire
is technically the same as the black one.
Even so, the colours can be used to your advantage to differentiate the types of
connections. For instance, red as ground and black as power. Literally, what
works for you
 Jump wire
How to Use Jumper Wires
Jumper wires are great for modifying a circuit or diagnosing problems
in a circuit. The following steps show you how to use these wires in
different applications safely.
Step 1
Your first step is to follow electrical safety precautions. Be cautious,
especially when dealing with high-voltage circuits. But even with low-
voltage circuits, you still need to be attentive.
Step 2
Know the suitable type of connector for the jumper wire. In some
cases, you can use the bare wire ends to connect two circuit points.
This is recommended if you have steady hands.
But to be safe, particularly if it is your first time, use alligator clips. Or
soldering or some other type of connection for the jumper wire.
Step 3
Use the jumper wire to bypass part of the circuit or establish a
connection between two points. This helps determine if a part of the
circuit is faulty or broken.
Step 4
Connect the jumper wire to a voltmeter or ammeter for circuit
property measurements. This allows you to get numbers between or
across two points.
Step 5
Choose the right type of jumper wire if you are making a permanent
modification to a circuit. The gauge and type of insulation are also
essential considerations.
Step 6
Test circuit modifications with a temporary jumper wire before making
a permanent connection. You can do this with solder.
Check the performance of the circuit with the temporary connection.
This is to ensure that it works as you expect.

Battery
What is a Battery?
A battery can be defined as an electrochemical device (consisting
of one or more electrochemical cells) which can be charged with an
electric current and discharged whenever required. Batteries are
usually devices that are made up of multiple electrochemical cells that
are connected to external inputs and outputs. Batteries are widely
employed in order to power small electric devices such as mobile
phones, remotes, and flashlights. Historically, the ‘term’ battery has
always been used in order to refer to the combination of two or more
electrochemical cells. However, the modern definition of the term
‘battery’ is believed to accommodate devices that only feature a single
cell.
Batteries are broadly classified into two categories, namely
primary batteries and secondary batteries. Primary batteries can only
be charged once. When these batteries are completely discharged,
they become useless and must be discarded. The most common
reason why primary batteries cannot be recharged is that the
electrochemical reaction that takes place inside of them is irreversible
in nature. It is important to note that primary batteries are also
referred to as use-and-throw batteries.
On the other hand, secondary batteries are the batteries than
can be charged and reused for many charging-discharging cycles. The
electrochemical reactions that take place inside these batteries are
usually reversible in nature. Therefore, secondary batteries are also
known as rechargeable batteries. When discharging, the reactants
combine to form products, resulting in the flow of electricity. When
charging, the flow of electrons into the battery facilitates the reverse
reaction, in which the products react to form the reactants.
 Battery
Electrical Resistance
When an electric current flows through a bulb or any conductor,
the conductor offers some obstruction to the current and this
obstruction is known as electrical resistance and is denoted by R. Every
material has an electrical resistance and this is the reason why
conductors give out heat when current passes through it. In the next
few sections, let us study electrical resistance in detail.

logic gates

Why logic gates are used?

Logic Gates: In simple words, logic gates are electronic circuits
with a number of inputs and one output. There are three basic logic
gates, namely AND gate, OR gate, and NOT gate.

OR GATE
OR Gate
 In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more inputs
attain state 1.

The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’

B.
The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1