USING GUIDED DISCOVERY APPROACH OF TEACHING TO ASSIST FORM

TWO GENERAL SCIENCE ONE OF ADEISO PRESBY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

TO APPLY THE LAWS OF LOGARITHMS CORRECTLY AND WHEN

PERFORMING OPERATIONS ON LOGARITHMS.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Overview
The primary goal of this study was to determine the effect of a guided discovery instruction

on students’ achievement in logarithmic operations. This chapter is devoted to the

presentation of the guided discovery learning, teaching and learning materials, teaching

logarithm, students’ perception of laws of logarithms and some difficulties student face in

applying the laws of logarithms.

2.1 Guided Discovery Learning

Guided discovery learning is a type of learning where the teacher guides the students to solve

problems, complete tasks, and make meaningful associations.

According to Bruner (1961), discovery learning was a learning model that uses inquiry-based

constructivist learning theory that occurs in problem solving situations where learners learn

through existing knowledge and previous experience to find facts and relationships with new

material being studied (Bruner, 1961; Learning Theories, 2017). Through discovery learning,

the teacher provides opportunities for his students to become problem solvers, scientists,

historians, or mathematicians (Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2014). To

anticipate misconceptions or incomplete or unorganized knowledge, discovery learning is

developed by integrating guidance in learning activities. Furthermore, discovery learning

with the existence of guidance is referred to as a guided discovery learning model. Guided

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discovery learning is still centered on students and the teacher acts as a guide. Guidance

given by the teacher is limited, because if there are too many guidelines for discovery, then

learning will be similar to direct learning, and thus learning loses its benefits (Yang et al.,

2010). Learning that is promoted in guided discovery is to foster learners’ ability in

discovery, exploration, problem solving and independent thinking, and creation and

discovery through creative learning. In guided discovery learning, students can actively and

positively participate in learning and integrate and construct their own knowledge (Shieh &

Yu, 2016). Guided discovery learning is learning with the pattern of the scientific method to

find problem solving by students in groups with steps starting from stimulation, problem

statement/identification, data collection, data processing, verification, to drawing conclusions

(Yerizon et al., 2018). Alfieri et al. (2011) conducted a comparative study between unassisted

discovery learning, direct instruction/explicit learning, and guided discovery learning. The

results of the study stated that the best results were found in students learning with guided

learning. Furthermore, the results of Herdiana et al. (2017) report that guided discovery

learning is effective for improving mathematical problem solving ability.

Recent calls to education reform in mathematics in developed and developing countries,

discuss both changes in the content and pedagogy of mathematics teaching. (Çetin, 2004)

asserts that traditional high school curricula, in many countries gives less emphasis to

mechanical symbol manipulation abilities, in part because this kind of mathematics can be

done by computer, and because of an increasing concern for more flexible problem-solving

skills. New curriculum proposals also reject traditional teacher-centered learning and favor

student-centered learning. In particular, there is a growing school of thought that students

should learn through inquiry and through the construction of their own mathematics. The

term inquiry learning is used interchangeably with discovery learning by some educators.

(Çetin, 2004) identified one distinction often made between the two: “In discovery learning,

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the students are provided with data. By questioning of the teacher, they are expected to

ascertain the particular principle hidden in the lesson objective.” In inquiry learning, the goal

is to make students to develop their own strategies to manipulate and process information.

Discovery learning encompasses the scientific model which matches cognitive development.

(Bruner, 1961) cited in McGrath & MacEwan (2004) defined discovery as "all forms of

obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind''. In essence, this is a matter of

"rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one is enabled to go beyond the

evidence so assembled to additional new insights" (Bruner,1961). Bruner cited in (Çetin,

2004) believed that the process of discovery contributes significantly to intellectual

development and that the heuristics of discovery can only be learned through the exercise of

problem solving. That being so, he proposed discovery learning as a pedagogic strategy with

such important human implications that it must be tested in schools.

The activity in this study was designed taking into account this belief.

(Çetin, 2004) ascertain that an inductive approach requires intuitive thinking on the part of

students. Bruner suggests that teachers can nurture this intuitive thinking by encouraging

students to make guesses based on incomplete evidence and then to confirm or disprove the

guesses systematically. The students could check their guesses through systematic research.

Tomei (2003) stated that Bruner's ideas for discovery learning can be implemented in the

classroom as follows:

• Present both examples and non-examples of the concepts you are teaching.

• Help students see connections among concepts.

• Use diagrams, outlines, and summaries to point out conclusions.

• Pose a question and let students try to find the answer.

• Encourage students to make intuitive guesses by administering following suggestions:

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a. Instead of giving a word's definition, say, "Let's guess what it might mean by looking at the

words around it."

b. Don't comment after the first few guesses. Wait for several ideas before giving the answer.

c. Use guiding questions to focus students when their discovery has led them too far astray.

In particular, he emphasized that discovery is not haphazard; it proceeds systematically

toward a model which is there all the time. "The constant provision of a model, the constant

response to the individual's response after response, back and forth between two people,

constitute Invention' learning guided by an accessible model" (Bruner, 1973b, p. 70).

Bruner (1973) also adds reflection and contrast. The need for reflection occurs when children

can accomplish some task but are not able to represent to themselves what they did. In other

words, they may successfully solve a problem but have little clue as to why they were

successful. Reflecting back on the problem and recasting what occurred in a mode of thought

understood by learners may help them to figure it out, to make the knowledge their own.

Contrasts which lead to cognitive conflicts can set the stage for discovery. That is, "readiness

to explore contrasts provides a choice among the alternatives that might be relevant" in a

discovery learning situation (Bruner, 1973).

Bruner's recommendation for contrasts that cause cognitive conflict parallels that made by

Piaget and the information processing theorists who have focused on restructuring as the

major developmental process. Although they have all offered different explanations for why

the strategy works, the important point is that it does and can be reliably used in instruction

(Çetin, 2004).

Schulman (1965) stated some goals of discovery learning as following:

•To give students experience in discovering patterns in abstract situations.

• Students to know that mathematics really and truly is discoverable.

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• Each student, as a part of the task of knowing himself, to get a realistic assessment of his

own personal ability in discovering mathematics.

• Students to have a feeling that mathematics is fun or exiting. Or

• Student should be rather adept at connecting the many areas of mathematics to one another.

For instance, they should be able to use algebra as a tool in geometry and understand its

structure.

• Student should be able to connect mathematics to applications in physics and other fields

with ease.

Finally, Bruner (1973) cited in (Çetin, 2004) spoke to the instructional issues of

reinforcement and motivation. Although feedback which can be used for correction is

obviously important, Bruner contended that it must be provided in a mode that is both

meaningful and within the information processing capacity of the learner. Extrinsic

reinforcement, on the other hand can develop in which children look for cues to the right

answer or right way of doing things. Exposing children to discovery learning can therefore

promote a sense of self-reward in which students become motivated to learn because of the

intrinsic pleasure of discovery.

2.2 Teaching and learning materials

Teaching and Learning Materials (TLMs) are essential tools for effective teaching and

learning. TLMs can be defined as any resource used by teachers to support student learning,

including textbooks, workbooks, digital resources, and manipulatives (Koehler & Mishra,

2009).

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Effective TLMs should be aligned with learning objectives, engaging, and accessible to all

students (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). TLMs can also be used to promote critical thinking, problem-

solving, and collaboration (Jonassen & Land, 2012).

In mathematics education, TLMs can include manipulatives such as blocks, geometry

software, and calculators (NCTM, 2014). In language arts, TLMs can include leveled readers,

writing workshops, and digital resources (IRA, 2012).

2.3 Teaching Logarithm

Hammack and Lyons (1995) reported that many students had difficulties mastering the

logarithm concept, more so than with other functions. In a similar way, Soptick (1984)

mentioned that many students said that “I hate logarithms” or “I just cannot understand

logarithms”. Therefore, some useful methods and activities developed and administered by

researchers to teach logarithms.

First of them, “Teaching Logarithm via Their History” is written by Thoumasis (1993). In

recent years, the importance of the history of mathematics in relation to the teaching of

mathematics has been widely recognized and promoted (Jones, 1975; Grantan, 1978). Many

excellent works can also be used as sources to introduce historical material in the teaching of

high school mathematics (Walter, 1975). This article presents a specific example of the use of

historical materials in developing the concept of logarithm. In this study, the students were

presented with the following progression.

Arithmetic Progression (A.P): 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Geometric Progression (G.P): 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256

Each term of the arithmetic progression is the number which expresses the order of the

respective term in the geometric one. After this observation, the students were asked to

multiply and divide any two terms of the geometric progression. For instance;

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3+4=7 5-2=3

8×16 = 128 32 ÷ 4 = 8

After this observation, the students were asked to multiply and divide any two terms of the

geometric progression. He pointed out the sum of two numbers in the first exponent row is

the exponent of the power of 2 that represents the product of the corresponding numbers in

the second row. In addition, subtraction of numbers in row one corresponds to division of

numbers in row two. After solving examples like above, students discovered multiplication

and division rules of logarithm by observing relationship between two rows.

In addition, the students were presented with the two logarithmic systems based on the two

progressions with ratio 2 and 3 respectively.

log 2 1=0 log 2 2=1 log 2 4=2 log 2 8=3 ...

After some other examples of this kind, they discovered log b b n=¿ n

The advantages of historical approach to teaching logarithms were mentioned in the article as

following;

1. Connects directly the new topic with the previous one of progression.

2. Helps them to realize the initial utility of logarithms in numerical computation.

3. Shows students the practical need of genesis of logarithm.

Thoumasis (1993) defended that teaching should be concerned with helping students make

connections between ideas and discover their logical interrelations. Also, teaching a concept

should be exploring answers to questions such as: “Where did it come from? Who, why and

how did someone did come up with that?” According to Thoumasis (1993) to achieve the

main goals of mathematics education, learning materials incorporating the history of

mathematics designed as guided activities seem to be a very suitable means. A similar study

was carried out by Hammack and Lyons (1995). In this study, researchers used the

conceptual way to help students to understand the function y=log a x was to view it as the

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inverse of x=a y . Their approach was based on a simple change of notation. They replaced

log by a box and began with examples rather than definitions. Next, the questions such as

2=8? “What number goes in the box so that 2 raised to that power is 8?”

They used this approach in classes and found great improvement in the students’

comprehension of logarithms.

This simple approach of change of notation is typically what was considered in this study.

Similarly, Soptick (1984) used the arrow method to teach logarithm concept. An example:

Change the following equations to exponential form.

log 3 243

Solution:
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log 3 243=5⇒ 3 =243

Power functions and exponential functions often describe the relationship between variables

in natural phenomena. By using this relationship, Rahn and Berndes (1994) prepared some

activities that have helped students make generalizations about physical phenomena and

reported them in the article called “Using Logarithms to Explore Power and Exponential

Functions”. Furthermore, they studied on some methods that have helped students determine

an approximate function represented by data. They aimed with the study to develop students’

graphing sense, their understanding of logarithms and their knowledge of two important

functions that are used to represent many physical phenomena. As known, if a nonlinear

function is an exponential function ( y=k b x ) or power function ( y=¿a x n ), then logarithm

can be used to determine the constants a, b, k, n. In the study, data was given to students to

graph (x, y) and (log x ,log y ) and they saw the logarithmic graph was linear. Then, the

predicted actual function generating data was made by the students as follows:
n
y=a x
n
log y=log a x

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log y=log a+n log x

Making substitutions of Y =log y and X =log x yields Y =nX +log a

This result is an equation of a straight line with a slope of n and y intercept of log a . Next,

students calculated the slope, y- intercept and predicted the function.

In recent years, a current focus in mathematics education has been graphical approach by

using computer and graphic calculator in the exploration of mathematics. So, many

researches and studies have been made. One of them was made by Mayes (1994). In his

article titled Discovering Relationships: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions, he reported

that the graphs of logarithmic and exponential functions can be used to determined important

properties of these functions. Therefore, some activities were prepared in which graphical

analysis approach was used to discover relationships between logarithmic and exponential

functions. In these activities, the software tool “Derive” was used to investigate graphs of

these functions. In application of activities some questions were directed to students to help

them discover the properties of logarithm. In the second activity, the equation ( b x =log b x )

which cannot be solved using basic algebraic techniques, was solved by using graphical

analysis. Thus, activity was focused on analyzing graphical data and problem solving.

Another of these computerize approach was propounded by Weber (2002) where she argues

that students will achieve understanding of exponential and logarithmic functions when they

are able to view exponentiation and logarithm as a process. Students with a process

understanding of exponentiation, she ascertain, can view exponentiation as a function and

reason about properties of this function (e.g. b x will be the number that is the product of x

factors of b and log b x as answering the question, "x is the product of how many factors of

b?"). Research indicates that students are not capable of viewing it in this way (e.g. Sfard,

1991). An effective tool for leading students to interiorize an action as a process is to have

them write a computer program that performs that action (Tall and Dubinsky, 1991).

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Therefore, Weber first activity involves having students program a graphing calculator to

perform exponentiation (when the power is a positive integer). Writing a program that

performs this computation will require the students to reason about the role of the variable x.

Her second activity involves having students answer basic questions which require students

to view exponentiation as a process. (e.g. Why is (−1)x negative when x is odd? Why is 2 x+1

twice as much as 2 x?)

2.4 Students’ Perception of Laws of Logarithms

Students' perceptions of the laws of logarithms can vary depending on their level of

understanding and experience. Research suggests that many students find logarithms

challenging to comprehend, especially when it comes to applying the laws of logarithms.

Studies have shown that students often struggle with:

 Understanding the concept of logarithms as inverse operations of exponentiation

(Vinner, 1997)

 Applying the laws of logarithms, such as the product rule and quotient rule

(Macdonald, 2001)

 Recognizing the connection between logarithms and exponential functions (Leinhardt,

2001)

For example, a study published in the Journal of Mathematical Behavior found that many

students incorrectly apply the product rule of logarithms, leading to common errors such as:

log(a × b) = log(a) + log(b), instead of log(a × b) = log a + log b

This suggests that students may need additional support and practice to solidify their

understanding of the laws of logarithms.

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2.5 Some Difficulties Student Face in Applying the Laws of Logarithms

There are a lot of factors underlining the reasons why students find it difficult to apply and

solve problems involving the application of the laws of logarithms. Students face various

difficulties when applying the laws of logarithms, including:

 Lack of understanding of the concept of logarithms. Students may struggle to

comprehend the inverse relationship between logarithms and indices (Vinner, 1997).

A study found that 60% of students failed to correctly explain the meaning of

logarithms (Macdonald, 2001).

 Difficulty in applying the product rule. Students often incorrectly apply the product

rule, leading to errors such as log(a × b) = log(a) + log(b), instead of log(a × b) = log a

+ log b (Macdonald, 2001). Research showed that 40% of students made this error

when applying the product rule (Macdonald, 2001).

 Confusion between the product and quotient rules. Students may struggle to

distinguish between the product and quotient rules, leading to incorrect applications

(Leinhardt, 2001). A study found that 30% of students incorrectly applied the quotient

rule when solving logarithmic equations (Leinhardt, 2001).

 Difficulty in simplifying logarithmic expressions: Students may struggle to simplify

expressions involving logarithms, leading to errors such as failing to combine like

terms (Knuth, 2001). Research showed that 25% of students failed to simplify

logarithmic expressions correctly (Knuth, 2001).

 Lack of practice and fluency: Students may not have sufficient opportunities to

practice applying the laws of logarithms, leading to a lack of fluency and confidence

(Kilpatrick, 2001). A study found that students who received additional practice and

feedback showed significant improvement in their ability to apply the laws of

logarithms (Kilpatrick, 2001).

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functions", Mathematics Teacher 87, 161-170.

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