Levelling

Introduction

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by

which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It
is a vital operation in producing necessary data for mapping,
engineering design, and construction.
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Leveling results are used to:

(1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;

(2) lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;

(3) calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;

Levelling

(4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;

(5) develop maps showing general ground configurations; and

(6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

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Basic Definitions
1- Vertical line
A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

2- Level surface
A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the
direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in
shape. A body of still water is the closest example of a level surface.

3- Level line
A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.
Levelling
4- Horizontal plane
A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a
plane to the local vertical line.

5- Horizontal line
A line in a horizontal plane (perpendicular to local vertical line).

6- Vertical datum
Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that is
arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a
reference datum since points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.
Levelling
7- Elevation
The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or
object. If the elevation of point A is 802.46 ft, A is 802.46 ft above the reference
datum. The elevation of a point is also called its height above the datum.

8- Geoid
A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.
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9- Mean sea level (MSL)
The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide over a 19-year
period as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. It was derived
from readings, usually taken at hourly intervals, at 26 gaging stations along the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the Gulf of Mexico.

10- Benchmark (BM)

A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point whose
elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed. Common
examples are metal disks set in concrete reference marks chiseled on large rocks,
non-movable parts of fire hydrants, curbs, etc.
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11- Leveling
The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.

12- Vertical control

A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established throughout
an area, also termed basic control or level control.
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Levelling
Curvature and Refraction

1- Curvature Deviation From the definitions of a level surface and a horizontal line,
it is evident that the horizontal plane departs from a level surface because of
curvature of the Earth. It can be understood from the following figure:
Levelling
Curvature Deviation (Cont.)

The deviation DB from a horizontal line through point A is expressed approximately

by the formulas:
Cf = 0.667M2 = 0.0239F2 or Cm = 0.0785K2

Where,
The departure of a level surface from a horizontal line = Cf in feet or Cm in meters,
M = the distance AB in miles
F = the distance in thousands of feet
K = the distance in kilometers.
Levelling
Refraction Deviation
Light rays passing through the Earth’s atmosphere are bent or refracted
toward the Earth’s surface. Thus, a theoretically horizontal line of sight, like
AH, is bent to the curved form AR. Hence, the reading on a rod held at R is
diminished by length RH.

Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on

atmospheric conditions, length of line, and the angle a sight line makes with
the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction Rf in feet or Rm in meters is
expressed approximately by the formulas:

Rf = 0.093 M2 = 0.0033 F2 or Rm = 0.011K2

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Combined effect of curvature and refraction deviation

The combined effect of curvature and refraction, h is approximately

hf = 0.574 M2 = 0.0206 F2 or hm = 0.0675 K2

Levelling
Methods For Determining Differences In Elevation

Following are the methods for determining differences in elevation:

1- Measuring vertical distance by taping or electronic methods

2- Differential levelling
3- Barometric levelling
4- Trigonometric levelling
Levelling Instruments
1- Levelling Staff
Levelling Instruments
2- Automatic Levels
Levelling
Common Terminologies
Station: A station is the point where the levelling staff is held.

Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level, the
elevation of the line of sight is the height of instrument.

Back sight (B.S.) or Plus Sight: It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting
up the level usually to determine the height of instrument. It is usually made to
some form of a bench mark (B.M.) or to the points whose elevations have already
been determined.
Levelling
Common Terminologies (Cont.)
Fore sight (F.S.) or Minus Sight: It is the last reading from an instrument position on
to a staff held at a point. It is thus the last reading taken within a section of levels
before shifting the instrument to the next section, and the last reading taken over
the whole series of levels.

Change point (C.P.) or Turning point: A change point or turning point is the point
where both the fore sight and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A
change point is required before moving the level from one section to another
section. By taking the fore sight the elevation of the change point is determined
and by taking the back sight the height of instrument is determined. The change
points relate the various sections by making fore sight and back sight at the same
point.
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Common Terminologies (Cont.)
Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term ‘intermediate sight’ covers all sightings and
consequent staff readings made between back sight and fore sight within each
section. Thus, intermediate sight station is neither the change point nor the last
point.

Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations where back sight and fore
sight are taken from the instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is
known as balancing of sights. Balancing of sights minimizes the effect of
instrumental and other errors.
Levelling
Common Terminologies (Cont.)
Reduced level (R.L.): Reduced level of a point is its height or depth above or below
the assumed datum. It is the elevation of the point.

Rise and fall: The difference of level between two consecutive points indicates a
rise or a fall between the two points.

Section: A section comprises of one back sight, one fore sight and all the
intermediate sights taken from one instrument set up within that section. Thus, the
number of sections is equal to the number of set ups of the instrument.
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Differential Levelling
It is the most accurate simple direct method of determining the difference of level
between two points using an instrument known as level with a levelling staff.
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Profile Levelling
Profile leveling consists simply of differential leveling with the addition of
intermediate minus sights (foresights) taken at required points along the reference
line.
 Systems for finding the reduce level(s)

For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two systems, namely:

1- the height of instrument or height of collimation method and

2- the rise and fall method

1- Height of instrument method
 1- Height of instrument method
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. REMARKS

A S1 H.I.A = hA + S1 hA B.M. hA

Section -I
a S2 ha = H.I.A – S2

b S3 hb = H.I.A -S3

B S5 S4 H.I.B = hB + S5 hB = H.I.A -S4 C.P.

Section-II
c S6 hc = H.I.B – S6

C S7 hC = H.I.B -S7

Σ B.S. Σ F.S.
Check: Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
2- Rise and fall method
 2- Rise and fall method
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS

A S1 hA B.M. hA
R1 = S1 – S2

Section -I
a S2 ha = hA + R1

b S3 F1 = S2 – S3 hb = ha – F1

B S5 S4 F2 = S3 – S4 hB = hb – F2 C.P.

c S6 F3 = S5 – S6 hc = hB – F3

Section-II
C S7 R2 = S6 – S7 hC = hc + R2

Σ B.S. Σ F.S. Σ RISE Σ FALL

Check: Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ RISE - Σ FALL = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Checks:

(a) For the height of instrument method

(i) Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L
(ii) Σ [H.I. x (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L

(b) For the rise and fall method

Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L
Example-5.1

The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a
level book page and reduce the levels by the height of instrument
method.

0.578 B.M (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P.,
1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
Solution
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. REMARKS

1 0.578 58.828 58.250 B.M. = 58.250m

2 0.933 57.895
3 1.768 57.060
4 2.450 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 57.390 56.823 C.P.
6 1.888 55.502
7 1.181 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 54.323 53.711 C.P.
9 0.705 53.618
10 1.810 52.513
Σ 1.757 8.925 7.494 557.956
Check: 1.757 – 7.494 = 52.513 - 58.250 = - 5.737 (O.K.)
Example-5.2
Reduce the levels of the stations from the readings given in the
Example-1 by the rise and fall method.

Solution
From example-1, we have

0.578 B.M (= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P.,
1.888, 1.181, (3.679 and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS

1 0.578 58.250 B.M. = 58.250m

2 0.933 0.355 57.895
3 1.768 0.835 57.060
4 2.450 0.682 56.378
5 0.567 2.005 0.445 56.823 C.P.
6 1.888 1.321 55.502
7 1.181 0.707 56.209
8 0.612 3.679 2.498 53.711 C.P.

9 0.705 0.093 53.618

10 1.810 1.105 52.513
Σ 1.757 7.494 1.152 6.889
Check: 1.757 – 7.494 = 1.152 – 6.889 = 52.513 - 58.250 = - 5.737 (O.K.)
Example-5.3
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level on continuously sloping
ground at a common interval of 20 m. The last station has an elevation of 155.272
m. Rule out a page of level book and enter the readings. Calculate:

1- the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method, and
2- the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.

0.420, 1.115, 2.265, 2.900, 3.615, 0.535, 1.470, 2.815, 3.505, 4.445, 0.605, 1.925,
2.885
Solution
Since the readings have been taken along a line on a continuously sloping ground,
any sudden large change in the reading such as in the sixth reading compared to
the fifth reading and in the eleventh reading compared to the tenth reading,
indicates the change in the instrument position. Therefore, the sixth and eleventh
readings are the back sights and fifth and tenth readings are the fore sights. The
first and the last readings are the back sight and fore sight, respectively, and all
remaining readings are intermediate sights.

The last point being of known elevation, the computation of the levels is to be done
from last point to the first point. The falls are added to and the rises are subtracted
from the known elevations.
1- Calculation of RL
STATION CHAINAGE B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS
1 0 0.420 164.657
2 20 1.115 0.695 163.962
3 40 2.265 1.150 162.812
4 60 2.900 0.635 162.177
5 80 0.535 3.615 0.715 161.462 C.P.
6 100 1.470 0.935 160.527
7 120 2.815 1.345 159.182
8 140 3.505 0.690 158.492
9 160 0.605 4.445 0.940 157.552 C.P.
10 180 1.925 1.320 156.232
11 200 2.885 0.960 155.272 Elevation =
155.272m
Σ 1.560 10.945 0.000 9.385
Check: 1.560 – 10.945 = 0.000 – 9.385 = 155.272 – 164.657 = - 9.385 (O.K.)
2- Calculation of gradient:

The gradient of the line 1-11 is

155.272 − 164.657
Gradient =
200

9.285
Gradient = −
200

Gradient = 1 in 21.3 (falling)

Example-6.1
Given the following data in Table, determine the R.L.s of the points 1 to 6. If a
uniform upward gradient of 1 in 20 starts at point 1, having elevation of 150 m,
calculate the height of embankment and depth of cutting at all the points from 1 to
6.
STATION CHAINAGE (m) B.S. I.S. F.S. REMARKS

B.M. − 10.11 153.46 m

1 0 3.25
2 100 1.10
3 200 6.89 0.35 C.P.
4 300 3.14
5 400 11.87 3.65 C.P.
6 500 5.98
Solution
1- RL of the points
H.I.B.M = R.L.B.M. + B.S.B.M. = 153.46 + 10.11 = 163.57 m
h1 = H.I.B.M – I.S.1 = 163.57 – 3.25 = 160.32 m
h2 = H.I.B.M – I.S.2 = 163.57 – 1.10 = 162.47 m
h3 = H.I.B.M – F.S.3 = 163.57 – 0.35 = 163.22 m
H.I.3 = h3 + B.S.3 = 163.22 + 6.89 = 170.11 m
h4 = H.I.3 – I.S.4 = 170.11 – 3.14 = 166.97 m
h5 = H.I.3 – F.S.5 = 170.11 – 3.65 = 166.46 m
H.I.5 = h5 + B.S.5 = 166.46 + 11.87 = 178.33 m
h6 = H.I.5 – F.S.6 = 178.33 – 5.98 = 172.35 m
2- Levels of the points from gradient

Since the gradient is 1 in 20, for every 100 m the rise is 5 m.

Level of point 1, h′1 = 150 m (given)

Level of point 2, h′2 = 150 + 5 = 155 m
Level of point 3, h′3 = 155 + 5 = 160 m
Level of point 4, h′4 = 160 + 5 = 165 m
Level of point 5, h′5 = 165 + 5 = 170 m
Level of point 6, h′6 = 170 + 5 = 175 m
3- Height of embankment and depth of cutting

At point 1 h1 – h′1 = 160.32 – 150.00 = + 10.32 m (embankment)

At point 2 h2 – h′2 = 162.47 – 155.00 = + 7.47 m (embankment)

At point 3 h3 – h′3 = 163.22 – 160.00 = + 3.22 m (embankment)

At point 4 h4 – h′4 = 166.97 – 165.00 = + 1.97 m (embankment)

At point 5 h5 – h′5 = 166.46 – 170.00 = – 3.54 m (cutting)

At point 6 h6 – h′6 = 172.35 – 175.00 = – 2.65 m (cutting)

The computed values of the height of embankment and depth of cutting are tabulated below:

STATION CHAINAGE B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. GRADIENT EMBANKMENT/CUTTING

(m) LEVEL
HEIGHT (m) DEPTH (m)

B.M. -- 10.11 163.57 153.46 --

1 0 3.25 160.32 150 10.32

2 100 1.10 162.47 155 7.47

3 200 6.89 0.35 170.11 163.22 160 3.22

4 300 3.14 166.97 165 1.97

5 400 11.87 3.65 178.33 166.46 170 3.54

6 500 5.98 172.35 175 2.65

Practice Problem-01
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. REMARKS
1 0.578 B.M. = 58.250m
2 0.933
3 1.768
4 2.450
5 2.005
6 1.888
7 1.181
8 3.679
9 0.705
10 1.810
Σ
Check:
Practice Problem-02
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. REMARKS

1 0.578 B.M. = 58.250m

2 0.933
3 1.768
4 2.450
5 0.567 2.005 C.P.
6 1.888
7 1.181
8 0.612 3.679 C.P.
9 0.705
10 1.810
Σ
Check:
Practice Problem-03
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. REMARKS

1 0.578
2 0.933
3 1.768
4 2.450
5 0.567 2.005 C.P.
6 1.888
7 1.181
8 0.612 3.679 C.P.
9 0.705
10 1.810 B.M = 52.513m
Σ
Check:
Practice Problem-04
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. REMARKS

1 0.578
2 0.933
3 1.768
4 2.450
5 0.567 2.005 C.P.
6 1.888
7 1.181 B.M = 56.209m
8 0.612 3.679 C.P.
9 0.705
10 1.810
Σ
Check:
Coming back to practice problem-01
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. REMARKS
1 0.578 B.M. = 58.250m
2 0.933
3 1.768
4 2.450
5 2.005
6 1.888
7 1.181
8 3.679
9 0.705
10 1.810
Σ
Check:
Practice Problem-01
Find the reduce levels for the following data:
STATION CHAINAGE B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS

1 0 0.578 58.250 B.M. = 58.250m

2 40 0.933 0.355 57.895

3 80 1.768 0.835 57.060
4 120 2.450 0.682 56.378
5 160 0.567 2.005 0.445 56.823 C.P.

6 200 1.888 1.321 55.502

7 240 1.181 0.707 56.209
8 280 0.612 3.679 2.498 53.711 C.P.

9 320 0.705 0.093 53.618

10 360 1.810 1.105 52.513
Σ 1.757 7.494 1.152 6.889
Check: 1.757 – 7.494 = 1.152 – 6.889 = 52.513 - 58.250 = - 5.737 (O.K.)
Profile of the area

Profile of Practice Problem-01

59
58.25
58 57.895

57 57.06
56.823
Reduce Levels

56.378 56.209
56
55.502
55

54
53.711 53.618
53
52.513
52
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Chainages
What do you think?

A B
RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
 RECIPROCAL LEVELLING

Sometimes in leveling across topographic features such as rivers, lakes, and

canyons, it is difficult or impossible to keep plus and minus sights short and equal.
Reciprocal leveling may be utilized at such locations.

As shown above, a level is set up on one side of a river at X, near A, and rod
readings are taken on points A and B. Since XB is very long, several readings are
taken for averaging. Reading, turning the leveling screws to throw the instrument
out of level, releveling, and reading again, does this.

The process is repeated two, three, four, or more times. Then the instrument is
moved close to Y and the same procedure followed.
 RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
Procedure
If the two points between which the difference of level is required to be
determined are A and B then in reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings (a1
and b1) is taken by placing the staff on A and B, and instrument close to A. The
second set of readings (a2 and b2) is taken again on A and B by placing the
instrument close to B. The difference of level between A and B is given by

𝑎1 − 𝑏1 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
∆ℎ =
2
and the combined error is given by

𝑏1 − 𝑎1 − (𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑒=
2
Where, 𝑒 = 𝑒1 + 𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟
𝑒1 = the collimation error assumed positive for the line of sight inclined upward,
𝑒𝑐 = the error due to the earth’s curvature, and
𝑒𝑟 = the error due to the atmospheric refraction.
We have,
𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟 = the combined curvature and refraction error
𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟 = 0.067𝑑2
The collimation error is thus given by
𝑒1 = 𝑒 − 0.067𝑑2 in meter
Where d is the distance between A and B in kilometers.
Example-10.1
Reciprocal levelling was conducted across a wide river to determine the difference in level
of points A and B, A situated on one bank of the river and B situated on the other. The
following results on the staff held vertically at A and B from level stations 1 and 2,
respectively, were obtained. The level station 1 was near to A and station 2 was near to B.
INSTRUMENT STAFF READING ON
AT A B
1 1.485 1.725

2 1.190 1.415

(a) If the reduced level of B is 55.18 m above the datum, what is the reduced level of A?
(b) Assuming that the atmospheric conditions remain unchanged during the two sets of the
observations, calculate (i) the combined curvature and refraction correction if the distance
AB is 315 m, and (ii) the collimation error.
Solution
1- Difference in Elevation
To eliminate the errors due to collimation, curvature of the earth and atmospheric
refraction over long sights, the reciprocal levelling is performed. From the given
data, we have
a1 = 1.485 m, a2 = 1.190 m
b1 = 1.725 m, b2 = 1.415 m
The difference in level between A and B is given by

𝑎1 − 𝑏1 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
∆ℎ =
2

1.485 − 1.725 + (1.190 − 1.415)

∆ℎ = = −0.2325
2
 2- Calculation of RL in Reciprocal Levelling

R.L. of B = R.L. of A + Δh

R.L. of A = R.L. of B – Δh

R.L. of A = 55.18 – (−0.2325) = 55.4125 m

 3- Error Calculation

The combined error is

𝑏1 − 𝑎1 − (𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑒=
2

1.725 − 1.485 − (1.415 − 1.190)

𝑒= = 0.0075 𝑚
2
And
𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟 = 0.067d2 = 0.067 x 0.3152 = 0.006648 m

Therefor collimation error is

𝑒1 = 𝑒 − 0.067𝑑2 = 0.0075 − 0.007 = 0.000852 𝑚

 3- Error Calculation

The combined error is

𝑏1 − 𝑎1 − (𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑒=
2

1.725 − 1.485 − (1.415 − 1.190)

𝑒= = 0.0075 𝑚
2
And
𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟 = 0.067d2 = 0.067 x 0.3152 = 0.006648 m

Therefor collimation error is

𝑒1 = 𝑒 − 0.067𝑑2 = 0.0075 − 0.007 = 0.000852 𝑚

 What do you think?

 elev.

Horizontal distance = H
 TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING

Where to use?
Trigonometric leveling is used for topographic mapping, construction stakeout,
control surveys, and other tasks. It is particularly valuable in rugged terrain. In
trigonometric leveling, accurate zenith (or altitude) angle observations are critical.

Which Instrument is used?

With the advent of total station instruments, trigonometric leveling has become an
increasingly common method for rapid and convenient observation of elevation
differences because slope distances and vertical angles are quickly and easily
observed from a single setup.
Formulation

𝑉 = 𝑆 cos(𝑧) −− −(1)
𝑉 = 𝑆 sin(𝛼) −− −(2)
𝑉 = 𝐻 cot 𝑧 −− −(3)
𝑉 = 𝐻 tan(𝛼) −− −(4)
Difference in elevation between A and B
∆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣 = ℎ𝑖 + 𝑉 − 𝑟 −− −(5)