PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
ALGORITHMS AND PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
Introduction to Program Development and
Problem Solution
Computers do what we tell them to do NOT what we want them
to do
Computer Programming involves writing instructions and
giving them to the computer to complete a task.
A computer program or software is:
a set of instructions written in a computer language in order
to
be executed by a computer to perform a useful task
Ex: Application software packages, such as word processors,
spreadsheets and databases are all computer programs
A Computer Programmer is
is a person who translates the task you want a computer to do
into a form that a computer can understand
A well designed computer program must be:
correct and accurate
easy to understand
easy to maintain and update
efficient
reliable
flexible
The program development process involves the following
steps:
document the program
program documentation is the text or graphics that provide
description of
the purpose of a function or a particular step
the purpose of instruction in a program
determine the user needs
design the program specifications
review the program specifications
design the algorithm
steps that will convert the available input into the desired output
step by step solution for a given problem is called the algorithm
a flowchart graphically details processing steps of a particular
program
code the program
write the program in a programming language using a program
editor
a program editor is a program that allows to type, edit and save a
program code on a disk
compile, test and debug the program
in order to find out possible errors in the program
types of errors may be syntax errors, run-time errors and logic
errors
get program to the user
install software on the users computer and offer training
Types of programming errors
Syntax of a programming language is the set of rules to be
followed when writing a program
syntax error occurs when these rules are violated
run-time errors occur when invalid data is entered during
program execution
e.g. program expects numeric data and alphabetic data is
entered
program will crash
logic error will not stop the program but results will be
inaccurate
The process of finding and correcting errors in a program is
called debugging
For successful programming
give no ambiguity in program instructions
give no possibility of alternative interpretations
make sure there is only one course of action
Programming task can be made easier
by breaking large and complex programs
into smaller and less complex subprograms (modules)
Programming task can be separated into 2 phases (see Fig. 1)
problem solving phase
produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe solution of
problem
this sequence of steps is called an algorithm
Example of an Algorithm: a recipe, to assemble a brand new
computer ...
what else?
implementation phase
implement the program in some programming language (Pascal,
Basic, C)
Figure 1: Problem Solving and Programming
What is structured programming
a programming technique that splits the program into smaller
segments (modules) to
decrease program development time
decrease program maintenance cost
improve the quality of software
structured programming achieves these goals by using
top-down design and use of modules
use of limited control structures (sequence, selection and
repetition)
management control
Top-down design starts with major functions involved in a
problem
and divide them into sub-functions
until the problem has been divided as much as possible
Categories of programming languages are
machine
assembly } low-level languages
high-level
fourth-generation
fifth-generation
Machine language is
made up of binary 1s and 0s
this is the only programming language the computers can
understand
advantages of machine languages are:
fast execution speed and efficient use of main memory
disadvantages of machine languages are
writing machine language is tedious, difficult and time consuming
Types of language-translator programs
assemblers
translates the program in assembly-language into machine-
language
compilers
translates high-level language program into machine-language
all at once
interpreters
translates high-level language into machine-language a line
at a time
Major high-level languages are
FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/I, BASIC, PASCAL, C, LISP, Prolog,
Logo
FORTRAN
FORmula TRANslator introduced in 1957
for use by scientists, engineers and mathematicians
well suited for complex numeric calculations
COBOL
COmmon Business Oriented Language
a programming language used for business data processing
designed to handle large data files
PL/I
Programming Language One created in 1960
general purpose language for powerful computations and
sophisticated data structures
today largely used in the oil industry
BASIC
Beginners Allpurpose Symbolic Instruction Code created in
1960
easy to learn interactive language on a time-sharing computer
PASCAL
Named after Blaise Pascal and created in 1960
suited to both scientific and file processing applications
designed to teach structured programming and top-down
design
C
Developed at Bell Labs in 1970s
used advantages of both high-level and low-level languages
C gives programmers extensive control over computer
hardware
incorporates sophisticated control and data structures
C++ is the object oriented version of C
LISP
is a language that processes symbol sequences (lists) rather
than numbers
designed to handle data strings more efficiently than others
Prolog
is a language for symbol processing
Logo
is an interactive education oriented language
designed to teach inexperienced users logic and programming
techniques
includes list processing capabilities
employs a triangular object called turtle
to draw, animate and color images very simply
Object-Oriented Programming Languages (OOPL)
there are two main parts of a program, instructions and data
traditional prog. languages treat instructions and data as
separate entities
an OOPL treats a program as a series of objects and
messages
an object is a combination of data and instructions that work
on data
and is stored together as a reusable unit
messages are instructions sent between objects
to qualify as an OOPL a language must incorporate concepts of
1. encapsulation
2. inheritance
3. polymorphism
encapsulation is
combining data and instructions into a reusable structures
encapsulation generates prefabricated components of a program
inheritance
is the ability of a programming language to define a new object
that has all the attributes of an existing object
programmer inherits the existing object
writes the code that describes how the new object differs from the
existing one
polymorphism is
the ability of an object to respond to a message in many ways
for example, say you have a circle object and a square object
each object has the same characteristics of drawing
when a drawing message is sent to a circle object it draws a circle
when a drawing message is sent to a square object it draws a
square
thus, each object has the same characteristics of drawing
but the characteristics is implemented differently
Advantages of OOPL
code re-use rather than reinvention and adaptable code
these speed development & maintenance of applications and
reduce cost
Smaltalk, Objective-C and C++ are examples of OOPL
ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS
A typical programming task can be divided into 2 phases:
Problem solving phase
produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe solution of
problem
this sequence of steps is called an algorithm
Examples of Algorithm: a recipe, to assemble a brand new computer
...
what else?
Implementation phase
implement the program in some programming language
Steps in Problem solving
First produce a general algorithm (You can use pseudocode)
Refine the algorithm successively to get step by step detailed
algorithm that is very close to a computer language.
Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps
programmers develop algorithms. Pseudocode is very similar to
everyday English.
Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine the students final
grade and indicate weather it is passing or failing. The final grade
is calculated as the average of four marks.
Solution:
Pseudocode: Input a set of 4 marks
Calculate their average by summing and dividing by
4
if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Detailed Algorithm: Step 1: Input M1, M2,M3,M4
Step 2: GRADE = (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE <50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
The Flowchart
Easier to convey ideas by picture than by words
Examples:
It is easier to show how to go somewhere on a map than
explaining
It is easier to construct a toy if diagrams are shown
It is easier to construct a new PC if diagrams are provided
Hence use pictorial format for describing an algorithm
this is called a FLOWCHART
A Flowchart
shows logic of an algorithm
emphasises individual steps and their interconnections
e.g. control flow from one action to the next
standard flowchart symbols are shown below
Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine the students final
grade and indicate weather it is passing or failing. The final grade
is calculated as the average of four marks.
Pseudocode: Input a set of 4 marks
Calculate their average by summing and
dividing by 4
if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Detailed Algorithm: Step 1: Input M1, M2,M3,M4
Step 2: GRADE = (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE <50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Flowchart: START
TRACE TABLE:
Input MARK GRADE STATUS
M1,M2,M3,M4 M1=80 80
M2=30 + 30
M3=40 + 40
GRADE=(M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
M4=30 + 30 /4
= 45 FAIL
N IS Y
GRADE<5
0
PRINT PRINT
“PASS” “FAIL”
STOP
Example 2: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to convert
the length in feet to centimeter.
Pseudocode: Input the lenght in feet (Lft)
Calculate the length in cm (Lcm) by multiplying LFT
with 30
Print LCM
Algorithm: Step 1: Input Lft
Step 2: Lcm = Lft x 30
Step 3: Print Lcm
Flowchart:
START
Input
Lft
Lcm = Lft x 30
Print
Lcm
STOP
Example 3: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart that will read
the two sides of a rectangle and calculate its area.
Pseudocode: Input the width (W) and Length (L) of a rectangle
Calculate the area (A) by multiplying L with W
Print A
Algorithm: Step 1: Input W,L
Step 2: A=L x W
Step 3: Print A
Flowchart:
START
Input
W, L
A=LxW
Print
A
STOP
Example 4: Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart that will
calculate the roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Hint: d = sqrt (b2 – 4ac), and the roots are: x1 = (–b + d)/2a and
x2 = (–b – d)/2a
Pseudocode: Input the coefficients (a, b, c) of the quadratic
equation
Calculate the discriminant d
Calculate x1
Calculate x2
Print x1 and x2
Algorithm: Step 1: Input a, b, c
Step 2: d = sqrt (b2 – 4 x a x c)
Step 3: x1 = (–b + d) / (2 x a)
Step 4: x2 = (–b – d) / (2 x a)
Step 5: Print x1 and x2
Flowchart:
START
Input
a, b, c
d = sqrt(b2 – 4 x a x c)
x1 = (–b + d) / (2 x a)
X2 = (–b – d) / (2 x a)
Print
x1 and x2
STOP
DECISION STRUCTURES
The expression A>B is a logical expression
it describes a condition we want to test
if A>B is true (if A is greater than B) we take the action on
left of
print the value of A (see Fig. 2)
if A>B is false (if A is not greater than B) we take the
action on right
print the value of B (see Fig. 2)
Y N
is
A>B
Figure 2:
Print A Print B
IF–THEN–ELSE STRUCTURE
The structure is as follows
If condition
then true alternative
else false alternative
endif
The algorithm for the flowchart in figure 2 is as follows:
If A>B
then print A
else print B
endif
Here “>” is called the relational operator. Table 1 gives the possible
relational operators:
Relational Operators
Operator Meaning
> Greater than
< Less than
= Equal to
Greater than or
equal to
Less than or equal
to
Not equal to
Example 5: Write an algorithm that reads two values, determines
the largest value and prints the largest value with an identifying
message.
Algorithm: Step 1: Input VALUE1, VALUE2
Step 2: if VALUE1 > VALUE2
then MAX = VALUE1
else MAX = VALUE2
endif
Step 3: Print “The largest value is”, MAX
Flowchart:
START
Input
VALUE1,VALUE2
Y is N
VALUE1>VALUE2
MAX = VALUE1 MAX = VALUE2
Print
“The largest value is”, MAX
STOP
NESTED IFS
One of the alternatives within an IF–THEN–ELSE statement
may involve further IF–THEN–ELSE statement
Example 6: Write an algorithm that reads three numbers and
prints the value of the largest number.
Algorithm: Step 1: Input N1, N2, N3
Step 2: if N1>N2
then if N1>N3
then MAX = N1 [N1>N2, N1>N3]
else MAX = N3 [N3>N1>N2]
endif
else if N2>N3
then MAX = N2 [N2>N1, N2>N3]
else MAX = N3 [N3>N2>N1]
endif
endif
Step 3: Print “The largest number is”, MAX
Flowchart: Draw the flowchart of the above Algorithm.
Example 7: Write and algorithm and draw a flowchart to
a) read an employee name (NAME), overtime hours worked
(OVERTIME), hours absent (ABSENT) and
b) determine the bonus payment (PAYMENT).
Bonus Schedule
OVERTIME – Bonus Paid
(2/3)*ABSENT
>40 hours $50
>30 but 40 hours $40
>20 but 30 hours $30
>10 but 20 hours $20
10 hours $10
Algorithm: Step 1: Input NAME,OVERTIME,ABSENT
Step 2: if OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 40
then PAYMENT = 50
else if OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 30
then PAYMENT = 40
else if OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 20
then PAYMENT = 30
else if OVERTIME–(2/3)*ABSENT > 10
then PAYMENT = 20
else PAYMENT = 10
endif
endif
endif
endif
Step 3: Print “Bonus for”, NAME “is $”, PAYMENT
Flowchart: Draw the flowchart of the above algorithm?
