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Data Collection (definition)

Factors that Affect the Data Collection Methods

aims
Aims
Design Design
Ethical considers
Ethical consideraion
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Resources available for the reserach

Data Collection Methods

Questionnaire

commonly used with survey designs

Types of questionnaires

Highly structured

Standardized scales

Unstructured open-ended formats (qualitative reserach)

Interview

a conversation between the interviewer and person being interviewed

Increased cost and effort - as it requires presence of interviewer

Interview may influence respondents

→
Often used by qualitative reserach

Natural Setting - where it is preferrably carried out

Observation

May range from:

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 Unstructured Observational Protocols

indicating precisely which behavior / clinical signs should be

recorded

Structured Records of the Experiences of Participant Observers

as used in qualitative research

Measurement

use of instrumentation and measurement tools to produce numerical

data

Most appropriate for quantitative research

What is Reliability and Validity?

data collection strategy must be reliable (replicable) and valid (accurate)

If not ensured, error may prevent the reserachers from achieving their
goals

Questionnaires
Definition

a set of questions designed to seek specific information from the

respondents.

Best used with people who are

fluent in written and/spoken communication

Design of questionnaire

crucial to its success

What are the steps in questionnaire construction?

Researcher specifies the information that is being sought

involve considerable thinking and discussion Specify

Pratt
Research Objectives, Discussion with others, other resources -
inspiration of selection Pilot

redraft
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Administrator 2
 A stage where list of information is given and to be translated into
specific question form

Drafting the questionnaire

attempts to devise the list of information into draft questions

Questionnaire pilot

given to intended responents

Helps improve clarity and remove any problems before the main
survey.

Feedback may be asked to the pilot respondents

Redrafting Questionaire

if problem is found in the pilot study, redraft is needed

If major problems - it is needed to conduct another pilot study.

If minor problems - redraft then administer

Administration of the questionnaire

-questionnaire is administereed to the sample populatiion

Cost and Benefit of Interviews and Questionnaire

Interview Schedule Administered by Interviewer

Cost

Expensive & requires expert help

Increase susceptibility to bias

Benefit

lower rejection rate *

Detailed responses

Greater control in filling out response form *

Self-Administered Questionnaire

Cost

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 higher rejection rate

difficultto elicit detailed responses

less control over how response form is filled out

Benefit

cheap *

less-susceptible bias
*
☒
can be administered to mail

Open-ended and closed- response rate

Open-Ended Question

no predetermined response

Disadavantages:

require very large effort to encode for data analysis

when ecoded give rise to categorical scales

Categorical Measures

are at the low end of the types of measurement scales that

may be used in health reserach

Closed-Response Question

supplied with a predetermined list of response options

Example of open and closed ended question

Cost and Benefits of Open-Ended and Closed-Response Formats

Open-Ended

Costs

Less structured

Responses difficult to encode and analyze using powerful

statistical methods

Greater time taken by respondent to answer

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 Respondent may find writing an essay more difficult than circling a
number

Benefits

detailed answers

Closed-Response

Cost

Less ‘depthʼ In answers

May frustrate respondents

Benefit

Tightly structured

Responses easily encoded and analyzed

Less time taken to collect responses

Attitudinal Questions

Likert-Type Format

maybe 5 or 7 points type format

Four-point forced-choice

strongly agree

Agree

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Advantages and Disadvantages of Response Formats

Likert-type

Costs

allow middle “undecidedˮ response

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 Benefits

acquiescent response mode

Force-choice

Cost

respondent forced to give either a positive or negative response

Benefit

undecided response not allowed

Common Mistakes in Constructing Questions:

Double Barrelled Questions

2 questions included in 1

Example:
Do you like math or science

Ambiguous Questions

avoid vacuous words and terms that mean different to different people

Example
Old People - no specific age range

Level of Wording

tailor the wording according to intended respondents

Bias & Lading Questions

construction of sentence should not lead the respondents to feel to

response in a certain way

How often do you go to church?

Introductory Statement

describes the:

8-
purpose of the questionnaire

information sought

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 Quarters
Facthalf , Demographer
to font

E-
serve as
the warmup
how it will be used

researchers

if its confidential

:
if its anonymous

Demographic Questions

collect respondentsʼ information: age, sex, education, history and so on.

best seen at first section

to warm up the following questions

Factual Questions

easier to answer for respondents direct factual questions

also position to front to serve as a warm up

Example:
Do you have driverʼs license?

Opinion Questions

requires reflection on the part of the respondents

positioned after demographic and factual questions

Closing Statement and return instructions

a thank you for the respondents

an invite for the respondents to take up any issues

provide any issues how to return the questionnaire

Interviews
Definition

commonly used method in health sciences

key tool for the clinician & the health researcher

means of collecting opinion and experiences

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 I

3 Forms of Interview

Schedule Standardized Interview

the wording and order of questions are exactly the same for every
respondent

a very rigid form of conversation (like with a script)

inn its most structured form, structured interview may involved:

reading of prepared questionnaires

filling and answering form or response sheet for them

Questions are given in a systematic order (minimal or no deviation

from the script.

0 Interviewerʼs role is to ask questions

-

Respondents role is to provide answers with minimal extraneous

information.

Non-Schedule Standardized Interview

certain types of information are desired to all respondents

] paraphrases
Gro
is

particular phrasing of questions and their order are redefined

Non-Standardized Interview

no prescribed set of questions is employed

Unstructured Interview

asking no direct questions but just prompting the respondents to reflect on

their current interests and concerns.

Factors to determine structure / formality

Whether there is a fixed set of questions or schedule

structure interview

the interviewer has a preplanned set of questions or schedule

these questions may or may not be presented in a fixed order

unstructured interview

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 may have themes to be explored without specific order required or
specific questions wordings

The way in each information is recorded

structured interviews - preplanned answer sheets or response

schedules

unstructured interviews - have less expectation. may record or take

free form notes.

The type of questions

structured interviews - use closed-response questions, which choice

of answers have been preplanned.

Open-Ended Questions

respondents provide answers on their own words

The extent of control by the interviewer

Structured Interview - interviewer explicitly guides the conversation

Ex: Mrs. Smith lets discuss your divorce

Unstructured Interview

respondent may assume more active role in the conversation

Methods of Conducting Interviews

In person

By remote ( telephone, communication system apps)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Interview Methods

Face-to-Face

Advantage

allows observation of nonverbal reactions

closer rapport

interviewer may use nonverbal cues to supplement verbal

information

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 Disadvantage

travel time and cost

too confrontational or embarassing

Remote

Advantage

easier to disclose sensitive information over the phone or by being

anonymous

Disadvantage

if the interviewer is not well known to the interview, it is unlikely for

respondents to provide valid and reliable information about
personal topics.

The Interview Process

Selection of the type of participants to be interviewed

first task

quantitative - use random sampling to ensure a representative sample

qualitative - selecting those who most likely to provide the required

insights (key informants)

Recruitment of research participants

enlisting participation of the participants

contacting respondents explaining the purpose and assurances

setting schedules or appointment

The interview

according to the methodology

ability of eliciting the participants views rather than the interviewer is

paramount to maximize validity

Video & audio recording

large advantage

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 interpretation of the response is open for study by others

Use of response schedules/answer checklist

recording information provided on a predesigned sheet

that sheet may be completed during or after intereview

Immediate recording

more valid and reliable

Free form (unstructured) notes

recording only the information they believe to be salient

may be during or after the interview

usually use by clinician in case notes

Advantages / Disadvantages

these results from the process whereby the interview is distilled

into the notes

substantial judgment and interpretation on the part of the

interviewer

the distillation of the result is highly refined (biased) and reduced

data, inaccessible for scrutiny

may not result in the recording of the same type of data across
interviewees

follow up

give the respondents copies of their transcribed interview and may

offer the right of vetting the materials included in the transcript.

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