ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1. Data Representation 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

1.1. Number Systems left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
Binary System final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
4 + 2 = 238
Base 2 number system
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) Converting Denary to Binary
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
MSB (Most Significant Bit) table like follows:

2 142
Denary System 2 71 Remainder: 0
Base 10 number system 2 35 Remainder: 1
Has values from 0 to 9 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 4 Remainder: 0
2 2 Remainder: 0
Base 16 number system 2 1 Remainder: 0
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F 0 Remainder: 1
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15,
which is F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
divided by the previous value of the current number and
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
0000 0 0 number
0001 1 1 When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0010 2 2 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0011 3 3 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0100 4 4
0101 5 5 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0110 6 6
0111 7 7 Separate each value from each other and convert them
1000 8 8 to denary
1001 9 9
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
1010 A 10
All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
1011 B 11
1100 C 12 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1101 D 13 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1110 E 14 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1111 F 15
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1.2. Number Conversions Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
Converting Binary to Denary
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table
like this:

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Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s 0
until it reaches 4 1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
For each group, find the denary value as shown above, left-hand side to match them).
and then convert each denary value to its corresponding e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is 2. Add the values as follows with the points given
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F). above
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then Logical Shifts
convert the final answer to denary
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to being emptied is going to become 0
hexadecimal as explained above
Explanation with Example
1.3. Binary Calculations
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Binary values are not added the way denary values are 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
have been removed)==
Points to Note: 2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
0+0=0 in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
1+0/0+1=1 marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

Overflow Two’s complement is a method used to represent

negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
called overflow. Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
previous part.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example)

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Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one ASCII
from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
the third position from the right. The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one code that represents the letters, numbers and characters
located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control
our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s codes
complement of itself. Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values
Converting negative values to two complement Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
Convert the binary value to two’s complement follows:
Make the MSB 1, if not already
0 is at 48
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
A is at 65
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted a is at 97
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the: ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System

Examples: Unicode
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
uniquely identifies a device on a network) The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Assembly languages and machine code Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Memory Dumps multiple languages and more data.
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory character set, a collection of characters and the
location of the error) corresponding binary codes that represent them.
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses

Memory Dumps Sound

Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
when trying to trace errors. form, it is sampled
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
to a printer or monitor. where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
How is Sound Recorded
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
values and is prone to errors.

1.5. Text, Sound and Images

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The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that
set time intervals make up an image; for example, an image could contain
The value is converted to digital form 4096 × 3072 pixels.
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
series of binary digits than those with a higher resolution.
A series of readings gives an approximate representation When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
of the sound wave a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
as being pixelated.
Sampling Resolution: High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones.
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth)
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
1.6. Measurement of the Size of
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored Computer Memories
about the amplitude of the sound.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to 8 bits is a byte
store the data. 4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size
Sampling Rate
IECB System (Most Common)
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound size Bytes
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
Images
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
Bitmap Images 1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers Conventional System
Colour Depth Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
The number of bits representing each colour is called the 1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
colour depth. 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done 1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file Calculation of File Size
when storing an image.
The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
Image Resolution (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
multiply the result by two.)

1.7. File Types

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Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file
Storage of music files sizes
A communications protocol that allows electronic Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
musical instruments to interact with each other pixels per centimetre
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous) size is reduced
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the between 5 and 15
MIDI device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
(operates on 16 different channels)
Examples of MIDI commands: Compression
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed Lossless File Compression
(loudness of music)
It needs a lot of memory storage All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
again when the file is uncompressed.
MP3 Important for files where the loss of data would be
disastrous (spreadsheet)
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to An algorithm is used to compress data
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format No data is lost
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
Done using file compression algorithms, which use
Perceptual Music Shaping Run-Length Encoding
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
properly It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
quality, too much A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
CD files are converted using File Compression Software value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the characters), and the second value represents the code of
compression algorithm the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
MP4
98 02 99 05 100.”
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
than just sound repeated units/bits
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
Videos could be streamed without losing any real strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
discernible quality 255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of
characters is approaching

Lossy File Compression

The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
compressed
Reduces file quality
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
reduced.

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Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data

2. Data Transmission Transmission

2.1. Types and Methods of Data Serial Parallel

Better for longer distances Better for short distances
Transmission (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
Data Packets required)
Used when the size of data
Packet Structure - Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small
Header Slower Option Faster than Serial
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver
The sequence number of the packet
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Size of the packet
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Payload
USB consists of:
Contains the actual data
Four-wire shielded cable
Trailer Two wires are used for power and earth
Includes a method of identifying the end of the Two wires are used in data transmission
packet
Error-Checking methods Advantages Disadvantages
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where Transmission rate is less than
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Automatically detected
120 MB/sec
then sent independently from start to end and Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about
reassembled at the receiver’s computer. incorrect connections 5 metres
Different data transmission
Advantages Disadvantages rates
There is no need to create a Backwards compatible
Packets may be lost
single line of communication
Industry-standard
Possible to overcome failed or
More prone to errors in real-
busy nodes time streaming
High data transmission speed
Delay at the receiver while the 2.3. Methods of Error Detection
packets are being re-ordered
Easy to expand package usage Parity Checks

Data Transmission It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte

Type Types -
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. Even - Even number of 1-bits
computer to printer) Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but Example (Even Parity) -
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
line) The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
time over a single wire Limitations with Parity Checks
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1 Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time. error is not found
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified

Parity Blocks

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To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
would be used. user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows 2.4. Encryption
and columns
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
Checksum unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Plaintext and Ciphertext
algorithm.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before.
The receiver would then compare the value received and
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric Encryption:
request is made to re-send the data. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Echo Check the data.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the Asymmetric Encryption:
data back to the sender for verification. Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
The sender would compare the received and original available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
available to the user.
data for errors.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
occurred when sending the data or sending the data would send the public key to the sender. The sender
back for verification. can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.
Check Digits
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
3. Hardware
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
6372 typed as 6379
Neumann Architecture
8432 typed as 842
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

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Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
the memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
timing signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types. Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional Instructions are stored in the main memory
Data Bus – bi-directional Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Control Bus – bi-directional the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
CIR CPU is currently decoding
register
or executing 10101010 01010110
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and Instruction Set:
register
sends it to MDR An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
Stores the Data from the can process, and the commands are machine code
MDR Memory data register address received from the
MAR and sends data to CIR
Stores the address of the 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory System’s Clock
During calculations, data is
ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer

would frequently crash and become unstable)
The Fetch-Execute Cycle can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

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-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance dimensional image
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
performance magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Cores Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
model
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
performance Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
the system performance as the communication between represent the passport pages
each core increases, and so do the data cables between Text can be stored in ASCII format
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
performance. stored as jpeg image
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
septa or octa cores. camera and compared to using face recognition software
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
eyes, width of nose)
3.3. Input Devices
Barcode readers/scanners
Two-dimensional Scanners:
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
Used to input hard-copy documents varying thicknesses
The image is converted into an electronic form, which The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
can be stored in the computer series of lines
The document is placed on a glass panel The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
A bright light illuminates the document using guard bars
A scan head moves across the document until the Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
The lens focuses on the document image little light, which allows the bars to be read
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
circuits
The software produces a digital image in the Quick Response (QR) Codes
electronic form Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
converts scanned documents into a text file format
background
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG Advantages of QR codes:
Three-dimensional Scanners No need for the user to write down the website
address
QR codes can store website addresses

Digital Cameras

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It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Capacitive (medium cost tech)

shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. Made up of many layers of glass
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
onto a light sensitive cell When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
The cell is made up of pixels current changes
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Keyboards Infra-red heat (expensive)
Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by Use glass as the screen material
wireless connection Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a Infra-red optical (expensive)
Uses glass as screen material
digital signal
Slow method Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Prone to errors Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Pointing devices Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Mouse/trackball glass
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement bottom layer complete a circuit
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
Microphones microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Used to input sound to a computer touched
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm Sensors
vibrates, producing an electric signal
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
digital values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
digital

Touchscreens

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Devices that read or measure physical properties The light sensor sends data to the ADC
Data needs to be converted to digital The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical Microprocessor samples data every minute
values into digital If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Sensors and their purposes: Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Lamp switched on
converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's 3.4. Output Devices
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Inkjet Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment. Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Data from the document sent to the printer driver
the air or any sample. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, available
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
detector. memory (printer buffer)
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
emitted by any object. available in the paper tray
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
level. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
generate electric current based on light brightness. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
magnetic field. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
content wherever this sensor has been installed. Laser Printers
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. Used to print flyers, high quality
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects produce text and images
around the sensor Prints the whole page in one go
Temperature - These sensors measure the
temperature of the environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)

Control of Street Lighting­­

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1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
charged areas which match the text/image because:
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
drum has a yellow tint
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum LEDs improve the colour image
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
produce a copy of the page LEDs consume very little power
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from which supplies the light source
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Light Projectors:
3D Printers
Two common types of light projectors:
Used for models of cars Digital Light Projector (DLP)
Produce solid objects that work LCD Projector
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic Projectors are used to project computer output onto
powder larger screens/interactive whiteboards
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
2D and 3D Cutters
Uses millions of micromirrors
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction the number of micromirrors and the way they are
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
Actuators When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
processes. When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
Used in many control applications involving sensors and they are off
devices (ADC and DAC) This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Loudspeakers/Headphones on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from LCD Projectors
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors

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Older technology than DLP RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb access data that is actively being used or processed by
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the user immediately.
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different Features of RAM
wavelengths Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light turned off)
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue Used to store; data, files
These three different lights pass through three LCD It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
screens; these screens show the image to be projected the memory can be changed
as millions of pixels in grayscale The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, will operate
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto slow
the screen As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
RAM is of two types:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory
Primary vs. Secondary Storage When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
The CPU directly accesses primary storage memory management; thus, the system has a high
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples into the picture.
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
examples storages are discussed below)

Primary Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM)

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Data access is faster than HDD
The main advantages of virtual memory are Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
They can be larger than the physical memory
provided in the RAM. Off-Line Storage:
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could CD/DVD Disks
be expensive
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused surface of the disk.
data.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Read Only Memory (ROM) Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
Features of ROM DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain capacity (two individual recording layers)
even when ROM is turned off)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic Blu-ray Disks
input/output systems)
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
cannot be changed
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Secondary Storage: Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) piracy and copyright infringement)
Used as backup systems
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
of the disks (platter) USB Flash Memories
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
surfaces of the disk Small back-up devices for photo, music
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks Cloud Storage:
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
Solid-State Drive (SSD) stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the systems
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Advantages Disadvantages
companies Small in size, therefore can
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client The interface can be confusing
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Low cost to make
sometimes
as a single entity Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Requires very little power
job
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Often thrown away as difficult
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
input
from a public cloud storage provider harder to find
Increased garbage as they are
Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks

Applications of Embedded devices

GPS systems
Security Systems
Vending Machines
3.6. Embedded System Washing Machines
Oven
A combination of hardware and software is designed to Microwave
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain -
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
3.7. Network Hardware
peripherals on one single chip
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
ports, storage and memory connect to a network (such as the Internet).
Process of Embedded Devices -
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor Media Access Control (MAC)
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
microprocessor groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
which are the output serial number.
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
need a software update. These do not change and are primarily constant for every
Programmable devices have two methods of updating device
Connecting the device to a computer and there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
downloading the update Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi Administered MAC Address (LAA)
link
The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
opposite for LAA.

IP Addresses

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IP address allocation: Router functionality:

The network allocates IP addresses. A router is a networking device that directs data
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. packets between different networks.
Static IP addresses: It determines the most efficient path for data
Assigned manually to a device. transmission.
Does not change over time. Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Dynamic IP addresses: A router examines the destination IP address of
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host incoming data packets.
Configuration Protocol) server. It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Changes periodically or when the device connects to the next router on the path to the destination.
a different network. The router forwards the data packet to the
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): appropriate next hop.
Widely used protocol. Router's role in IP address assignment:
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. devices on a local network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. predefined range to connected devices.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
separated by colons (e.g., and simplifies network management.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Provides an extremely large number of unique A router serves as the gateway between a local
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). network and the internet.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: It connects the local network to an internet service
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 provider (ISP) network.
uses a 128-bit address. The router receives data packets from devices on the
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 local network and forwards them to the internet.
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 It also receives incoming data packets from the
undecillion addresses. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated on the local network.
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. 3.8. Operating Systems
Routers

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Operating Systems are designed to establish The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
communication between the user and the computer through the bootstrap loader.
Functions of a typical operating system - The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
-managing files the location of the OS in the storage.
– handling interrupts BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices

Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI

Interrupts
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process
continues

3.9. Programming Languages,

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Translators and IDEs
Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Computers can only understand machine code;
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the therefore, translators are needed
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
Security Management - Providing security features such High-Level Languages
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device It is easier to read and understand as the language is
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers closer to human language.
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Easier to write in a shorter time
Renaming, and many more functions Easier to debug at the development stage
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources Easier to maintain once in use
with each of the processes Low-Level Languages
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually. Refer to machine code
Binary instructions that the computer understands
Running of Applications

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Translates a low-level language program into machine

code
Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine
code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Used for general use

Compiler Interpreter Assembler

Translates a high- Executes a high-level Translates a low-
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer level language language program level assembly
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) program into one statement at a language program
Assembly Language machine code. time. into machine code.
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of
Few programmers use assembly language to - machine code is machine code is machine code is
Make use of special hardware produced. produced. produced.
Write code that doesn’t take up much space One high-level
Write code that runs very quickly One high-level language program One low-level
Assembly language must be translated into machine language statement statement may language statement
code using an assembler to run. can be translated require several is usually translated
into several machine machine code into one machine
code instructions. instructions to be code instruction.
3.10. Translators executed.
Interpreted Assembled
Compiled programs
Compiler programs cannot be programs are used
are run without the
run without the without the
compiler.
Translates a program written in a high-level language interpreter. assembler.
into machine code An interpreter is An assembled
A compiled program
Used without compiler often used when a program is usually
is usually distributed
Executable file of machine code produced program is being distributed for
for general use.
One high-level language translated into several machine developed. general use.
code instructions
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Used for general use
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Interpreter
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
No executable file of machine code produced An IDE would usually have these features -
One high-level language program statement may require Code Editor
several machine code instructions to be executed. Translator
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an Debugger
interpreter Error Reports
Used when the program is being developed Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Auto-Documenter
Assembler Pretty Printing

3.11. Types of Software and Interrupts

Types of Software

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1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
programs and device drivers documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
processor, etc. importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
System Software: using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
with each cell identified using a unique combination of
these are a set of programs which control and manage columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
the operations of hardware produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
gives a platform for other software to run calculations.
it is required to allow hardware and software to run Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
without problems manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
in a table.
Application Software: Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
computer’s resources control applications by comparing sensor data with
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
user can execute the software when they require, and it tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
is mostly not automatic from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
Examples streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
System Software: users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
transitions between clips.
tasks without re-compilation.
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
into a single program, allowing the use of separately
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
written code modules in the final program.
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
communicate with a computer's operating system, required.
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
work. Interrupts
Operating system: Software that manages basic
computer functions such as input/output operations, An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
program loading and running, and security management, from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
making computers more user-friendly. pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
management, and security.

Application Software:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.12. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.

Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software

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Backup software is a utility software that helps create Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. understood by the hardware device they are associated
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard with.
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
utilities are also recommended. cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only by the operating system.
backup files if changes have been made to them. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
There could be three file versions for total security: the vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally number that allow the operating system to identify the
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup device.
on cloud storage. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
Security Software computer simultaneously.

Security software is a utility software that manages

access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities 4. The Internet and Its Uses
such as virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
prevent unauthorized access.
4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
Security software uses encryption and decryption to Web
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
decryption key. Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources Uses transmission protocols
Collection of webpages and
and prevent malicious software from being installed. such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords Protocols)
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. Allows the user to
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
communicate with other users
written using Hypertext Mark-
Screensavers via chat, email, calling and
up Language (HTML)
more
Screensavers display moving and still images on the Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource
monitor screen after computer inactivity. Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the
Devices location of the web pages
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Web browsers can access web
from 'phosphor burn'. pages.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
period of inactivity. URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like typical format of URLs is -
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
protocol://website address/path/file name
Device Drivers

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The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS

The website address would contain - 4.2. Digital Currency
domain host (www)
domain name (website name) Form of payment to pay for goods and services
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
The path would usually become the file directory roots. Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science in centralised banking systems.
The /computer-science is the file name Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
transactions.
HTTP and HTTPS Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
Blockchain Network
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure Blockchain Network
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data. Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
computers where the transaction data is stored
Web Browsers Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
It is software used to connect to the internet changed without the consent of all the network
It translates the HTML code members
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established How do blockchains work
Offers additional features like search history & ad Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
blockers block would contain -
Retrieval and Location of web pages
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server money and more
(DNS) Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
IP is sent to the browser if it exists in the chain
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -

Session Cookie Persistent Cookie

Remembers the user’s login The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
Temporary cookies are stored
details so the user doesn’t have
in the RAM till the browser is to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
to log in every time they visit a
closed.
website
Doesn’t collect any information
Stored on the hard disk on the 4.3. Cyber Security
computer until their expiry
on the user
date or the user deletes them Brute Force Attack:
A good example is the virtual
shopping basket on e-
commerce websites.

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Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Effect:
Effect: This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit information
cards, passwords and more) Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Use stronger passwords with more characters and Firewalls
symbols Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Data Interception: Difference between hacking and cracking
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
wireless transmission line
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless malicious
internet connections illegally Malware
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
back to the attacker Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
Effect: intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
It can cause a computer to crash computer malfunction
Can delete or corrupt files/data Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until
To remove risk: a certain amount of money is paid
Install anti-virus software Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
Don’t use software from unknown sources Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Be careful when opening emails from unknown legitimate software
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) user to the attacker
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
network
Usually temporary but may be damaging of the computer alone
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from: Phishing
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
Accessing online services into giving out their information.
To remove risk:
Hacking Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Use anti-phishing tools
Block pop-up ads
Have an up-to-date browser

Pharming

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Biometric
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer, Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
which redirects the user to fake websites Most development
Effect: Intrusive as used to
methods are very easy
identify criminals,
The user gives out login details and other personal Fingerprint to use and require
Can’t be used if the
details Scans very low storage space
finger gets dirty or
To remove risk: to store the biometric
damaged (e.g. cuts)
Using anti-virus software data.
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully With very high It is very intrusive,
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify,
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the Retina Scan
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install
URL bar retina and set up
Social Engineering Can’t identify if there
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls or person’s age.
informing them that their account has been hacked) Voices can be
recorded and used for
verification, but low
Keeping data safe from threats Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses
Voice verification is done
such as colds or
Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for Recognition quickly and relatively
coughs can affect a
different people (for example - Only doctors can have cheaper
person’s voice, making
access to patient’s data) identification
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware impossible.
attacks
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
biometrics and more)

Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method

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Advantages Disadvantages
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Expensive to set up and
authentication to prove who the user is Faster and Safer
maintain
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are
patches which improve device security quickly prone to attacks
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong Over-reliance on automated
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to
the tone would also seem urgent lose skills
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the Higher Productivity and
traffic between a network and the user’s computer Efficiency
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - You should be able to describe the advantages and
Filtering Internet traffic disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential scenario.
Blocking access to certain websites Including scenarios from:
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
server, keeping the web server safe. industry
Acts as a firewall as well. transport
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a agriculture
user’s profile weather
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while gaming
communicating with other users on the internet. lighting
science

5. Automated and Emerging 5.2. Robotics

Technologies Robotics is the branch of computer science that
combines robot design, construction and operation.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
5.1. Automated Systems A robot may not injure a human through action or
Automated Systems are a combination of software and inaction
hardware designed to function without human A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
intervention. comes into conflict with Law 1
Process of Automated Systems a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the law 1.
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it Characteristics of a robot -
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter Ability to sense their surroundings
(ADC) Have a degree of movement
The microprocessor processes the data and makes Programmable
the necessary decisions based on its program NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
The actions are then executed by the actuators REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
(Motors, wheels and so on) CHARACTERISTICS
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Advantages Disadvantages
Types of Robots - Setup and Maintenance costs
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can High level of Expertise
are very high
completely replace humans Can only rely on the information
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an High Accuracy and Consistent
in the system
interface, can supplement but can’t completely Tend to give cold responses
replace humans High response times
sometimes
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
Advantages Disadvantages are trained to learn from past experiences.
Robots can find it difficult to do
Robots can work 24/7
non-standard tasks Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher AI Machine Learning
conditions unemployment Machines are trained to make
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots Representation of human
decisions without being
long run replace humans in some task intelligence in machines
programmed to
They have high productivity Expensive to install and The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
and are more consistent maintain in the short run that think like humans learn through data acquisitions
Robots have the risk of getting
hacked.

5.3. Artificial Intelligence

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on
Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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