Beginning Graphic Design: Fundamentals BALANCE – is equal distribu on of visual weight (in other words, how much

any one thing a racts the viewrs eye)

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN – are the basis of every visual medium, from fine  Can affected by, including color, size, number, and nega ve space.
art to modern web design, even small details, like the fonts that make up  Mastering balance can be tricky because it take some intui on
most composi ons.  Full EXAMPLE that help understand its different itera ons
 SYMMETRICAL DESIGN are the same on both side of an axis. It
The Fundamental of design are all about the bigger picture in other words,
balanced because each side is effec vely same (if not iden cal)
learning to appreciate the many small details that make up every
 ASYMMETRICAL DESIGN are different, but the weight is s ll evenly
composi on, This insight can applied to almost any type of project, whether
distributed. The composi on is balanced because it calls a en on
crea ng
to right things
5 BASIC ELEMENTS  Use the STRATEGY THE RULE OFTHIRDS, the image are divided into
 Line a 3x3 grid the focal point of image is placed on or near one of
 Shape these lines, crea ng visual balance with the rest of the space. We
find this type composi on appealing because according to studies
 Form
the human eye naturally follows this path when scanning a design
 Texture
 Balance
They might not seem like much on their own, but together theyre part of BEGINNING GRAPHIC DESIGN: COLOR
almost everything we see and create
COLOR – it plays a vital role in design and everyday life, It can draw your eye
to an image, evoke a certain mood or emo on even communicate something
The fundamentals can be in mida ng, especially if you don’t consider
important without using words (like stop light)
yourself an ar st. However, theres a lot they can teach you about working
with different assets and crea ng simple visual from scratch.
HOW WE KNOW WHICH COLOR IS GOOD OR NOT?--COLOR THEORY
THE BASICS
LINE – is a shape that connects two or more points. It can be fat or thin, wavy
PRIMARY (Red, Blue, Yellow) the founda onal colors that cannot be created
or jagged. Every possibility give the line a slightly different feel. Line appear
by mixing other colors.
frequently in design. When working with lines, pay a en on to things like
weight, color, texture, and style. These subtle quali es can have a big impact
SECONDARY created by mixing equal parts of two primary colors
on the way your design is perceived.
Green (mixing blue and yellow)
Look for places where lines are hiding in plain sight, EXMAPLE IN TEXT (no
Orange (mixing red and yellow)
parking employes only)
Purple (mixing red and blue)
 EXAMPLE – Drawings and Illustra ons, Graphic Elements like
Texture and pa erns. Theyre also common in text composi ons,
 Red+yellow=orange
where they can add emphasis divide or organize content or even
 Yellow+blue=green
guide the viewers eye
 Blue+red=purple
MIX
SHAPE – is any 2 dimensional area with a recognizable boundary, includes
Red+orage+yellow+green
circles, squres, tringles. Shapes are a vital part of communica ng ideas
visually. They give images he and make them recognizable. Street signs,
Hue, Satura on, Value
symbols and abstract art largely because of shapes. Shapes have a surprising
These terms might not encounter in daily life but there the key to
number of uses in everyday design. They can help organize or separate
understanding more nuanced colors like li le paints chips at home
content, create simple illustra ons, or add interest to your work Shape is
improvements store
important because it’s a founda on many things
TWO DISTINCT CATEGORIES:
 HUE- is easiest one, its basically just another word for “color”
1. Geomtric (or regular)
 SATURATION – refers to intensity in other words whether the
2. Organic (where the shapes are more freeform)
color appears more subtle or more vibrant
 VALUE – has to do with how dark or light the color is, ranging from
FORM – shape becomes 3d its called form, Forms can 3-dimensional and exist
black to white, it gives many different shades from deep reddish
in the real world or can be implied using techniques like light, shadow, and
brown to light pastel pink
perspec ve to create the illusion of depth.
HOW WE PUT TOGETHER TO CREATE PROFESSIONAL LOOKING COLOR
 In 2-dimensional design form makes realism possible, Without it a
SCHEMES?
bouncing ball is just a circle
-There actually tried and true formulas based on something called color
 A 3D building is just a series of rectangles, Even flat design use
harmony that can help---- all you need COLOR WHEEL
subtle techniques to hint at form and depth. In evryday
composi ons, the purpose of form is the same, but on a smaller
6 FORMULA
scale. For EXMPLE a simple shadow can create the illusion of layers
1. MONOCHROMATIC
or give an object a sense of place
The easiest formula for harmony is monochroma c because it only uses one
 Basic forms can bring a touch of realism to your work a powerful color or hue, that consists of one color or varying shades of a single hue.
tool when used in modera on EXAMPLE: light blue, dark blue, and grayish-blue, all derived from the same
 TEXTURE – is the physical quality of a surface, like form it can 3D base color.
something you can see and touch or can be implied, sugges ng that
it would have texture if it existed in real life. 2. ANALOGOUS
 In design, texture adds depth and tac lity to otherwise flat Uses color that are next to each other on the wheel, These colors usually
images. share a common hue and create a harmonious and pleasing visual effect
 Object can appear smooth, rough, hard or so , depend the when used together. (3 COLOR)
elements at play. EXAMPLE: combina on of blue, blue-green, and green would be considered
 You find texture in unexpected places, like distressed fonts, and analogous.
smooth, glossy icons
 3. COMPLEMENTARY COMMON TYPE OF FONTS
Colors are opposite each other on the wheel, (atbang) opposite each other SERIF – li le strokes called serifs a ached to the main part of the le er
on the color wheel. When paired together, complementary colors create a because of the classic look, thyre a good choice for more tradi onal projects,
strong contrast and can make each other appear more vibrant. (light+darker also common in print publica ons, like magazines and newspapers
or Saturn tone)
EXAMPLE: blue and orange or red and green are complementary color pairs. SANS SERIF – don’t have that extra strokes hence the name, whuch is French
for “without serif”. This style is considered more clean and modern than serif
4. SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY fonts, it tends to be easier to read on computer screens, including
smartphones and tablets
Uses the color on either side of the complement, a base color and the two
colors adjacent to its complementary color on the color wheel. This creates a DISPLAY – in many different stles, like script, blackle er, all caps, plain fancy.
balanced contrast without the intensity of direct complementary colors. Because of decora ve nature, display fonts are best for small amounts of text,
(short TRINGLE) EXAMPLE tles and headers and more graphic heavy designs
EXAMPLE: If blue is the base color, its complementary color is orange. The FONTS have their own language, they all something to say beyond the words
split complementary scheme would then use blue along with the two colors on the page, they can across as casual or neutral, exo c or graphic
next to orange: red and yellow-orange.
3 FONT COME WITH EXTRA BAGGAGE
5. TRIADIC  COMIC SANS
Uses three colors that are evenly spaced, forming a perfect triangle, that uses  CURLZ
three colors that are evenly spaced around the color wheel. This arrangement  PAPYRUS
creates a balanced and vibrant pale e, as the colors complement each other
while maintaining their individual intensity. (TRINGLE)
EXAMPLE: the primary colors: red, blue, and yellow.
example could be the secondary colors: green, orange, and purple.

6. TETRADIC
Color form a rectangle on the wheel, using not one but two complementary
color pairs, refers to a color scheme that uses four colors, consis ng of two When deciding which fonts to use, less is more, its best to limit yourself to
complementary color pairs. This scheme forms a rectangle on the color wheel one or two per project, If you need more contrast, try repea ng one of your
and provides a rich and diverse pale e. fonts in a different size, weight, style, This trick is prac cally foolproof for
EXAMPLE: if you choose blue and orange as one complementary pair, you crea ng interes ng combina ons.
might pair them with red and green as the other.
OPPOSITES ATTRACT – the same is true for font
READABILITY - is an important factor in any design
LEGIBLE – easy on the eyes,
NEUTRAL COLORS – like black, white, and gray can help balance design DON’T AFRAID TO COMBINE FONT STYLES THAT ARE DIFFERENT BUT
DESATURED COLORS – o en appear more business like, some mes its COMPLEMENTARY, LIKE san serif with serif,, short with tall,, decora ve with
depends on the context how it flexible color can be simple

Evey color sends a message, its important to consider the tone and a color BAD KERNING – making certain le ers look improperly spaced, If font using
pala e that fits has bad kerning, its best to cut losses and choose something
EXAMPLE: bright colors tend to have a fun or modern vibe
KERNING – is the space between specific characters, unlike tracking it varies
over the course of word, because each le er fits together differently

LEADING – space between lines of text also known as line spacing, the goal is
to make text as comfortable to read as possible, Too much or too li le
spacing can make it unpleasant for the reader

TRACKING – is the overall space between characters, some mes called

character spacing, most programs let you condense or expand this depending
on your needs, In some designs might adjust tracking to create a certain
ar s c effect, It also help fix fonts that are poorly spaced to begin with

HIERARCHY- is used to guide the readers eye to whatever is most important,

Beginning Graphic Design: Typography it shows where to begin and where go next using different levels of emphasis
 Establising hierarchy is simple just decide which elemnts want the
 Is everywhere we look, in the books we read, on the websites we
reader to no ce first, then make them stand out, High level items
visit even in evryday life, on street signs, bumper s ckers, and
are usually larger, bolder, or different in some way, remember
product packangoig
keep simple and s ck to just a few complementary styles
 It’s the style or appearance of text
 The art of working with text
 Can be an in mida ng subject, but doest have to be, only need to Well cra ed text can mean the difference between an ordinary project and
know a li le to make big difference in the stuff do every day an extraordinary project even if youre just ge ng started with design. All it
 Is the art and technique of arranging type to make wri en takes is an interest in typography, and start no ce more
language legible, readable, and visually appealing. It involves
selec ng typefaces, font sizes, line lengths, spacing (kerning and
leading), and layout to effec vely convey a message.
Beginning Graphic Design: Layout & Composi on 6. REPETITION- is a reminder that every project should have a
consistent look and feel
 Its founda on of design, it give work structure and make easier to o That means finding ways to reinforce your design by
navigate from the margin on the sides, to the content in between. repea ng or echoing certain elements
 Its not just about working with text, Composi on ma ers in other o For instance, if a specific color pale e, look for ways to
mediums too, like graphic design, web design, carry it through
 Without a well composed layout the work would basically fall o If youve chosen a special header style, use it evrey
apart me,
 The key to mastering layout and composi on is to think like a o Its not just for aesthe c reasons being consistent an
designer, its easier than it sounds also make your work easier to read
o When the viewer knows what to expect, they can relax
5 BASIC PRINSIPLES- can help transform the work and sharpen your eye for and focus on the content
deisgn
In many ways layout and composi on are the unsung
1. PROXIMITY- is all about using visual space to show rela onship in heroes of design, Its easy to overlook their role, but
the content, all you have to do is make sure related items are theyre part of everything you do
grouped together
EXAMPLE: blocks of text or elements in a graphic
o Groups that are not related to each other should be
Beginning Graphic Design: Images
separated, to visually emphasize their lack of a
o No ma er what the subject, were naturally drawn to
rela onship, this makes work easier to understand at a
them, from beau ful, high defini on photos, to
glance whether its purely text or more visual
carefully cra ed illustra ons even simple EXAMPLE:
like logos and icons.
2. WHITE SPACE- is important part of every composi ons, doesn't
o Images are more than just decora on, In design, thryre
mean literal "white space" it just means nega ve space, like the
the hook that draws the viewer in compelling visuals
spaces between content,between lines, and even the outer
can help connect with the audience and make a strong
margins,
impression before they’ve even read a single word
o Theres no "one way' to use white space correctly, but
o You don’t have to be an ar st to use images in work, All
its good to understand its purpose.
it takes is a li le crea vity and a willingness to think
o White space helps define and separate different
outside the box
sec ons, its give the content room to breath, If the
o With the right resources, can learn to set design apart
work ever strat to feel clu ered or uncomfortable a
FINDING HIGH QUALITY IMAGES- for any type of project/ sharp, clear and
li le white space might be just what the doctor
free of distor on, memorable
ordered.

Most people rely on free or low coist images called STOCK- is perfect when
3. ALIGNMENT- something deal with all the me, even you don’t
need something specific EXAMPLE: a photo of a ny dog in a teacup
realize
o Whenever type an email or create a document, the
Some stock images are just too GENERIC to be effec ve
text aligned automa cally When aligning objects by
yourself (for instance, images or separate text boxes)
People naturally drawn to images that feel AUTHENTIC- EXAMPLE: dis nct
ge ng it right can be tricky
but believable photos and graphic that tell a story. The best images are
o The most important thing isb to be consistent
somewhat open ended they set the tone of project but leave room for
o It might help to imagine your content arranged inside
interpreta on
of a grid, No ce how theres an invisible line centering
- In general bigger is be er because it gives more work with
each image to text? Each grouping is also evenly
spaced and aligned, with equal sized margins, Its that
If you enlarge a smaller image it immediately loses quality, That because most
a en on to detail that makes the composi on easier
images are in something called RASTER FORMAT- made up of thousands,
to navigate, Without consistent alignment the work
some mes even millions of ne li le pixels, When viwing a raster image at its
could start feel disorganized
original size or smaller, the pixels are invisible thyre just too small to see, But
if zoom in or enlarge it the results aren’t pre y
4. CONTRAST- means that one item is different from another. In
layout and composi on, contrast can help do many things,
VECTOR GRAPHIC- are different from raster, can make them any size, big or
o EXAMPLE: catch the readers eye, create emphasis, or
small, without losing any quality, that because theyre made something more
call a en on to something important Theres are lots of
complex than pixels theyre rendered using a special form of geometry, You’ve
strategies or crea ng contrast You can use color, adjust
not likely to find vector graphics outside of professional design se ngs,
the size, shape, or visual weight of an object, or use
contras ng styles of text
MAYBE THE IMAGE IS WRONG SIZE OR THE COLORS
o Contrast is also closely ed to Hierarchy
3 FIX OR ENHANCE AN IMAGE
- CROPPING- change size, shape, focus image/ cut
5. HIERARCHY- is a visual technique that can help the viewer
- RESIZING- ensure the perfect fit of project
navigate your work, In other words, it shows them where to begin
- OTHER ADJUSTMENT
and where to go next, using different levels of emphasis
COSMETIC ADJUSTMENT- let enhace certain image quali es like brightness,
o Establising hierarchy is simple just decide which
contrast, satura on and color
elements you want the reader to no ce first, then
make them stand out
o High level or important items are usually larger, bolder,
or more eye cathing in some
Beginning Graphic Design: Branding & Iden ty
BRANDING - Are all around us on website and product packaging on different
types of adver sing even on personal items, like documents and business
card. Is what other people think about you, your company, you product or
service

VISUAL IDENTITY- logo/color/images/types. is what that brand looks like,

from your logo to your color choices. Strong visual can be very persuasive,
think of your own experiences as a consumer,
 Have you ever chosen a product simply because you liked the way
it looked?
 Understanding visual identy can help you make more though ul
design decisions regardless of role, medium, or skill level
 Is kind of like a preview of brand, each part of design is a clue that
tells the viewer what they can expect
 Tone can be classic and refined
 Every element works togrther to show exactly what brand about
 Its just all about business its also, upda ng resume or looking for
ways to enhance website
 Some companies use an actual style guide to keep brand looking
consistent

4 MAIN COMPONENT OF VISUAL IDENTITY:

LOGO- iden fies brand using par cular mark, type design, the most effec ve
logo tend to be fairly simple something viewers will recognize and remember.
 Every element of logo contributes to brand iden ty, include font
choice, colors, and other imagery
 A logo pixelated, distorted or too small to read could give viewrs
the wrong impression
 Keep a master copy that’s sharp, high quality, and big enough any
project

COLOR- is powerful way, not only does make a strong impression on the
viewer, it also create a sense of unity when used across mul ple projects or
pla orms, most brands derive their main colors directly from the company
logo, addi onal color can help expand the main pale e and further define
brand personality and style
 Make sure to include neutrals in color pale e like black, grey,
white, or off white
 Don’t overborad or ignore basic design standards, avoid common
pi alls like colors that vibrate or threaten to overwhelm in design

TYPOGRAPHY/ TEXT- is one simplet aspects of iden ty, but can be

surprisingly expressive. All takes a different font and can subtly (or not so
subtly) change the en re lookmof brand
 Most brands choose 2 to 3 fonts o en inspired by the logo for
basic everyday use, Crea ve fonts should also be chosen with care
and should be a reflec on of unique visual iden ty
 There are certain font that know to avoid, fonts that were once
popular but are now considered outdated and overused
 When in doubt a more meless understated font is less likely
detract from message
 Font choice should complement brand, but s ll be current and
professional

IMAGES- a huge part of building a unique iden ty, every photo, graphic, icon,
and bu on is a chance to showcase brand and shape
 Image usually created specifically for brand, Pictures in a catalog ,
or graphics in an app
 Signature color, a shared subject, or a consistent graphic style
 Choose images that seems genuine and feature people, places and
things
 With the clear vision of brand, know exactly what colors, fonts,
and images, Create a consistent work that viewers will remember
The Language of Mathema cs 04 Furthermore, C.F. Burns says that mathema cal language has three
We learned from the last chapter that mathema cs is indispensable. People characteris cs [4]:
need it to survive and to catch up with the fast-paced world. Hence, we need  precise (exact and clearly iden fies differences);
to understand mathema cs. We need to speak mathema cally.  concise (short but comprehensible); and,
 powerful (able to express complex thoughts).
IT IS NON-TEMPORAL
In other words, it is me-independent. It has no past, present, or future
Mathema cs: a Precise Language
tense. When sta ng defini ons, axioms, or theorems, we always use "is" --- In addi on to being a unique feature, precision is also a characteris c of the
and this "is" doesn't necessarily stand as a present form of the verb. mathema cal language. Precision refers to the exactness of mathema cal
sentences and expressions without the presence of ambigui es. Ambiguity is
 For example, when reading the equa on x = 1, we always say "x IS
common in ordinary speech. For example the statement "foreigners are
equal to 1" or "x equals 1". We do not have to say "x WAS equal to
hun ng dogs" is ambiguous because it is not clear whether dogs are being
1" or "x WILL equal 1" but if we do, these statements have
hunted by foreigners or that 'hun ng dogs' describes the foreigners. This
absolutely no dis nc on from the first.
example was taken from LiteraryDevices.net and you can see more examples
from here.
IT IS DEVOID OF EMOTIONS  In mathema cs, the most important thing to check to guarantee
Mathema cal literature is different from ar s c literature. In the la er, we precision in our statements is differen ae specificae which literally
write in a way so that our readers would feel the way we want them to. For means "specific difference". In other words, when we define
example, the Arnold Schwarzenegger quote "if I can see it and believe it, then terms, or establish assump ons or state theorems, we have to
I can achieve it!" is full of hope and determina on and maybe courage. But in specifically point out the difference that dis nguishes one from
mathema cs, statements are emo onless: "if n is even, then n + 1 is odd." another.
 This may sound dull and boring for some but this lack of emo ons
in mathema cal statements helps it to be more plain and "A square is a polygon with four sides."
straigh orward. However, this may only apply to wri en Not precise: Trapezoids and kites are polygons with four sides too but they
mathema cs such as books and research ar cles. In oral are not squares.
mathema cs, such as lectures or presenta ons from math
instructors or speakers, statements may be added color to make "A square is a quadrilateral whose sides are all congruent."
them lively. For example, a math teacher might say, "mul plying x Not precise: A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four equal sides too but it's
by y will ZERO IT OUT" to mean the equa on xy = 0 (the phrase different from a square.
"zero it out" is not an actual math term).
The precise version of this statement would be:
"A square is a rectangle with all four sides congruent."
IT IS PRECISE
"Ordinary speech is full of ambigui es, innuendoes, hidden agendas, and The above defini on clearly dis nguishes the square from all other polygons.
unspoken cultural assump ons." Mathema cal expressions and sentences Classifying it as a rectangle iden fies the square a quadrilateral with all
are always clear. It is not like the common language wherein there is no clear interior angles being right angles. Then, the second part of the statement
dis nc on between synonymous words such as "heavy", "massive" and "...all four sides congruent" tells how a square dis nguishes from all other
"he y", or "big", "large", and "great". In mathema cs, we can always iden fy rectangles.
the difference between closely related terms such as "homomorphism" and
"isomorphism", or "maximum" and "supremum". Mathema cs: a Concise Language
o A concise statement is a statement that is short but
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE comprehensive. A mathema cal idea has to be stated
The following are defini ons of a "subset". The first one is taken from an completely but using the minimum number of words or
online English dic onary (Oxford Learner's Dic onary); the other one is from symbols needed. In ordinary speech, we some mes
the book Discrete Mathema cs and Its Applica ons by K.H. Rosen. add words or phrases to make our statements sound
1. subset - "a smaller group of people or things formed from the more sophis cated [6] but some mes the addi on just
members of a larger group" [1]; makes the statement confusing.
2. A set A is a subset of a set B if and only if for any element x of A, x For example, "At this point in me, let us welcome the man that I am about
is also an element of B [2]. to call, Mr. Kenneth Lim." This could be greatly improved with, "Now, let us
welcome, Mr. Kenneth Lim."
The first defini on is given in common English. This is how that important Some pointers to be concise:
terms in other fields would be defined; but not in mathema cs. In  If long phrases could be simplified into fewer words, do so.
mathema cs, defini ons need to be precise and straigh orward. The first  Try to remove phrases or words in the sentence and see if it does
defini on is full of ambigui es and may only result to inconsistencies later in not change the meaning. If it doesn't then you could remove
the subject. For example, with the first defini on, the words "smaller" and them.
"larger" would signify that the set B has more elements than A. This would be "If an odd number is added to another odd number, then their sum is an
inconsistent in a later idea that every set is a subset of itself. Further, the first even number."
defini on will not be able to logically imply that the empty set is a subset of Not concise: The way the first phrase is stated is a long way of saying "the
any set. sum of two odd numbers". Also, since it is clear that we are all talking about
From this point forward, we will refer to the usual human languages such as numbers here, there is no need to say the word the second me.
English, Filipino or any dialect as "common language" or "ordinary speech".
Some mes, due to these unique features, young students find it hard to
adjust into speaking mathema cally at first because most of them are used to
the common language which is me-dependent, full of emo ons, and
ambiguous. With a li le me and effort, everyone could surely understand
and speak the mathema cal language.
A concise version would be" There are also other ways to express "3". For example, "1 + 2", "1 + 1 + 1",
"The sum of two odd numbers is even." and "6 ÷ 2" are all other names for 3. An expression does not convey a
 The idea is, for two statements with exactly the same complete thought but instead, only represents an object. Whereas a sentence
mathema cal meaning, choose the simpler one. conveys a complete thought. Other examples of expressions:
 Another way that mathema cs becomes concise is the use of SENTENCES
symbols and nota ons. For example, the Pythagorean theorem, if  A mathema cal sentence is a
stated in just words is: statement that can be iden fied
"The sum of the squares of the two shorter legs of a right triangle is equal to as either true or false (even if
the square of the hypotenuse." only condi onal). Mathema cal
sentences have the following
But with the aid of symbols it could be simplified: characteris cs:
"If a and b are the legs of a right triangle and c is its hypotenuse, then a 2 +
 They have a complete thought.
b2 = c 2 "
 They state rela onships between two or more mathema cal
expressions. By rela onships we mean =, <, >, ≤, and ≥.
For example,
Mathema cs: a Powerful Language 1+1=2
In the common language we are used to hearing "no words can explain" from
someone who thinks that what he thinks is too complicated to express it A mathema cal sentence is a statement that can be iden fied as either true
verbally. This does not happen in mathema cs (provided the math is already or false (even if only condi onal). Mathema cal sentences have the following
understood). A powerful language is a language that could express complex characteris cs:
ideas with rela ve ease.  They have a complete thought.
 For example, before 1687, the idea of gravity was s ll so  They state rela onships between two or more mathema cal
complicated. People did not understand why objects fall and the expressions. By rela onships we mean =, <, >, ≤, and ≥.
moon does not. Galileo already had some findings and other For example,
physicists already have their theories but despite these, the 1+1=2
concept was s ll so difficult to explain. See here to read more is a mathema cal sentence because:
about how people tried to explain "gravity" before Newton. But,  it can be iden fied as either true or false (in fact, it is true);
when Newton decided to express the concept of gravity  it has a complete thought telling us that "adding two 1's yields 2;"
mathema cally, it was so much easier: and,
 it states the rela onship (equal or "=") between two expressions
"1 + 1" and "2".

No ce that Newton was able to pack thousands of years of trying to explain

gravity into a single equa on not more than one inch long.

Expressions vs Sentences and Conven ons in the

Mathema cal Language 05
Just like it is possible to translate from English or Filipino to Spanish or
Korean, it is also possible to translate statements to and from the language of
mathema cs. This skill is o en neglected by many students but one of the
secrets to ace in math is to learn how to convert mathema cal statements
into English (or other ordinary languages) and vice versa.
In this lecture, we will first differen ate mathema cal expressions and E X E R C I S E N O . 0 1 : Iden fy whether the following are expressions or
mathema cal sentences. Then, we will translate mathema cal statements sentences.
into English and vice versa. We will only focus on Algebraic expressions and
sentences.

EXPRESSIONVS.SENTENCES
There are generally two kinds of mathema cal statements: a mathema cal
expression and a mathema cal sentence. A mathema cal expression is
equivalent to nouns in the common language while a mathema cal sentence
is equivalent to, of course, a sentence.

EXPRESSIONS
An expression is a name given to an object of interest [4]. Generally, a
mathema cal expression has the following characteris cs:
 It is equivalent to a noun in the common language, that is, it is a
name given to a quan ty or a mathema cal object. It could also
have synonyms, i.e., other mathema cal expressions that have the
same meaning.
 It does not have a complete thought.
For example, the name given to the number of apples below is "3".
 Sometimes, these letters are stylized to signify even more specific
CONVENTIONSINTHEMATHEMATICAL meanings. For example, the "blackboard bold" style letters ℕ, ℤ, ℚ, ℝ,
and ℂ denote the set of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers,
LANGUAGE real numbers, and complex numbers, respectively.
The conven ons in a language are composed of spelling, grammar, and  Even the font face may be important in writing symbols.
punctua on . In the mathema cal language, the conven ons are symbols we For example the following symbols may have different
use and the rules we follow in wri ng them. meanings:

SYMBOLS
Mathema cians use a wide range of "alphabet" in mathema cal literature.
This alphabet is composed of numbers, le ers, and special symbols that Opera ons, Rela ons and Grouping Symbols
denote a specific meaning. We use the following symbols and techniques to denote the fundamental
opera ons in arithme c:
Numbers
Of course, the most basic set of symbols that we use in mathema cs are
numbers. We will agree to limit our scope only to Hindu-Arabic numbers. It
has 10 digits namely: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
It is assumed that the reader already knows how the Hindu-Arabic numeral
system works including the decimal system and the nega ves.

The decimal point is used to divide frac onal values from whole numbers. For
example, the number 1.2
means there is a whole number 1 and the frac on 2/10. That is why, the
number 1.2 can be read as "one and two-tenths".

However, for simpler reading especially when we have long strings of

decimals, most teachers would allow reading it as "one-point-two". Meanwhile, the following are the mathema cal rela onships we commonly
An ellipsis ". . ." (or the three dot symbol) denotes that the decimal con nues use:
to infinity. If a pa ern of repea ng digits appears before the ellipsis, then the
ellipsis signifies that the decimal is non-termina ng and repea ng.
0.333. . .
0.121212. . .

If there is no repea ng pa ern before the ellipsis, then it means the number
is non-termina ng and non-repea ng (i.e., an irra onal number).
3.1415926. . .
1.41421. . .

Some authors are using the vinculum symbol (the bar placed on top of the
numbers) instead of the ellipsis but we will not use this conven on in this
course.
Frac ons like Grouping symbols are used by mathema cians to effec vely indicate which
 are read as "one half", "three fi hs", and opera ons to treat first. We have,
"seven halves". But, we also accept reading ( ) - curved brackets/parentheses
them as "one over two", "three over five", [ ] - square brackets/brackets
and "seven over two". { } - curly brackets/braces
By conven on, parentheses are used as the "innermost" grouping symbol,
Le ers followed by brackets, then lastly by braces. Other authors just use nes ng
Mathema cs also borrows le ers from different alphabets to symbolize parentheses for all levels of groupings.
variables, constants, opera ons, or other ideas. Remember that in There are also other nota ons that while ac ng as func ons, may also be
mathema cal wri ng, le ers are always CASE SENSITIVE. This means that considered as grouping symbols:
capital le ers may have totally different meanings from small le ers. For | | - single ver cal bar grouping: absolute value
example, in sta s cs, the capital le er N conven onally denotes popula on ‖ ‖ - double ver cal bar grouping: norms
size while the small le er n denotes sample size. ---- - frac onal bar/vinculum

We also use Greek le ers for different purposes: Special Symbols

 Generally, anyone can There are also special symbols used for various purposes in mathema cs.
use any English or Greek Some of them are given below.
le er to symbolize
anything. However, some
of these characters have
already been popularly
used for specific roles.
For example, the le er π
is already popular for the
constant 3.14159. . . ,
the le er i is used to
denote the imaginary
number
RULESINMATHEMATICALWRITING  "one plus two"
There are rules in wri ng mathema cal text. There are so many and may vary  "one added by two", "two added to one", "one added with two"
from author to author. Hence, we only note the most common and most or "two added with one"
important few.  "one increased by two"
 When wri ng expressions or sentences in a single line, the  "two more than one" (note that this is different from saying "two
ver cal alignment should be centered. This is especially is more than one" because that would be wri en as 2 > 1.)
emphasized when there are frac ons, summa ons or larger  "the sum of one and two", "the total of one and two"
nota ons: simple symbols should by aligned in the ver cal middle. A common mistake students commit in reading "=" is saying "is equals to".
Either "is equal to" or "equals" is the correct way.

 "One fourth is less than one third."

 When wri ng mul ple lines of equa ons (or inequali es), align  "One fourth is smaller than one third."
the equal signs.

 Do not write ambiguously. Make use of grouping symbols or

other tools to signify the statement. The viral 2019 problem is an  "One half is more than one third."
example of an ambiguous mathema cal expression.  "One half is greater than one third."

This could have been improved by wri ng clearly:

 "Fourteen squared is less than or equal to
two hundred."
 Use the equal sign as how it is defined: two expressions being  "The square of fourteen does not exceed
equal. Many students think of the equal sign to represent "result" two hundred."
or "answer". For example, the following are wrong:  "maximum" is best used only when the
inequality involves a variable
 aside from what are given above, "at most"
is also a possible transla on for this
inequality

 "The cube of four added with five is greater

 Both sides of the rela onship symbols should be numbers. We than or equal to fi y."
cannot write  "The sum of four cubed and five is not less
than fi y."
because the le hand side is a set (the empty set) while the right hand side is  "minimum" is best used when the inequality
a number. So they can NEVER be equal even if it is true that the empty set involves a variable.
has zero elements. Another example is when a student means to say "the  aside from what are given above, "at least"
area of the triangle ABC is 1 square unit", he tends to write: is also a possible transla on for this
inequality
This is wrong because the le hand side of the equa on is a triangle (which is
a geometric figure) while the right hand side is a number. One way to correct  "The cube of four added with five is greater
both of these equa ons is: than or equal to fi y."
 "The sum of four cubed and five is not less
than fi y."
 "minimum" is best used when the inequality
TRANSLATING MATHEMATICAL involves a variable.
STATEMENTS IN TO ENGLISH  aside from what are given above, "at least"
We will only be transla ng algebraic statements. That is, we will only work is also a possible transla on for this
with opera ons, constants and variables, and the rela ons =, <, >, ≤, and ≥. inequality
Variables
Opera ons There are three ways to read variables:
We can do this by transla ng first the opera ons. 1. as the le er itself;
2. as "a number" or "the number" or the class of measures it
represents such as "the angle" or "the length"; and
3. the physical meaning of the variable.
 Some Examples of Sets in Math
Exercise 1. Translate the following expressions and sentences into English in Some standard sets in Math are:
at least two ways.  Set of natural numbers, ℕ = {1, 2, 3, ...}
 Set of whole numbers W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
 Set of integers, ℤ = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
 Set of ra onal numbers, ℚ = {p/q | q is an integer and q ≠ 0}
 Set of irra onal numbers, ℚ' = {x | x is not ra onal}
 Set of real numbers, ℝ = ℚ ∪ ℚ'

All these are infinite sets. But there can be finite sets as well. For example,
the collec on of even natural numbers less than 10 can be represented in the
form of a set, A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, which is a finite set.

Cardinality of a Set
The cardinal number, cardinality, or order of a set denotes the total number
of elements in the set. Cardinality of a set refers to the total number of
elements present in a set. It describes the size of a set.

Example 1: In the set A = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7}, there are 5 elements. Thus, the
cardinality is 5.
Exercise 2. Translate from English into mathema cs.
Example 2: The cardinality of the set A = {1, 5, 3, 2, 10, 6, 4}, is 7 because the
set has 7 elements.
1. The quo ent of the square of ten and the cube of three
2. Velocity is the ra o of distance to me.
3. Seven less than the product of four and five Cardinality Symbols
4. The square root of any posi ve real number is never The cardinality of a set X is denoted by |X|.
nega ve. We can also represent the cardinality of the set X as n(X).
5. The product of two consecu ve integers For example, given set A = {1, 2, 3}. Then | A | = 3 or given set B = {a, b, c, 1,
6. Sum of two cubes 4, 5, 8}. Then, n(B) = 7.
7. The difference of the squares of two numbers over
their sum is equal to their difference. Representa on of Sets
8. The area of a circle equals π mes the square of its
There are two ways of wri ng out sets:
radius.
1. Roster Nota on. In roster nota on, the elements of the set are
9. The Fahrenheit measure of temperature is equal to
listed. S = {a, e, i, o, u}
nine mes its Celsius measure divided by five then
2. Set Builder Nota on. In the set builder nota on, the characteris c
increased by thirty-two.
that defines the collec on is specified.
10. The sum of the first ten posi ve integers
S = {x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet}

The Four Basic Concepts of Mathema cs 06 Here, x func ons as a variable (and not the actual le er x). This is read as "S
There are four basic concepts in mathema cs: sets, rela ons, func ons, and is the set of all objects x such that x is a vowel in the English alphabet."
binary opera ons. They are called "basic concepts" because these four are
present in any field of mathema cs. Mastery of these four can lead to be er
understanding of future mathema cal topics.
In this lecture, we will define fundamental terms under these concepts and
then learn how to apply them in wri ng and speaking mathema cally.

[1] S E T S
The study of sets is called Set Theory [1]. The concept of sets is used in
almost all areas of math including algebra, calculus, probability, and
geometry. A set is a well-defined collec on of objects. By well-defined, we
mean that membership to the collec on is precise, unambiguous, and with
dis nguishable limits. For example, "the collec on of all vowels in the English
alphabet" is a set but, the "collec on of all beau ful faces" is not a set Exercise. Complete the table by giving the roster or set builder nota on of
because "beau ful faces" is not a well-defined characteris c. the set.

Any member of a set is called an element. For example, since "a" is a vowel,
then "a" is an element of the set men oned above. If a is an element of S,
then we write a ∈ S. Otherwise, if a is not an element of S, then we write a ∉
S. Sets are usually denoted with an English capital le er such as "S".
Other Representa on of Sets Equivalent Sets
1. Seman c Form. Seman c nota on describes a statement to  Two sets are said to be equivalent sets when they have the same
show what are the elements of a set. number of elements, though the elements are different. Example:
For example, a set of the first five odd numbers. A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {a,b,c,d}. Here, set A and set B are equivalent
sets since n(A) = n(B)
2. Visual Representa on of Sets Using Venn Diagram. Venn
Diagram is a pictorial representa on of sets, with each set Overlapping Sets
represented as a circle. The elements of a set are present inside  Two sets are said to be overlapping if at least one element from
the circles. Some mes a rectangle encloses the circles, which set A is present in set B. Example: A = {2,4,6} B = {4,8,10}. Here,
represents the universal set. The Venn diagram represents how element 4 is present in set A as well as in set B. Therefore, A and B
the given sets are related to each other. are overlapping sets.

Disjoints Sets
Sets Symbols  Two sets are disjoint if there are no common elements in both
 Set symbols are used to define the elements
sets. Example: A = {1,2,3,4} B = {5,6,7,8}. Here, set A and set B are
of a given set. The following table shows the
disjoint sets.
set theory symbols and their meaning.
Disjoints Sets
 Two sets are disjoint if there are no common elements in both
sets. Example: A = {1,2,3,4} B = {5,6,7,8}. Here, set A and set B are
disjoint sets.

Subset and Superset

 a set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every element of A
Types of Sets is also an element of B. This is wri en as A ⊆ B. For example, if A =
{a, e} and B = {a, e, i, o, u}, then it is obvious that A ⊆ B.
Singleton Sets
 A superset is the reverse rela onship of a subset. It indicates that
 A set that has only one element is called a singleton set or also one set contains all the elements of another set. In other words,
called a unit set. Example, Set A = { k | k is an integer between 3
the second set includes all the elements of the first set.
and 5} which is A = {4}.
Symbolically, we denote superset as ⊇ (superset or equal to) or ⊃
(proper superset).
Finite Sets  For example, Set A = {1, 2, 3} and Set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, set B is a
 As the name implies, a set with a finite or countable number of superset of set A because it contains all the elements of set A.
elements is called a finite set. Example, Set B = {k | k is a prime Symbolically, we represent it as B ⊇ A or B ⊃ A.
number less than 20}, which is B = {2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19}
Universal Set
Infinite Sets  There is a set which contains all elements of interest. We call this
 A set with an infinite number of elements is called an infinite set. the universal set denoted by U. Since it contains all elements, any
Example: Set C = {Mul ples of 3}. set is a subset of the universal set. There is also a set which does
not contain any element. This is called the empty set or null set
Empty or Null Sets which is denoted by either {} or ∅. It can also be shown that the
empty set is a subset of any set.
 A set that does not contain any element is called an empty set or a
null set. An empty set is denoted using the symbol '∅'. It is read as
'phi'. Example: Set X = { }. Power Sets
 Power set is the set of all subsets that a set could contain. The
Equal Sets power set is denoted by the nota on P(S) and the number of
elements of the power set is given by 2^n. Example: Set A =
 Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
{1,2,3}. Power set of A, P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3},
elements. That is, A = B if and only if every element of A is also an
{1,2,3}} = 8 or 2^3 = 8.
element of B and at the same me, every element of B is also an
element of A. For example,
A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {x | x is a vowel in the English alphabet},
then A = B

Unequal Sets
 If two sets have at least one different element, then they are
unequal sets. Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}. Here, set A and
set B are unequal sets. This can be represented as A ≠ B.
Other Important things to know about set:
The complement of A rela ve to B, is the set of all elements of B that are not
 The way the elements are arranged in the roster nota on does not
in A. In other words,
ma er. That is,
{a, e, i, o, u} = {u, o, i, e, a} = {e, o, a, u, i}
o For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Then,
 Each element in the roster nota on is said to be unique. This is the A - B = {1, 2}.
same as saying that if the same element is wri en twice, then o The cartesian product of two sets which is denoted by
both are counted as one. A × B, is the product of two non-empty sets, wherein
{a, e, i, o, u} = {a, e, i, o, u, a} ordered pairs of elements are obtained. For example, A
 A set cannot be an element of itself. = {1, 3} and B = {1, 3}, then A x B = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1),
(3, 3)}.

SET O P ERATIONS Exercise. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B =

Like numbers, there are also opera ons for sets. These are: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Find
 union (∪);
 intersec on (∩);
 universal complement (ᶜ); and, o [2] R E L A T I O N S
Can you name all of the following symbols?
 rela ve complement (-).
 cartesian product of sets (S x S)

The union of two sets A and B is defined by

These symbols are called rela ons. Their job is to establish a connec on
between two numbers. When any of these symbols are found between two
In other words, the union of two sets is composed of the elements of either
numbers, it means that the two numbers sa sfy a certain condi on required
or both of these sets.
for such rela on. For example, when we write
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f}, then

it means that 1.999 and 2 sa sfy the rela on of being "approximately equal"
to each other. Note that rela ons are different from opera ons like plus (+),
 The intersec on of two sets is
minus (-), mes (×), and divide (÷). Opera ons generate a certain result while
defined by
opera ons are only statements which may be iden fied as either true or
P
false.
In this part of Lecture 06, we will understand what rela ons are in the
 In other words, the intersec on
theore cal level and how they are used to aid mathema cal work.
of two sets is composed of the
elements that are common to
both sets. For example, if A and Cartesian Product
B are defined as above, then Given two non-empty sets A and B, their Cartesian product A × B is the set of
all ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Mathema cally,

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2}, then

Ques on. Is A × B = B × A?
It is also possible to have a Cartesian product of a set with itself. For example,
For us to obtain the universal complement (or simply, complement), the
universal set has to be defined first. The complement of a set A is the set of
all elements that do not belong to A. That is,

For faster wri ng we some mes denote these by

For example, if U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x,
y, z} and A = {a, b, c, d}, then,

In some cases, triple (and even mul ple) products are defined like A × B × C,
and
Exercise 1. Given A = {a, b}, B = {1, 2, 3}, find For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then

Exercise 2. If A has 3 elements and B has 2 elements, how many elements

does A × B have? How about B × A? What about A² and B²? In general, if A
has n elements and B has m elements, how many elements does A × B have?
Transi ve Rela ons
Cartesian products are used in mathema cs to construct a set out of other A rela on on a set A is transi ve if and only if a is related to b and b is related
sets that are useful for some purpose. For example, the Cartesian plane to c implies a is related to c. In other words,
which is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) where x and y are both real numbers is
simply the Cartesian product For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
In probability, Cartesian products express
the sample space of experiments. For example, if a man has two t-shirts of
colors S = {red, green} and two pants of colors P = {black, blue}. Then all the
possible ou its he could wear are given by the Cartesian product:
S × P = {(red, black), (red, blue), (green, black), (green, blue)} Exercise.
1. Let A = {@, #, $, %} and define a rela on ~ on A by
~ = {(@,@), (@,#), (#,@)}.
Rela ons
Is ~ reflexive? Symmetric? Transi ve?
Given a set A, we define a rela on on A as a subset of A². For now, we will
denote rela ons by R. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then A² = {(1,1), (1,2),
2. Define a rela on | (a|b is read as "a divides b") on the set of
(1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}. Thus, any of the following can be
integers by
considered as rela ons on A.
a|b if and only if b is divisible by a.
Is | reflexive? Symmetric? Transi ve?
If R is a rela on on A and (a,b) ∈ R, then we can write
aRb (read as a is in Rela on to b). Hence, from above,
3. Define ≤ as usual. Is it reflexive? Symmetric? Transi ve?
we can say

[3] F U N C T I O N S
Exercise. From the example above, determine whether the following are true We will now look at a special type of rela on - func ons. According to many
or false. mathema cians including Derbyshire[1], func ons are the second or third
most important objects in mathema cs a er numbers and sets. We will try to
Exercise. Let A = {a, b, c}. Let ~ (called " lde", read as answer the ques on: What makes a func on? And then, we will look at a few
"TIL-duh") be a rela on on A defined by examples and their applica ons in the modern world.
~ = {(a,a), (a,b), (a,c), (b,a), (b,b), (b,c), (c,c
Defini on of a Func on
Determine whether the following are true or false. It is best to imagine a func on to be like a machine because they work in
exactly the same principle. We feed something into the machine, we call this
the input, then the machine processes it in order to produce what we call the
output.

Note: From this point forward, we will mostly use

symbols like ~ for rela ons instead of the le er R. If we denote the func on by f, the input by x, and the output by y, then we
write
Reflexive, Symmetric, and Transi ve Rela ons
There are conven onal mathema cal terms for inputs and outputs in a
Some rela ons are more important than others because they sa sfy certain
func on. The input, x, is called the pre-image while the output, y, is called
special proper es. Some kinds of rela ons that we are interested in are
the image. We read the nota on as "f of x is y" or "f maps x to y". In fact, in
reflexive, symmetric, and transi ve rela ons.
other branches of mathema cs, func ons are interpreted as mappings.

Reflexive Rela ons

A rela on on a set A is reflexive if and only if every element of A is related to
itself. In other words,

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then

Symmetric Rela ons

A rela on on a set A is symmetric if and only if a is related to b implies b is For this example, we have
related to a. In other words,
A func on maps the set of pre-images (called the domain) into a set where Opera ons on Func ons
the images are found (called the codomain). In some cases, not all elements Just like numbers, we can also operate func ons. We can add, subtract,
in the codomain have a pre-image. The set of all images (which is just a mul ply, and divide them. There is also another opera on on func ons called
subset of the codomain) is called the range. composi on which we will introduce later.

If we look at it, a func on is just like a rela on. It pairs two elements from
two different sets. However, not all rela ons are func ons. In fact, there are
Addi on of Func ons
two specific proper es that a func on must sa sfy: If f(x) and g(x) are two func ons, then
1. every element in the domain must have an image (that is, every
element in the domain is a pre-image); For example,
2. every pre-image has exactly one image.

Trained students in mathema cs would just simplify both condi ons into one:
every element in the domain has exactly one image.
So if we are to find (f + g)(3), we have
 It does not ma er if there are elements in
the codomain that do not have a pre-image;
it also does not ma er if there are images
with more than one pre-image.
Subtrac on of Func ons
 This func on may be classified as a many- If f(x) and g(x) are two func ons, then
to-one func on.
For example,

So if we are to find (f - g)(-1), we have

The element 2 has two images b and d. This

violates Condi on (2).

Mul plica on of Func ons

If f(x) and g(x) are two func ons, then

For example,

The element 3 has no image which violates

Condi on (1).

So if we are to find (f g)(-1), we have

Division of Func ons

In this lecture, we will restrict our coverage only to algebraic func ons. The
following is an example of a linear func on which is one of the most basic
If f(x) and g(x) are two func ons, then
types of algebraic func ons.

For example,
So when x = 1,

So the input is 1, the output is 3, and the process (or rela onship between
the input and the output) is 2x + 1.

Exercise. Let f(x) = x² - 2x + 1. Evaluate the func on for the following values of
So if we are to find (f /g)(2), we have
x.
Composi on of Func ons For example, addi on is a func on that maps from ℝ² → ℝ which is
The last opera on on func ons we will be learning is composi on denoted by expressed as +(a,b) (a func on that has an ordered pair as its domain).
○. When we have (f ○ g) we read it as "the composite func on f of g". It is However, instead of the func onal nota on above, the more popular
defined by nota on is of course, a + b. For instance,
+(4,2) = 4 + 2 = 6
Hence, we can also read the composite func on as "f of g of x". Here, g(x) is So formally, a binary opera on on a set S is a mapping
called the inner func on while f(x) is called the outer func on. By this S² → S.
defini on, in order to evaluate (f ○ g)(x) we simply have to plugin g(x) into
the "x" in f(x). For example, if Recall the defini on of a func on:
A func on maps the set of pre-images, A (called the domain) into a set where
the images, B are found (called the codomain).
Mathem cally, f : A → B
Example:
f (1) = a
f (2) = d

Ques on. Is f ○ g = g ○ f?
Exercise. Let f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x² + 2x + 1. Find the following func ons
and evaluate at x = 2.

A binary opera on, * is a func on that maps the set of pre-images, AxA or A²
(called the domain) into a set where the images, A are found (called the
codomain).
Mathema cally, * : A² → A
Example:
* (a, a) = 5
* (a, b) = 2

[4] B I N A R Y O P E R A T I O N S
Opera ons like addi on, subtrac on, mul plica on and division are some of
the very first lessons a child learns in mathema cs -- next, perhaps, to
coun ng. These opera ons are technically called binary opera ons because
they "operate two numbers". In higher mathema cs, there are opera ons that operate more than two
numbers. However, in this course, we will only cover binary ones. Hence, we
Recall: Types of Numbers will just say opera on to mean binary opera on.
Numbers can be classified into sets of numbers according to their proper es.
The table below lists the names, proper es of and symbols used for the main There are four basic opera ons in mathema cs: addi on, subtrac on,
number types. mul plica on, and division. There is a basic rule in evalua ng these
Note: Many numbers are included in more than one set. opera ons. This rule is popularly called "PEMDAS"

Again, mathema cal language should

be precise!
Regardless of what the answer to the problem is, we
should avoid wri ng expressions in this way. As
emphasized in Lecture 04 at the beginning of this
Algebraic Defini on of Binary Opera ons chapter, mathema cal language should be precise. It is
Binary opera ons can be thought like func ons mapping a pair of numbers supposedly clear and not vague. If a mathema cal
into another number. expression causes confusion, then it be er be
rewri en in a way that is be er understood.
A binary opera on can be understood as a func on f (x, y) or * (x, y) that Exercises:
applies to two elements of the same set S, such that the result will also be an 1. Let ‘*’ be a binary opera on on N defined by *(a,b) = a - b + a b2,
element of the set S. then find 4 * 5.
2. Let ‘*’ be a binary opera on defined by a*b=4ab. Find (a*b)*a.
A binary opera on on a set is a mapping of elements of the cartesian 3. Let ‘*’ be a binary opera on defined by a*b=3ab+5. Find 8*3.
product, S × S to S, (i.e., * : S × S → S such that * (a, b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S). 4. Let '*' be a binary opera on defined by m * n = (m/n - n/m). Find -
The two elements of the input and the output belong to the same set S. 3*4

The defini on of binary opera ons states that "If S is a non-empty set, and *
Proper es of Binary Opera ons
is said to be a binary opera on on S, then it should sa sfy the condi on Some opera ons exhibit interes ng proper es. These proper es such as
which says, if a ∈ S and b ∈ S, then * (a, b) ∈ S, ∀ a, b ∈ S. In other words, * is closure, commuta vity, associa vity, iden ty, inverse, and distribu vity are
a rule for any two elements in the set S where both the input values and the some mes helpful in evalua ng opera ons and in proving.
output value should belong to the set S. It is known as binary opera ons as it We will use the symbol * to represent any opera on.
is performed on two elements of a set and binary means two.
Closure Property 4. A binary opera on of division ÷(a, b), on an empty set S has a closure
The closure property states that if you take any two elements from the set property if and only if ÷(a, b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S.
and apply the binary opera on to them, the result will always be an element Example 5: Division on the set of integers
of the same set. In other words, the set is closed under that opera on. Consider the set of of integers, Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}. Let's look at the
binary opera on of division on this set.
o An opera on * on a non-empty set S has closure property if and
only if, * (a , b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S. Take any two integers numbers from the set, say -16 and 4. Then we have,
o In turn, the set S is said to be closed under the opera on *. ÷(-16, 4) = - 4, where -16, 4 ∈ Z, and - 4 ∈ Z ∉ N
o To understand this concept more concretely, let's look at some Another example,
examples. ÷(-4, -16) = 1/4, where -4, -16 ∈ Z, and 1/4 ∉ Z
If we divide -16 from -4, we get 1/4, which is not an integer.
1. A binary opera on of addi on +(a, b), on an empty set S has a closure Therefore, the set of integers is not closed under division
property if and only if +(a,b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S.
Note: Division of integers doesn’t follow the closure property since the
Example 1: Addi on on the set of even integers quo ent of any two integers a and b, may or may not be an integer.
Consider the set of even integers, Z = {…, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, …}. Let's look at the Some mes the quo ent is undefined (when the divisor is 0).
binary opera on of addi on on this set.
In summary, the closure property of a binary opera on on a set ensures
Take any two even integers from the set, say 2 and 4, then we have: that the result of the opera on always remains within the same set.
+(4, 2) = 6 where, 2, 4 ∈ S and 6 ∈ S.
Therefore, the set of even integers is closed under addi on. Summary of arithme c opera ons and corresponding sets:
addi on, mul plica on, subtrac on, -
Type of Sets division, ÷(a,b)
Note: We can check this property for any other pair of even integers in the +(a,b) x(a,b) (a,b)
set, and we'll always get an even integer as a result. Posi ve
closed closed not closed not closed
Integers, Z+
2. A binary opera on of mul plica on x(a, b), on an empty set S has a
Integers, Z closed closed closed not closed
closure property if and only if x(a,b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S.
Example 2: Mul plica on on the set of posi ve ra onal numbers closed (only
Ra onal
Consider the set of posi ve ra onal numbers, Q = {x | x = p/q, where p and q closed closed closed when 0 is
numbers, Q
are posi ve integers}. Let's look at the binary opera on of mul plica on on excluded)
this set. closed (only
Real
closed closed closed when 0 is
numbers, R
Take any two posi ve ra onal numbers from the set, say 2/3 and 4/5, then excluded)
we have: Irra onal
×(2/3, 4/5) = 8/15, where 2/3, 4/5 ∈ Q and 8/15 ∈ Q. not closed not closed not closed not closed
numbers, Q'
If we mul ply them together, we get (2/3) x (4/5) = 8/15, which is also a
posi ve ra onal number. Therefore, the set of posi ve ra onal numbers is
Exercise. Are the following sets closed under division?
closed under mul plica on.
1. real numbers
2. posi ve real numbers
Note: we can check this property for any other pair of posi ve ra onal
3. non-nega ve real numbers
numbers in the set, and we'll always get a posi ve ra onal number as a
4. nega ve real numbers
result.
5. posi ve integers
6. posi ve ra onal numbers
Example 3. Mul plica on on the set of nega ve real numbers
Consider the set of nega ve real numbers, Z- = {-1, -2, -3,...}. Let's look at the
binary opera on of mul plica on on this set. Commuta ve Property
An opera on * is commuta ve if and only if
Take any two nega ve integers from the set, say -1 and -2, then we have: a * b = b * a.
×(-1, -2) = 2 , where -1, -2 ∈ Z-, however 2 ∉ Z- In other words, an opera on is commuta ve if and only if the order of which
If we mul ply -1 and -2, we get 2, which is not a nega ve integers. the numbers are wri en does not ma er. Obviously, addi on and
Therefore, the set of nega ve real numbers is not closed under mul plica on are commuta ve. However, subtrac on and division are not.
mul plica on. Exercise.
1. Define the opera on ⊕ on ℝ by a ⊕ b = a² + b². Is ⊕
3. A binary opera on of subtrac on -(a, b), on an empty set S has a closure commuta ve? Illustrate your answer by showing two examples.
property if and only if -(a,b) ∈ S, for all a, b ∈ S. 2. Define ⊖ by a ⊖ b = b² - a². Is ⊖ commuta ve? Illustrate your
Example 4: Subtrac on on the set of natural numbers answer by showing two examples.
Consider the set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, ...}. Let's look at the binary
opera on of subtrac on on this set. Associa ve Property
An opera on * is said to be associa ve if and only if
Take any two natural numbers from the set, say 5 and 7. Then we have, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
-(5, 7) = - 2, where 5, 7 ∈ N, however, - 2 ∉ N In other words, an associa ve opera on is a binary opera on in which the
If we subtract 7 from 5, we get -2, which is not a natural number (since grouping does not ma er. Addi on and mul plica on are associa ve. In a
natural numbers are defined as posi ve integers). series of addi ons or a series of mul plica ons, it does not ma er which pair
Therefore, the set of natural numbers is not closed under subtrac on. you treat first. The answer will be the same.
Exercise.
Note: In this case, we can see that applying the binary opera on of 1. Is subtrac on associa ve? How about division?
subtrac on to two natural numbers can result in a number that is not in the
same set. Therefore, the set is not closed under this opera on.
Iden ty Property Exercise. Are there inverses for real numbers under ⊕ above?
Let * be an opera on on a set S. An iden ty element in S under * is an
element e such that Distribu ve Property
a*e=a When there are two elements defined in one set, some exhibit the
e*a=a distribu ve property. For example, we have the distribu ve
property of mul plica on over addi on:
Some opera ons have an iden ty element while others do not. Those with an a (b + c) = ab + ac
iden ty element are said to sa sfy the iden ty property. Examples of this are
addi on and mul plica on. The iden ty element for addi on (may also be
called the addi ve iden ty) is zero (0): Exercise. Define ⊞ and ⊙ on the set of real numbers as follows:
a+0=a
0+a=a

The iden ty element for mul plica on (may also be called the mul plica ve
iden ty) is one (1):
a×1=a
1×a=a Evaluate
There are also some opera ons, especially those which are not commuta ve, 1. 6⊙8
in which the iden ty element works only in one place. For example, zero is an 2. 6⊙4
iden ty element for subtrac on but only when it is located right of the minus 3. 6⊞6
sign (i.e., when zero is the subtrahend): Is ⊙ distribu ve over ⊞? Show an example.
a-0=a
0 - a = -a

This is an example of a right iden ty element. A right iden ty element is an

iden ty element but works only when it is located at the right of the binary
opera on. A le iden ty element is defined similarly as an iden ty element
that works when it is at the le side of the opera on. Take note that an
element can be called an iden ty ONLY WHEN it is both a right and a le
iden ty element. Otherwise, we should specify.

Exercise.
1. Does division have an iden ty element?
2. Define ⊖ and ⊕ as above. Do they have iden ty elements? If yes,
what are these?

Inverse Property
Suppose * is an opera on on a set S with iden ty element e. Also, let a be an
element of S. We say that an element b is an inverse of a if and only if
a*b=e
b*a=e

One important thing to note first is that an inverse element depends on an

iden ty element. In other words, there is no inverse element if there is no
iden ty element for the opera on. However, when a a set has an iden ty for
the opera on, it does not necessarily imply that there are inverse elements in
it. An inverse element is an element such that when they are both operated,
results to the iden ty.
For example, the inverse element of a under addi on is -a:
a + (-a) = 0
-a + a = 0

Thus, the nega ve of a number may also be called its addi ve inverse.
For mul plica on, the inverse of a is its reciprocal:

o While it is true that reciprocals, also called multiplicative inverses,

are the inverse elements under multiplication, not all numbers
have an inverse. Specifically, the number zero does not have a
multiplicative inverse (because 1/0 is undefined). The lesson here
is that even if there is an identity for an operation, and there are
inverses for some elements, it does not mean that all elements
have an inverse.