Fluid Mechanics CEE 3311

LECTURE 1
Properties of fluids

L. Handia
Lecture 1 1
 Introduction
Mechanics
Mechanics is the science that describes and
predicts the conditions of rest or motion of bodies
under the action of forces.

Mechanics is divided into 3 categories:

(a) Mechanics of rigid bodies
(b) Mechanics of deformable bodies
(c) Mechanics of fluids or Fluid Mechanics: is the
science dealing with the action of forces on fluids.

Lecture 1 2
 Introduction
A fluid: gas or liquid
 Gas (compressible fluid)
 Liquid (incompressible fluid-not always)
In medicine: fluid usually used to mean liquid e.g. intravenous fluid
Corona virus transported in fluids through coughing/sneezing and moves
through another fluid, air

A liquid is a state of matter in which the molecules

are relatively free to change their positions with
respect to each other but restricted by cohesive
forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume
A gas is a state of matter in which the molecules
are practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A
gas has neither definite shape nor volume
Lecture 1 3
 Introduction
In contrast to a solid, a fluid is a substance that
deforms continuously when subjected to a shear
stress, no matter how small that shear stress may
be
Shear stress (covered in CEE2219: Statics and Introduction to Mechanics of Materials)
is defined as the force component tangent to a
surface divided by the area of that force. (like shears or
scissors, which cut objects tangent to the surface area)

Lecture 1 4
 Introduction
Principles of FM same as in solid particle motion:
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of momentum

The subject of FM will be divided into 3 broad

categories:
 Fluid statics (fluid at rest)
 Classical fluid dynamics (mathematical approach of fluids in motion). Classical
fluid mechanics is a branch of continuum mechanics;
that is, it proceeds on the assumption that a fluid is
practically continuous and homogeneous in structure.
 Fluid dynamics (real fluids in motion)
Lecture 1 5
 Introduction
Actual fluid relationship is made up of a collection
of discrete molecules.
In most engineering applications, however, we are
interested in the average conditions of velocity,
pressure, temperature, density, etc.
Therefore, a fluid will be regarded as a continuum:
a continuous distribution of matter with no empty
space (instead of the actual conglomeration of
separate molecules). In FM, this assumption is
normally justifiable because the no. of molecules
is so enormous and the distance between them is
very small. A continuum, or continuous medium, is a region defined in space where various
properties, such as temperature, pressure, density, and velocity, may vary in a continuous manner.

Lecture 1 6
 Introduction
 In most cases in fluid mechanics, the smallest entity considered is a control volume of
suitable size (usually in the range of several µm edge length). This control volume
contains a significant number of individual atoms and thus averages all effects exerted
by the individual atoms. Usually this averaging results in a significantly more
predictable behavior. In this case, we treat the fluid as being a continuous piece of
matter, which is why this approach is referred to as the continuum approach or
the continuum hypothesis. This continuum can be treated as having average values for
velocity, acceleration, entropy, or enthalpy. However, these are averaged values, so they
are discontinuous when looking at the atomic scale. On the experimental scale,
observing the effects in a continuum gives rise to more steady experimental data. If the
resolution is increased, the measurements will become less steady as the effects of the
individual atoms become more and more pronounced. The continuum hypothesis is
applicable for most applications in classical macro- and microfluidic applications as the
size of the control volumes can be chosen sufficiently big to contain at least some 10
000 atoms.

Lecture 1 7
 Properties of fluids
Properties involving the mass or weight of the fluid
mass = 1000kg/m3
(a) Density   Water
Air = 1.23kg/m3
volume

1
(b) specific Volume  


(c) Specific weight   g

 weight per unit volume.

weight of a fluid  fluid

(d ) Specific gravity  
weight of an equal volume of water  wate r
s.g.mercury=13.6
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 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
Definitions
1. Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid's internal
resistance to flow under gravitational forces. It is determined by
measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to flow a known distance by gravity through a
capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a closely controlled temperature.

2. Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it

offers resistance to shear stress or
3. Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear
or angular deformation or
4. Viscosity can be thought of as the internal stickiness of a
fluid. (Proverbs 5:3 “… smoother than oil”). Related to angle of internal friction φ
Note: stress is pressure like pressure of exams, stress due to social problems
e.g., motor oil has high viscosity and resistance to shear , whereas gasoline (petrol) has low
viscosity. More energy required to pump a more viscous fluid
2/25/2025 Lecture 1 9
(A fluid is a substance which continuously deforms when subjected to a small amount of shear)
 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
Oil Viscosity - How It's Measured and Reported (https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/411/oil-viscosity)
Noria Corporation
According to the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE), viscosity is one of an oil’s most important
physical properties. It is often one of the first parameters measured by most oil analysis labs because of its importance to oil
condition and lubrication. But what do we really mean when we talk about an oil’s viscosity?
A lubricating oil’s viscosity is typically measured and defined in two ways, either based on its kinematic viscosity or its
absolute (dynamic) viscosity. While the descriptions may seem similar, there are important distinctions between the two.
An oil’s kinematic viscosity is defined as its resistance to flow and shear due to gravity. Imagine filling a beaker with
turbine oil and another with a thick gear oil. Which one will flow faster from the beaker if it is tipped on its side? The
turbine oil will flow faster because the relative flow rates are governed by the oil’s kinematic viscosity.
Now let’s consider absolute viscosity. To measure absolute viscosity, insert a metal rod into the same two beakers. Use the
rod to stir the oil, and then measure the force required to stir each oil at the same rate. The force required to stir the gear oil
will be greater than the force required to stir the turbine oil.
Based on this observation, it might be tempting to say that the gear oil requires more force to stir because it has a higher
viscosity than the turbine oil. However, it is the oil’s resistance to flow and shear due to internal friction that is being
measured in this example, so it is more correct to say that the gear oil has a higher absolute viscosity than the turbine oil
because more force is required to stir the gear oil.
For Newtonian fluids, absolute and kinematic viscosity are related by the oil’s specific gravity. However, for other oils,
such as those containing polymeric viscosity index (VI) improvers, or heavily contaminated or degraded fluids, this
relationship does not hold true, and can lead to errors if we are not aware of the differences between absolute and kinematic
viscosity.
For a more detailed discussion on absolute versus kinematic viscosity, refer to the article “Understanding Absolute and
Kinematic Viscosity” by Drew Troyer
Lecture 1 10
 Properties of fluids
Viscosity
Consider the classic case of two parallel plates, sufficiently
large that edge conditions may be neglected, placed a small
distance Y apart, the space being filled with the fluid.
The lower surface is assumed to be stationary, while the upper
one is moved parallel to it with a velocity U by the
application of a force F corresponding to some area A of the
moving plate.

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 Properties of fluids

Viscosity

The lower plate is fixed, and a force F is

applied to the upper plate, which exerts a shear stress on any
substance between the plates

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 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
 At boundaries, particles of fluid adhere to the walls, and
so their velocities are zero relative to the wall. This so-
called no-slip condition occurs with all viscous fluids.
Thus the fluid velocities must be zero where in contact
with the plate at the lower boundary and U at the upper
boundary.
 The form of the velocity variation with distance between
these two extremes is called a velocity profile.

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 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
 If the separation distance Y is not too great, the velocity U
is not too high, and if there is no net flow of fluid through
the space, the velocity profile will be linear, as shown in
Fig. The behaviour is much as if the fluid were composed
of a series of thin layers, each of which slips a little
relative to the next.

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 Properties of fluids
Viscosity
 Experiments have shown that for a large class of fluids
under such conditions
AU
F
where A is the area over which shear is acting i.e., along the surface of the
moving plate or for any depth y, the surface of the thin water layer (U x width)
Y & not cross section of the water (Y x width)
Note variation of parameters

2/25/2025 Lecture 1 15
 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
AU
F
Y

 From similar triangles in Fig, U/Y can be replaced by

velocity gradient du (with v=0 at bottom and v=U at the top)
dy

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 Properties of fluids

Viscosity
AU F U
F  
Y A Y
If a constant of proportionality µ(mu) is
now introduced, F   U
A Y
the shearing stress τ (tau) between any two thin sheets of
fluid may be expressed by
F U du
   Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
A Y dy
   du dy is called absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity,
coefficient of viscosity or simply the viscosity of the fluid
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 Properties of fluids

dv
Viscosity
dy


v (nu) 

Slope
is μ


du dy

2/25/2025 Lecture 1 18
No viscosity (τ=0) for ideal fluid
 Properties of fluids

Perfect gas
Molecules of a perfect gas:
 Would behave like tiny, perfectly elastic
spheres in random motion
 Would influence each other only at collision
 Form a volume which would be negligible in
comparison with the volume in which they
moved

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 Properties of fluids

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 Properties of fluids
Compressibility
 All liquids compress if the pressure increases,
resulting in an increase in density
 Compressibility is expressed by its bulk
modulus of elasticity or coefficient of
compressibility, K
dP dP
K or K
dV d

V 
 Small density changes in liquids can be very significant when large
pressure changes are present e.g. water hammer which can be heard
shortly after sudden closing of a valve in a pipeline: when the valve is
closed an internal pressure wave propagates down the pipe, producing a
hammering sound due to pipe motion when the wave reflects from the
closed valve (watch video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoLmVFAFjn4 . Can see other
videos)
2/25/2025 Lecture 1 21
 Properties of fluids
Surface tension
 Surface tension is the property of a fluid surface to behave
as if it were covered with a tight skin (the meniscus), so that
a needle or fine powder can be made to float on cold water
without being wetted (dictionary of civil engineers).
 Other definitions:
• The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules
• Surface tension is the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused
by the attraction of the particles in the surface layer by the bulk of
the liquid, which tends to minimise surface area
 Surface tension is a property that results from the attractive
forces between molecules.
 As such it manifests itself only in liquids at an interface,
usually a liquid-gas interface.
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 Properties of fluids

Surface tension
 The forces between molecules in the bulk of a liquid are
equal in all directions, and as a result no net force is exerted
on the molecules.
 However, at an interface the molecules exert a force that
has a resultant in the interface layer:
 force holds drop of water suspended on a rod
 force is useful in desalination (see next slide)
 force causes the small drops from a sprayer to assume
spherical shapes
 force plays significant role when two immiscible liquids (e.g., oil
& water) are in contact with each other
 May be important when water depth is very low when in contact
with a solid boundary in hydraulic modelling
2/25/2025 Lecture 1 23
 Surface tension in simple desalination plant
• Remember looking at the picture at the top of this page of a floating solar still? The
same process that drives that device can also be applied if you find yourself in the desert
in need of a drink of water.
• The low-tech approach to accomplish this is to construct a "solar still" which uses heat
from the sun to run a distillation process to cause dew to form on something like plastic
sheeting. The diagram to the right illustrates this. Using seawater or plant material in the
body of the distiller creates humid air, which, because of the enclosure created by the
plastic sheet, is warmed by the sun. The humid air condenses water droplets on the
underside of the plastic sheet, and because of surface tension, the water drops stick to
the sheet and move downward into a trough, from which it can be consumed.

https://www.usgs.gov/special-
topic/water-science-
school/science/desalination?q
t-
science_center_objects=0#qt-
science_center_objects
2/25/2025 Lecture 1 24
 Properties of fluids

Surface tension
 In most cases of fluid mechanics and
hydraulics, surface tension and its effects may
be neglected in comparison with hydrostatic
and dynamic forces

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 Properties of fluids

Vapour pressure
 Liquids evaporate because of molecules escaping from the liquid
surface.
 Vaporisation will terminate when equilibrium is reached between
the liquid & gaseous states of the substance in the container i.e.,
when the no. of molecules escaping from the water surface is equal
to the no. of molecules striking the liquid surface and condensing
(the conversion of a vapour or gas to a liquid).
 The pressure resulting from molecules in the gaseous state is the
vapour pressure.
 Boiling occurs when the pressure above a liquid equals the vapour
pressure.

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 Properties of fluids

Vapour pressure
 In general, a transition from the liquid state to the gaseous state
occurs if the local absolute pressure is less than the vapour pressure
of the liquid.
 When this happens, bubbles are formed locally i.e. cavities which are
filled with vapour
 This phenomenon, called cavitation, can be very damaging when
these bubbles are transported by the flow to higher pressure regions.
 The bubbles collapse (implosion) upon entering the higher pressure
regions, and this collapse produces local pressure spikes which have
the potential to damage hydraulic pumps and turbines, ship’s
propeller, pipes, overflow spillway in dams (pitting, spongy
appearance). See video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-uUYCFDTrc
Cavitation is the formation of empty cavities in a liquid by high forces and the
immediate implosion of them
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 Properties of fluids

Vapour pressure
 damage hydraulic pumps

Impeller in good condition

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 Properties of fluids
Vapour pressure
 overflow spillway in dams (pitting, spongy appearance)
Cavities filled with vapor, air, and other gases will form in a liquid whenever the absolute pressure of the liquid is close to the vapor pressure. This
phenomenon, cavitation, is likely to occur where high velocities cause reduced pressures. Such conditions may arise if the walls of a passage are so
sharply curved as to cause separation of flow from the boundary. The cavity, on moving downstream, may enter a region where the absolute pressure is
much higher. This causes the vapor in the cavity to condense and return to liquid with a resulting implosion, or collapse, of the cavity. When the cavity
collapses, extremely high pressures result. Some of the implosive activity will occur at the surfaces of the passage and in the crevices and pores of the
boundary material. Under a continual bombardment of these implosions, the surface undergoes fatigue failure and small particles are broken away, giving
the surface a spongy appearance. This damaging action of cavitation is called pitting.

 Ways are there to avoid cavitation-for later courses

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