ALEVELANI

MALSCI
ENCENOTES
TOPI
C1
LI
VESTOCKANDWI
LDANI
MALS

1.Discussthesocio-
economicimportanceofl
iv
est
ockandwi
l
dani
mal
species.
2.Classif
yli
v est
ockandwil
danimals.
3.Identi
fybreedsandthei
radapti
vefeatur
es.

Li
vest
ockpr
oduct
ion
 Li
vestockproduct
ioni sanimportantagri
cul
turalsectorthathasasigni
fi
cant
contr
ibut
iontothet otal
agri
cul
turaloutput
.
 Ma j
orli
vest
ockspeci esinZi
mbabwear ecatt
le,goats,sheep,pi
gs,poul
tr
yand
donkeys.
 Li
vestockcanbecl assif
iedi
ntoruminantsandnon- ruminants(monogastr
ics)
.

a.Rumi
nant
s
 Theseareani
malswit
hfourst
omachcompar
tment
sandt
heychewt
hecud,
for
example,
catt
le,
goat
sandsheep.

b.Non-
rumi
nant
s
 Thesear
eani
malswi
thonest
omachandt
heydonotchewt
hecud,
forexampl
e,
pi
gsandpoul
tr
y.

Fi
g.1.
1.1 Far
mli
vest
ock.

Soci
o-economi
cimpor
tanceofl
i
vest
ock
 Li
v estockmakeplayapi votalrolei nthel i
veli
hoodoff ar
mersinthesmallholder
sector.
 Besidest hecont
ri
buti
onofl ivest ockt othel i
veli
hoodoffar
mersinthesmal l
holder
sector,li
vest
ockproducti
oni sal soi mpor t
antatacommer ci
all
evel.
 Li
v estockissour
ceoff ood,income, leather,draughtpowerandmanure.
 Animal scanbeusedf orri
tual/religi
ouspur poses,payi
ngbri
deprice(l
obola)and
l
ivestockcanbeasy mbol ofsoci alstatus(pr est
ige)
.
1.Sour
ceoff
ood
 Li
v estockcanberai
sedfortheproducti
onofausef ul f
orm ofdi
etar
yprot
einand
energy .
 Farm animalsarei
mportantsourcesofmeat( beef,por
k,muttonandchevr
onand
chicken).
 Besidesmeat ,l
i
vest
ockcanpr oduceotherproductssuchasmi l
kwhichcanbe
processedintodai
rypr
oductssuchasy ogur
t,cheese,but
terandicecr
eam.

2.Sour
ceofi
ncome
 Livest
ockisanimportantsourceofincome.
 Farmerswill
getincomeaf t
ersell
ingthei
ranimalsoranimalpr
oduct
s.
 Communal farmerscansellthei
ranimalssothattheycangetmoneytopayschool
fees,buycl
othes,agr
icul
tur
al i
nputsandfood.

3.Ani
mal
draughtpower
 Animal
canbeasourcedraughtani
mal power.
 Animal
ssuchascatt
leanddonkeyscanbeusedf orploughi
ngandtr
anspor
tat
ion.
 Theyar
eusedtoprepar
efiel
dsformaizetobacco,wheatandcott
on.
 Animal
sli
kecat
tl
ecanbeusedt opullortopushanox- dr
awncart
.

4.Manur
e
 Li
vest
ockwastecanbeusedasor ganicfert
il
izeri
nt hefor
m ofmanure.
 Manurecanbespreadonf
iel
dstoi ncreasecropyiel
ds.
 Manureisal
sousedtomakeplasterforwallsandf l
oorsinrur
alar
eas.
 Ani
mal wast
escanbeusedforbiogaspr oducti
on.

5.Tr
adi
ti
onal
pur
poses
 Far
m ani
malssuchascat
tlear
eusedf orpayi
ngbr
idepr
ice(
lobol
a).
 Ani
malcanalsobeusedf
orrit
ualpurposes.
 Somefar
merskeepli
vest
ockforpresti
ge.

Li
vest
ockbr
eedsi
nagr
icul
tur
e
 Abr eedisagr oupofanimal
softhesamespeci eswit
hsi mil
arphysical
char act
eri
stics(coatcol
our,hor
nsandbodyt ype)t
hatwi l
lproduceanimal
swit
h
thesamef eaturesifmatedamongthemselves.
 Th erearei
ndi genousbreedsandexoti
cbreedsofli
vestock.
 Indigenousmeansnat i
vetotheareaandexoti
cmeansf orei
gnornotnativ
e.
Cat
tl
ebr
eeds
 Allcattl
ebel ongtothegenusBos.
 Cattl
ecanbeei therBost aur usorBosi ndi
cus.
 Bosi ndicusreferstoindigenousbr eedswher easBost aurususual l
yrefer
st oexot
ic
breeds.
 Bosi ndicuscattl
etypicallyhav eapr onouncedhumpont heirshoulderswhichisfor
energyst orageandal soser vest oi ncreasesurfaceareaf orheatdissi
pation.
 Bost auruscat t
learehumpl ess.
 Therear ealsobeefanddai rycat tlebr eeds.
 Beefbr eedscanbeei t herindigenousorexot ic.
 Indi
genousbeefbr eedsi ncludeTul i,
Mashona, Nguni,Africander(Afri
kaner)and
Brahman.
 Exoticbeefbr eedsincludeSi mment al
, Heref
ord,Sussex,Aber deenAngus,
Beefmast er,LimousinandChar olais.
 Cattl
edai rybreedsincludeHol stein-Friesi
an/Fri
esi
an/Friesland,Jer
seyandRed
dane.

Adapt
ivef
eat
uresofi
ndi
genouscat
tl
e
 Theyhavestrongl
egswhi chenablethem t
ot r
avel f
orlongdistancesinsear
chof
past
ures.
 Theyhavestronghornswhichtheyusefordefenceorf orfight
ing.
 Theyarehardyhencetheyareresist
anttoti
ckbor nediseases.
 Theyaretol
erantt
ohar shcondi
tionssuchasdr ought.
 Somehav esmallbodysizeswhichmakest hem surviv
el ongerincaseofadrought
.

Goatbr
eeds
 Themaj or
it
yofgoat sarefoundinthesmal lhol
dersector
.
 Goat sarevaluedpr i
mar il
yformeat,milkandmanur e.
 Ther earebothi ndigenousandexot icgoatbreeds.
 Indigenousbreedsi ncludetheAngoragoat ,Matebel
egoat,MashonagoatandBoer
goat .
 E xoti
cgoatbr eedsi ncludeSaanengoatandToggenbur ggoat
.
 E xoti
cgoatbr eedsar enotwelladaptedtolocalcondi
ti
onsandtheyare
susceptibl
etodi seasesi fnotpr
operlytakencareof.

Adapt
ivef
eat
uresofi
ndi
genousbr
eeds
 Theycansurvivewithl
i
mi t
edvegetat
ionmakingthem droughtt
olerant.
 Theyarebrowsershencetheyhavelesscompetit
ionforfoodwithgrazers.
 Theyhavestronglegswhichmakesiteasyfornomadiclife.
 Theyhaveshortlegswhichenabl
esthem tomov eunderthickv
egetation.
 Theyareresi
stanttomanyparasi
tesanddiseases.
Sheepbr
eeds
 Sheepbr eedsinZi mbabwear eclassif
iedintoindi
genous,exoti
canddual-purpose
sheep.
 Indigenoussheepbr eedsincl
udet heSav e/Sabisheep,Dor
persheepandWi l
tper
sheep.
 E xoti
csheepbr eedsincl
udeBlackheadPer si
ansheep,VanRooysheep, Suffolk
sheepandWi l
tshirehornsheep.
 Ad ualpurposebr eedisananimal thathasacombi nat
ionoftwoormor epur poses
andt hesei ncl
udet heSouthAf r
icanMut tonMer i
noandCor ri
edalesheep.

Pi
gbr
eeds
 Pigproductioncanbedonecommer cial
lyaswel lascommunally
.
 Mostbr eedsusedi ncommer cialpr
oduct i
onareexot i
cbreedswhil
ecommunal
far
mer smayr eartogetherwithindi
genousbr eeds.
 I
ndigenouspi gbreedsincludeMukot apigs.
 Exoti
cpi gbreedsincl
udeLar gewhite,Landrace,Duroc,Hampshi
reandWelsh.
 PigIndustryBoard(PIB)isresponsi
bleforbreedingpigbreedsi
nZimbabwe.

Adapt
ivef
eat
uresofi
ndi
genousbr
eeds
 Theyarehar
dy( r
esistantt
ostr
ess,
par
asi
tesanddisease)makingthem hav
elow
mortal
i
tyrat
es.
 Theyaresmallbodiedanimal
shencet
heyrequi
rel
esswat erandlessf
eed.
 Theyhavestr
ongl egshencet
heycanwal
klongdistances.

Wi
l
dani
mal
s
 Wi l
dani malsareani mal specieslivi
ngint heirnaturalhabi tatwit
hlitt
leornohuman
i
nt erf
erence.
 Exampl esofwi l
dani mal sincludelions,gir
affe,zebras, baboons, buffalos,
rhinocerosandl eopards.
 Mostwi l
dli
fespeciesar ebecomi ngextinctasar esultofpoachi ngandhabi t
at
fragment at
ion.
 Wi l
dani malsprovideuswi thmeat ,hornsandhi des,butsomeani mal sar e
endanger edbecauseoft heirv al
uableivoryandbeaut if
ul skins.
 Thi sposeamaj orthreattospeci essuchasel ephants, rhinos,pangolinsand
py t
honsnakes.
 Wi l
dani malsplayani mpor tantroleinther ecreationandt ouri
sm indust r
y.

I
mpor
tanceofwi
l
dani
mal
s
1.Sour
ceoff
ood
 Someani
malsar
esaidt
ohavenutri
ti
ousanddel
i
ciousmeat
.
 Meatf
rom wi
l
danimal
sispopul
arl
yknownasgamemeat.

2.Gener
ati
onoff
orei
gncur
rency
 Wil
dani
malscangener
atef
orei
gncurr
encythroughsel
l
ingt
hei
rpr
oduct
ssuchas
i
vor
y,hi
desandgamemeattoforei
gncount
ries.

3.Aest
het
icVal
ue
 Aesthet
icv
aluemeansappreci
ati
onofwil
dli
fefori
tsbeaut
y; i
tisper
sonal
and
enhancedt
hroughi
dent
if
icati
onandunderst
andingofwil
dli
fe.

4.Soci
alVal
ue
 Thi
sisanadditi
onali
mpor tancetot hecommuni tiesli
vi
ngcloset oareaswit
hwil
d
ani
mals.
 Theycanmanaget heanimalssurroundingtheircommuni ti
esandt hisiscal
l
ed
Communal BasedNaturalResourceManagement( CBNRM) .
 Thi
sresul
tsinimprovedeconomi cbasef orthecommuni t
y,i
nfrastr
ucture
devel
opmentsuchasr oads,schools,cl
ini
cs,recreati
onalandresourcecentr
es.

5.Ecol
ogy
 Wildanimalshelpinmai nt
aini
ngbalanceinnaturethr
oughbi o-geochemicalcycl
es,
foodchains,populati
oncontrols,
pol
li
nati
on,seeddispersalandsanitat
ionthrough
scavengi
ng.
 Forexampl e,adecreaseinthenumberofcarnivorescanleadt oanincreaseinthe
numberofher bivores(whi
chf eedonvegetat
ion),
andthisdisturbsthebalanceof
natur
e’sstructur
eandf unct
ion.

6.Educat
ional
pur
poses
 Wildanimalsareusedasobj ect
sofstudiesbyecologist
s,et
hol
ogist
sand
pathologi
st.
 Resultsareimportanttoscienceandphil
osophyandser veasbasisforspecul
ati
on
onhumanpur poses,val
ues, et
hicsanddesti
nies.
 Studentsfrom schoolsanduni v
ersi
ti
esvisi
tnational
parkstoenhancetheir
understandingofthenatureandt heenv
ironment .

7.Recr
eat
ion
 Peoplederi
vepleasur
e,adv
ent
ureandenhancedphy
sical
andment
alheal
thf
rom
outdooract
ivi
ti
es.
 Manyt ouri
stsi nt
eractwit
hwildanimalsandthei
rwil
l
ingnesst
opayf oranacti
vi
ty
i
sani ndicatorofthewi l
dli
fev
alue.
 Touri
sm cr eatesempl oy
mentforthelocalpeopl
eandincr
easeincomegenerat
ion
fort
hepeopl eandt henati
onatlar
ge.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofwi
l
dani
mal
s
 Wil
danimal
scanbeclassi
fi
edi
ntot
hreecategor
iesbasedont
hei
rfeedi
nghabi
ts,
t
hatis,
her
biv
ores,
car
nivor
esandomnivor
es.

1.Her
biv
ores
 Theseareanimal sthateatplants(l
eaves,grasses,bar
ksandr oots)
.
 Herbiv
orescanbegr azersorbrowsersormi xedfeeders.
 Abrowseri sanani mal t
hatfeedonshrubsandt r
eeleaves,
forexampl e,
black
rhi
noceros,gi
raff
esandel ands.
 Grazersareanimal thatfeedongrass,forexample,rhi
noceros,buff
alosandzebr
as.
 Mixedfeedersincludeelephants.

2.Car
niv
ores
 Acarni
vor
eisananimal
thatfeedsonmeataspartofit
smai
ndi
et.
 Exampl
esofcar
nivor
esarel
ions,cheet
ahsandl
eopards.

3.Omni
vor
es
 Theseareani
malst
hatf
eedonbothmeatandplant
s.
 Examplesofomni
vor
esarebushpi
gsandbaboons.

TheBi
gfi
ve
 Therearefivemostdangerousanddiff
icultanimalstohuntandkil
l onfootin
Afr
ica.
 Theanimalsar ecal
ledthebigfi
veandtheyt heelephant
,buff
alo,l
ion,l
eopardand
rhi
noceros.
 Theseanimal shavetr
ophieswhichhavegr eatdemandinEurope.
 Bothlocalandinter
nati
onaltr
ophyhunterscompet etohuntforthebigfiveanimal
s.

Fi
g.1.
1.2 TheBi
gFi
veani
mal
s

Act
ivi
ty
1.Vi
sital
ocal
gamer
eser
veandi
dent
if
ythebi
gfi
veani
mal
s.
2.
Car
ryoutasur
veyi
nyourl
ocal
areaandi
dent
if
ythedi
ff
erentt
ypesofl
i
vest
ock
br
eedskeptbyf
armer
s.
TOPI
C2
ANATOMYANDPHYSI
OLOGY

Ani
mal
Cel
l
 Acel li
sthebasi cunitofl
if
e.
 Anani malcellhasmanypar tscalledorganell
es.
 Theor ganel
lesf oundinanani malcelli
nclude
ri
bosomes, plasmamembr ane, Golgi
appar at
us,
mitochondria,endoplasmicreti
culum,lysosomeand
nucleus.
 Eachoft heseor ganell
esperformsaspeci fi
cfunct
ion
i
nacel l
.
 Fi
g.2. 1.
1showsal abell
eddiagram ofanani malcell
.

Fi
g.2.
1.1 Anani
mal
cel
l
.

Cel
lorpl
asmamembr
ane
 Acel lmembr aneismadeupofphosphol i
pidsand
protei
ns.
 Theot hernamesofacel l
membr aneare
plasmal emmaandpl asmamembr ane.
 Thecel lmembr aneformstheouterboundar yoft
he
cellandi tsupportsthecellandmaintai
nsitsshape.
 Itcontrolsthemov ementofsubstancesinandoutof
 thecell
.
 Thestruct
ureofthecel
lmembr
anei
sshownbyt
he
diagr
am below.

Fi
g.2.
1.2 Thest
ruct
ureofacel
lmembr
ane.

Cy
topl
asm
 Cy t
opl asm i sagel -l
ikemat eri
alinsidethecell.
 Itcont ainsenzy mes, salt
s, water,organelleand
diff
erentor ganicmol ecules.
 Cy t
opl asm cont ainsenzy meswhi chbr eakdown
wast emat erialandcat al
ysemet abolicprocessesin
thecel l.
 Thecy toplasm mai ntainstheshapeofacel l.
 Iti
st hesi t
ef ormanyi mpor tantprocessessuchas
anaer obi crespirati
on, mei osis,mitosis,prot
ein
synthesi sandgl ycolysis.
 Thecy toplasm hel psi nthet ransportationof
mat erialsfrom oneor ganelletoanot herinthecell
.
 Themov ementofmat eri
alsl i
kehor monesar oundthe
cellisai dedbyt hecy toplasm.

Nucl
eus
  Thenucl eusist hecentreofli
feasi tcontrolsthe
acti
v i
ti
esoft hecel l
.
 Thenucl eusconsi stsofthenuclearenv elope,
nucleoplasm, chromatinandnucl eol us.
 Itcontai
nschr omosomes.
 Thesechr omosomesst oregeneticmat eri
al(DNA)for
determiningfor m andstruct
ureoft henewcel l
.
 Thenucl euspl aysanimpor t
antrol ei nprotei
n
synthesis.
 Thenucl euscont rol
scel l
growtht hroughst r
uctur
al
proteinsynthesisaswel lasenergyandnut ri
ent
met aboli
sm.
 Thesecr eti
onofr ibosomesi sregulat edbyt he
nucleus.

Fi
g.2.
1.3 Thest
ruct
ureoft
henucl
eus.

Nucl
earMembr
ane
 Anucl earmembr anei saperf
or ateddoubl ebil
ay er
whichencl osest hegenet i
cmat erial
inacel l.
 Itseparatest henucl eusfr
om thecy toplasm.
 Thepor esont henucl earmembr anear ecalled
nuclearpor es.
 Thesepor esr egulatet hemovementofmat eri
alsin
andoutoft henucl eus.
 Thenucl earmembr aneconsi
stsofanout er
 membr aneandani nnermembr ane.
 Theout ermembr anei sconnect edtother ough
endopl asmi creti
culum, communi cati
ngwi ththe
cytoplasm oft hecel l.
 Theexchangeofpr oteinsandRi bonucleicacid(RNA)
betweent henucleusandt hecy toplasm occursinthe
outermembr ane.
 Thei nnermembr anecont ainscertainprotei
nsthat
arenotdet ectedint heper ipheralendoplasmi c
ret
iculum.

Nucl
eopl
asm
 Thenucl eopl
asm isagel -li
kemat erial
foundwit
hin
thenucleus.
 Iti
smai nlycomposedofwat er.
 Itsuspendsot hermaterialsfoundi nsi
dethenucl
eus.
 Thenucl eopl
asm mai ntainstheshapeoft henucleus
andalsoactasmedi um f orthetransport
ati
onof
essenti
al materi
alswithinthenucl eus.

Nucl
eol
us
 Anucleolusisasi
teforri
bosomal RNAproduct
ion.
 Thenucleolusi
sthesit
efortranscri
pti
on.
  Itpl
aysanimportantr
olei
ntheassembl
yand
synt
hesisofr
ibosomesaswellasRNAsynthesi
s.

Endopl
asmi
cRet
icul
um
 Iti
sani nt
er-
membr anousnetworkmadeupoffl
ator
tubul
arsacswi t
hinthecytopl
asm.
 Therearetwot y
pesofEndopl asmi
cReti
cul
um.These
areroughendoplasmicreti
cul
um (r
ER)andsmooth
endoplasmicret
icul
um (sER).

a.Roughendopl
asmi
cret
icul
um
 I
thasr i
bosomesat tachedtot hemembr ane.
 I
tisimportantforthesynthesisandtransportat
ionof
prot
einswithi
nt hecell
.
 I
tproducesproteinsinsackscal l
edcisternae.
 Theprotei
nsproducedar eeithersenttot heGolgi
bodyorinsert
edi nt
othecel l
membr ane.
b.Smoot
hendopl
asmi
cret
icul
um
 I
thasnoribosomesattachedt oit
.
 I
tisimpor
tantinthesynthesi
sandt r
anspor
tat
ionof
l
ipi
dsandsteroi
dswithinthecell
.
 Thesmoothendoplasmicr et
icul
um movesnewly
 madepr
otei
nsandli
pidst
otheGol
gibody
,ly
sosomes
andmembranes.

Ri
bosomes
 Ribosomesar esmal lor
ganel l
eswi thoutamembr ane.
 Ribosomesar ealsoknownast he‘prot ei
nf actori
es’
ofthecel l
.
 Theycanbef oundfreel
yint hecy t
oplasm orat t
ached
toendopl asmicret
icul
um.
 Theyar ecomposedofr ibosomal RNA–r i
ch
cytoplasmicgranul
eswhi char esitesofpr otein
synthesis.
 Ribosomesar eresponsibleforassembl i
ngmol ecul
es
ofspeci fi
caminoacidstof orm acer tainpr otein
mol ecule.
 Someoft heprotei
nsthatar esy nt
hesi zedbyt he
ri
bosomesar eusedinthecy toplasm.

Gol
giBody
/appar
atus
 Golgibody/apparat
usaremembr aneboundedsacs
stackedont opoftheother
,wit
hassociat
edsecret
ory
vesicl
es.
 TheGol gi
compl exiscomposedofstacksof
 membr ane- boundst ructur esknownast heci sternae.
 Adi cty osomei sani ndi vi
dual stackoft heci sternae.
 Eachci sternaehasspeci al enzy mesoft heGol gibody
whi chhel pi nt hemodi fi
cat i
onandt ranspor tat i
onof
themodi fi
edpr oteinst ot heirdest ination.
 Theendoft hest ackwhi chr ecei vesmat erialsis
knownast heci sf acewhi let heot herendwhi ch
transpor t
smat er i
alsisknownast hetrans- face.
 TheGol giappar at usmodi f
ies, sortsandpackages
macr omol ecul est hatar esy nthesizedbyt hecel l
.
 Theenzy mesi nt heci sternaemodi f
ypr oteinsby
addi ngcar bohy dratesandphosphat et hrought he
processesofgl ycosy lati
onandphosphor ylati
on,
respect i
vely.
 Thet ranspor tationofl i
pidmol eculesar oundt hecell
i
sf aci li
tatedbyt heGol gi appar atus.
 TheGol giappar at uspl aysani mpor tantr olein
l
y sosomef ormat ion.

Fi
g2.
1.4 Gol
giappar
atus

Mi
tochondr
ia
 I
tisanov al
orrodshapedorganel
l
eboundbya
doubl
emembr ane.
 Ami t
ochondri
ahasaninnermembr ane(
whichhas
manyf ol
dsknownascrist
ae)andanoutermembrane
 (whichcoverstheorganell
e).
 Iti
sasiteforthebreakdownoff oodtor
eleaseenergy
forthecell
byconv er
ti
ngener gystor
edi
nglucoseinto
adenosinetri
phosphate(ATP).
 Itcanbereferr
edtoast hepowerhouse.

Fi
g2.
1.5 Mi
tochondr
ia
Ly
sosomes/
vesi
cle
 Thesear ev esicl
esf i
l
ledwi thdi gesti
veenzy mes.
 Ther earet wocl assesofl y sosomes, whi chare
primar yandsecondar yl y
sosomes.
 Pr i
mar ylysosomes( heterol ysosomes)r efertothe
newl yformedl ysosomes.
 Secondar yl ysosomesr efert oly sosomest hatare
formedasar esul
toft hef usionofapr i
mar y
l
y sosomewi thav esi
clecont ainingeitherext r
acell
ular
ori nt
racellularmat er
ial.
 Ly sosomesar esit
esf ornut rientandbact eri
alcel
l
digestion.

Exper
iment1:
Prepar
ati
onofanani
mal
cel
lsl
i
de
Ai
m
 Pr
epar
ati
onofanani
mal
cel
lsl
i
de.
Mat
eri
als
  Met hy l
enebluepowder
 Kidneyt issue
 Shar pkni f
e
 Microscopesl ide
 Coversl ip
 Mount i
ngneedl eort
oot
hpi
ck
 Microscope
 Disti
lledwat er
Pr
ocedur
e
 Prepar ea0. 15%met hy l
enebl uest ainbymixing1.5g
ofmet hylenebluepowderand100mLofet hanolprior
tocl ass.
 Cutopenaki dneyusingacl eanshar pkni
fe.
 Takeagl assmi croscopesl ideandt ouchthesurface
oft hecutar eawiththemi croscopesl i
de.
 Addonedr opofthemet hylenebl uestai
ntot he
mi croscopesl i
de.
 Gent lyplaceacov erslipov erthest ai
nedsmearby
put t
ingoneedgeoft hecov erslipont hesl
idetoone
sideoft hest ai
nandsl owl yloweri tbymeansofa
mount i
ngneedl eortoot hpick.
 Itisimpor t
anttomakesur et hattherearenobubbl es
whenpl acingacov ersli
p.

Fi
g.2.
1.6 Pl
aci
ngofacov
ersl
i
pov
ert
hest
ainedsmear
.
  Excessstainshouldberemovedbyt ouchi
ngtheedge
ofthecoversli
pwi thati
ssueorpapertowel.
 Examinetheslideunderthemicr
oscopeusingthe4x
object
ive.
 Whenf ocused,viewathi
ghpower( x400
magnifi
cati
on)t omakeobservat
ionsofcellsi
ze,
shapeandv isi
blecell
str
uctur
es.

Fi
g.2.1.
7 Obser
vinganani
mal
cel
lsl
i
deunderal
i
ght
micr
oscope.

 Drawawel ll
abelleddiagram showingcellsi
ze,shape
andv i
sibl
ecellor
ganelles.
 Aftert
heactivi
ty,removet heglasscoversli
pand
di
sposei nsharpsbin.Washsl i
dei nsoapywaterand
ri
nsewel l
.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 Thecell
membr ane,cyt
oplasm andnucl
euscanbe
obser
vedunderalightmicroscope.

Fi
g.2.
1.8 Cel
l
sobser
vedusi
ngal
i
ghtmi
croscope.
Act
ivi
ty
1.
Prepar
easlidef
oll
owingthepr
ocedureinExper
iment
1.
2.
Drawallt
hepart
softheanimalcel
lwhichyouwould
haveobserv
edandlabelt
hem cl
earl
y.
Skel
etal
syst
em ofabi
rd
 Ani malshaveskel etalsy stemsbutt hesy stemsdi fferamongdi f f
erentani mal
species.
 Th eskeletalsystem ofabi rdislightweightandcompactsot hatitcanf ly
compar edt oot herter restri
alandmar ineani mal s.
 Th erearesev eralfeat uresoft heskel etalsystem ofbi r
dswhi chsui ttheact i
vit
ies
theycar r
yout .
 Th esefeaturesar easf ollows:
1.Fusedv ertebral sectionst oprov i
der igi
dityrequir
edf orfl
ight.
2.Ast ernum wi thlargesur facear eat oallowf l
ightmuscl estoat tach.
3.Smal lheadf oreasyf ly
ing.
4.Themodi f
icat i
onofr i
bst hrought hei nclusi
onoft heunci natedpr ocess
(overlyi
ngf l
apspr ojecti
ngof fther i
bsconnect i
ngr i
bst otheonesbesi de
them) .
5.Thispr ov i
desst rengthtot her i
bcagesoast opreventcol l
apsedur ingfli
ght.
6.Longneckt oenabl ethebi rdtor eachf oodandpr ot
ectdel i
catebr ainti
ssues.

Anat
omi
cal
dir
ect
ional
ter
ms
 Anter i
or/rost
ral/
crani
al meansheadorf rontend.
 Post eri
or/caudalmeanst ailorhindend, towardtherear.
 Dorsal /Superi
orrefer
st otheuppersur face,towardsorbeyondthebackbone.
 Vent ral
/ i
nfer
iormeanst owardthebot tom, awayf r
om thevert
ebralcolumn.
 Distal meansawayf r
om, meansf ur
therfrom thevert
ebralcol
umn, andlike
proximal ,i
tisgeneral
lyusedi nreferencet oporti
onsofanextremity.
 Proximal meansrelat
ivelycl
oset oagi venpar t
,usual
lythevert
ebralcolumnor
body .

Fi
g.2.
2.1 Theskel
etal
syst
em ofachi
cken.
Ty
pesofbonesofabi
rd’
sskel
etal
syst
em
 Theskel
etal
system ofabi
rdi
smadeupoft
wot
ypesofboneswhi
char
e:
o Pn eumaticbones
o Me dull
arybones

1.Thepneumat
icbones
 Theseareholl
owboneswhi chareimpor
tantf
orrespi
rat
ion.
 Theyenableabirdt
obreathe.
 Examplesofthesebonesarester
num,humerus,
skull
,pelvi
cgi
rdl
e,l
umbarand
sacr
alvert
ebrae.

2.Medul
l
arybones
 Thesearei
mport
antsourcesofcal
cium f
orlay
ingchi
ckens.
 Examplesi
ncl
uderi
bs,t
ibia,
femur,
pubicbones,ul
na,
toesandscapul
a.

Endoskel
etal
par
tsofabi
rd
 Theendoskel
etoni
sdivi
dedint
otheaxialskel
eton(ver
tebralcolumn,t
hethorax,
ster
num,ri
bsandtheskul
l)andappendi
cularskel
eton(wings,legs,
pector
aland
pelv
icgi
rdl
es)
.

1.Theskul
l
 Theskullprot
ectst hebr ainbecausei tformstheskel etonoftheheadandi tal
so
supportsenseorganssuchast heeyesandt heears.
 Theskullisdi
v i
dedi ntobonesoft hecranium andbonesoft heface(f
acialbones).
 Thecranium i
smadeupoff l
atbones.
 Bonesliketheoccipital,sphenoidandet hmoi daresingleboneswhi l
ethepar i
etal
,
fr
ontalandtempor al occuri npair
s.
o F aci
albonesconsi stsofsinglebones( vomer,mandi bleandhyoid)and
pairedbones( maxi l
la,pr
emaxi l
la,pter
ygoid,
pal ati
ne,nasal
,l
acri
mal, malar
andt urbi
nate) .
o Bo nesoft heskul lareshownbyt hediagram below.
Fi
g.2.
2.2 Bonesoft
heskul
lofabi
rd.

2.Ver
tebr
alcol
umn
 Vertebr
alcolumnconsi st
sofachai nofbonest
hathavedif
f er
entshapes
dependingonwher etheyarelocated.
 Allpart
soft heskelet
onsuchasbonesoft hewingsandbackl egsaswellasthe
skullar
eat t
achedtoit.
 Thiscolumni sdiv
idedint
ofiv
er egionswhi
charecer
vical
,thoraci
c,l
umbar,sacr
al
andcoccy gealr
egions.

a.Thecer
vical
regi
on.

 Itextendsf
rom t
heskul
ltot
hef
ir
stv
ert
ebr
aewi
thacompl
eter
ibr
eachi
ngt
he
sternum.

b.Thor
aci
cregi
on

 I
tbear
scompl
eter
ibs.

c.Lumbarr
egi
on

 I
tisf
oundi
nthel
oinar
ea.

d.Sacr
alr
egi
on

 Thesacr
alandcaudal
ver
tebr
aear
efusedwi
tht
hepel
vi
sint
osy
nsacr
um.

e.Coccy
geal
regi
on

 Therei
sthefusi
onancent
ral
l
yofsev
eral
ver
tebr
aeandi
scal
l
edt
hepy
gost
yle,
whichbear
sthetai
l
.

3.Ri
bs
 Thefi
rstri
bsdonotat tachtot
hester
num insomebirds.
 Ther
ear evertebr
alri
bsandster
nalri
bs.
 Theuncinatedprocessprov
idesomerigi
dit
ytother
ibcageaswel
lasser
vingf
or
muscleattachment.

4.St
ernum
 I
tisal
argebr
east
bonewi
thl
argekeel
towhi
cht
hepect
oral
muscl
esusedi
nfl
i
ght
 ar
eatt
ached.
 Bi
rdst
hatdonotf
lyl
ackkeel
,acondi
ti
onknownasr
ati
te.

Pect
oral
gir
dleandwi
ngs
 Thepect oralgirdleconsi stsoft hescapul as( thef l
atboneslyi
ngont hedorso-
l
ateral surfaceoft heribs),thecor acoids( thest outboneswhi chbr acet heshoul
der
againstt hest ernum)andt hecl avicles(whi chf useant eri
ortothest ernum tofor
m
thefurcul a).
 Furculai salsoknownaswi shbone.
 Thewi nghassev eralfusedandmi ssi
ngpar t
sf rom t hebasi
cv ertebrae.
 Thehumer usi stheboneconnect edt ot heshoul der.
 Atthedi stalendt hehumer uswi denst ocr eatet wosur f
aceswhi char t
icul
atewit
h
theulnaandt her adius.
 Theul nai scur vedwhi l
ether adiusi sslender .
 Theul nahasr owsofbumpswhi char et hepoi ntsofat tachmentf orthesecondary
fl
ightfeat hers.
 Thecar palsar ereducedbyf usiont oradi aleandul nareinbi
rds.
 Ther adialeisatt heendoft her adi uswhi letheul narei
sattheendoft heul
na.
 Botht her adialeandul narear ef usionsofcar pals.
 Somecar pal
sar efusedwi t
hsomeoft hemet acar pal
stoformt he
carpomet acarpus.

Fi
g.2.
2.3 Theskel
etal
str
uct
ureofawi
ng.

Pel
vi
cgi
rdl
eandl
egs
 Thefusi onoft heili
um, i
schium andpubi sresultinthef ormationofthepelv i
s.
 Asocketcal l
edt heacet abulum isont helat
eral surfaceandi tiswher et
hef emuri
s
att
ached.
 Theili
um i sjoinedtot het ransversepr ocessesint hesy nsacrum.
 Theischi um boneext endsv ent
r al
lyfrom theili
um andf ormingt hesideofthe
pelvi
s.
 Thepubi si sthethinr od-l
ikebone.
 Thelegi smadeupoft hef emur ,t
ibotarsus,fi
bula, t
arsomet atarsusandhallux.
 Theheadoft hef emurf i
tsintotheacet abul
um.
 Thegr oov eont hedist alendoft hef emurpr ovi
desaspacef ort hepatel
la.
 Thetwoknobsont hedi stalendoft hef emurar epoi ntsofat t
achmentf orthe
ti
biot
ar susandf i
bula.
 Thefibulai sar educedbonewhi chexi stsasaspl interbonet hatispartl
yfusedto
andlyingpar allelt
ot hetibiotar
sus.
 Tibi
otar
susisaf usionofthet i
biaati t
sdistalendwithsometarsal
elements.
 Someoft heremai ni
ngtarsalsaref usedwi t
haf usi
onofthesecond,thi
rdand
fourt
hmet at
arsalstoformt hetarsomet atarsus.
 Fragmentsofthet hreemetatarsalsarti
culatewitht
hetoes.

Fi
g.2.
2.4 Skel
etonoft
hepel
vi
cgi
rdl
eandl
eg

Funct
ionsoft
heskel
etal
syst
em
 I
tsuppor t
st hebodyofanani mal.
 I
tpr otectsinter
nalorgansf orexampl etheskullprot
ectsbrainwhi l
etheri
bs
protectsthehear tandlungs.
 I
tgi vesshapebypr ovi
dingaf r
amet okeept hebodysuppor ted.
 Bones, skeletal
muscl es,tendons,ligament sandj oi
ntsfunctiontoget
hert
o
facil
itat
emov ement .
 Mar row,locatedwithinthemedul l
arycav i
tyoflongbonespr oduceredandwhi
te
bloodcel l
sinapr ocesscal l
edhaemat opoi
esis.
 I
tact sasr eservesofmi nerals,notablycalci
um andphosphor us.
 I
tbuf fersthebloodagai nstexcessi vepHchangesbyabsor bingorrel
easi
ng
alkali
nesal t
s.
 I
ti simpor t
antinthemechani calaspectofhear ing.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Dr
awandl
abel
askel
etal
syst
em ofabi
rd.

Skel
etal
joi
nts
 Ajoi
nti
sapar
twheretwoormorebonescomet
oget
her
.
 I
tisal
soanar
ti
cul
ati
onofbones.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofJoi
nts
 Joint
sareclassi
fi
edaccor
dingtostr
uctur
eandthemat eri
alt
hatuni
tet
hem.
 Joint
smaybecl assi
fi
edasfibr
ousjoi
nts(sy
nar
throses),
cart
il
agi
nousj
oint
s
(amphiar
thr
oses)andsynovi
alj
oint
s(diar
thr
osi
s).
Sy
nar
thr
oses(
fi
brousj
oint
s)
 Fi
brousj
ointspermitli
tt
leornomobil
it
yandhavenojoi
ntcavi
ty.
 Theexamplesoffibrousjoi
ntsi
ncl
udesut
ure,
syndesmosi
s,synchondr
osi
sand
gomphosi
sj oi
nts.

1.Sut
ure
 I
tisafi
brousj
ointbet
weenbonesoft
heskul
l
,whi
chcompl
etel
yossi
fi
esaf
ter
matur
it
y.

2.Sy
ndesmosi
s
 Thesearej
ointsj
oinedbywhit
ef i
brousorel
ast
icti
ssuebetweent
hemet
acar
pal
bones,
cost
al car
ti
lagesofast
ernalri
bsandcost
alcart
il
ages.

3.Gomphosi
s
 I
tist
hejoi
ntoft
eethi
nthei
rsocket
sinthemandi
bleandmaxi
l
la.
 I
toccur
sasthepegandsocketi
ntheteet
h.

Amphi
art
hroses(
car
ti
lagi
nousj
oint
s)
 Bonesofacarti
laginousj
ointarejoi
nedbycart
il
ageandther
eisnoi
nter
veni
ng
j
ointcavit
y.
 Cart
il
aginousj
ointspermitsl
ightorpar
ti
almobil
it
y(li
mit
edmovement)
.
 Examplesofcarti
l
aginousjoi
ntsaresynchondr
osisandsymphy
ses.

1.Sy
nchondr
osi
s
 Iti
sanimmov abl
ejointi
nwhi chtheunit
ingmedium isahyali
necart
il
age.
 Anexampleofasy nchondrosisj
ointi
stheuni
onoft hediaphysi
sandepiphy
sisof
animmatureboneaswel lasthejoint
softheoccipi
talandsphenoi
dbonesofthe
skul
l.

2.Sy
mphy
ses
 Thesej
oint
sdonotcont
ainsy
nov
ial
cav
iti
esandar
efoundmai
nlyi
nthev
ert
ebr
al
 col
umnbet weenthevert
ebrae.
 Ther
eisapl at
eordiscofcarti
lagejoi
ningtwov er
tebr
aet ogether
.
 Symphysesisjoi
nedbycarti
lageandf i
brousti
ssueasf oundonj oi
ntsbet
weent
he
hi
pbonesaswel lasbodiesofadjacentvert
ebraeandst ernbr
ae.

Di
art
hrosi
s(Sy
nov
ial
joi
nts)
 Thesej oint
sar ehi ghlymov ableast hereisflexion,adductionandpr onati
on.
 Sy novial j
ointsarer ef err
edt oast r
uej oi
nts.
 Themostpr ominentf eatureofthisjointisthepr esenceofaj ointcavit
yandaj oint
capsul e.
 Thej ointcont ainsf luidcalledsynov i
al f
lui
dwhi chlubr
icatesthejointtoreduce
fri
ction, wear i
ngandt eari
ng.
 Inaddi tion,thejointhascar t
il
agewhi chdimi nishtheeffectsofconcussi on(shock)
whi choccur swhenanani mal i
swal ki
ngonunev enground.
 Thesej oint
shav eext rast r
ucturessuchasl igament sandt endonsthatconnectthe
bonesmaki ngt hej ointfir
m.
 Ligament sar estrongbandst hatconnectbonet obone.
 Tendonsconnectbonet omuscl e.

Fi
g.2.
3.1 At
ypi
cal
synov
ial
joi
nt.

Ty
pesofsy
nov
ial
joi
nt
 Synovialj
oint
sareclassifi
edbasedont het
ypeofjoi
ntandmov ement s.
 Synovialj
oint
scaneitherbesimpleorcomposi t
e.
 Simplejoi
ntshaveonlytwoj oi
ningboneswhilecomposi
tejoi
ntsinvol
v emorethan
twoboneswi thi
nthesamecapsul e.
 Typesofsy novi
alj
ointsincl
udeballandsocketj
oint
s,hi
ngejoi
nts,condyloi
djoi
nts,
pivotj
oint
sandsaddl ejoint
s.

1.Bal
landsocket
 Theyhaveoner
oundedextremitywhichf
itsi
ntoacav
ityofanot
herbone,
permi
tt
ingmovementinall
directi
ons
 Examplesar
ehipj
ointandtheshoulderj
oint
.

2.Hi
ngej
oint
 Thesehaveoner
oundedsurfacewhichfi
tsint
oanot
heri
nsuchawayt
hat
movementisonl
ypossi
bleinoneplane.
 Ane xampl
eofahingej
ointi
stheel
bowj oint
.

3.Condy
loi
djoi
nt
 Theyaresi
mil
artoahingejoint
,butpermitmovementintwoplanes,
lat
eralaswel
l
asbackwar
dandf or
ward.
 Thisal
l
owsmov ementli
keflexi
on,extensi
on,
abducti
on,adducti
onandsli
ght
ci
rcumduct
ionpossi
bleexceptrot
ati
on.

4.Pi
votj
oint
 I
tisajointinwhichrotati
ononlyi
spossibl
e.
 Forexample,mov ementsofthehead,wheret
hering-l
i
keat
lasrot
atesr
oundthe
peg-
shapedpr ocessoftheaxis.
 Anotherexampleisradiusontheulnai
npronati
onandsupi
nati
onofthefor
earm.

5.Saddl
ejoi
nt
 I
tisaj oi
ntofrecipr
ocalr
ecept
ion(animperfect
lydevel
opedball
andsocketjoi
nt)
.
 Thejointbetweenthetr
apezi
um andthefir
stmet acar
palboneofthethumb,
permitsgreatfr
eedom ofmovement,enabl
ingthethumbt obeopposedtothe
fi
ngers.

Fi
g.2.
3.2 Ty
pesofsy
nov
ial
joi
nts.

Joi
ntsoft
heskul
l
 Thej
oint
softheskulli
ncl
udesutur
ejoi
nts,
symphy
ses,
synchondr
iosi
s,t
empor
o-
mandi
bularj
ointandgomphosi
s.

1.Sut
urej
oint
s
 Thesej
oint
sar
ti
cul
atet
hecr
ani
alandf
aci
albones.

2.Sy
mphy
ses
 Thesy
mphy
sesuni
tet
womandi
blesoft
hel
owerj
aw.

3.Sy
nchondr
iosi
s
 I
tisf
oundbet
weensphenoi
dandocci
pit
albones.

4.Tempor
o-mandi
bul
ar
 I
topensandclosest
hemouth.
 I
tisal
socal
ledthehi
ngej
oint
/sl
idi
ngj
oint
.

5.Gomphosi
s
 I
tjoi
nst
eet
htot
hej
awbone.

Joi
ntsbet
weent
heskul
landt
hev
ert
ebr
alcol
umn
1.Tempor
o-mandi
bul
arj
oint
 Temporo-mandibul
arjointi
sfoundbetweent
hemandibl
eandthetemporalboneof
theskul
l.
 I
tconsist
sofanar t
icularsur
faceontheskul
landoneonthemandibl
e,wi
thaplat
e
ofcart
il
agein-
between.

2.At
lant
oaxi
alj
oint
 I
tisaj oi
ntwhichhasfl
exi
onandext
ensi
onmov ement
sbet weent
heocci
pit
albone
oftheskullandthef
ir
stboneoft
hever
tebr
alcolumn(at
las).
 Ane xampleofthefl
exi
onandext
ensi
onmov ementsi
sthe“Yesnoddi
ngofthe
head”.

Joi
ntsbet
weent
hev
ert
ebr
albones
1.Hi
ngej
oint
 I
tisbet
weenatl
asandaxisvert
ebraeanditi
sfir
mlyhel
dbyli
gaments.
 Thesei
ncl
udethef
ibr
o-car
ti
lagi
nousjoi
ntswhicharef
oundbetweenver
tebr
ae.
 I
tall
owsrot
arymovementsoftheheadandatlas.

Joi
ntsoft
her
ibs
1.Pi
votl
i
kej
oint
s
 Thesearefoundbetweentheheadofr
ibandadepr
essi
onl
ocat
edbet
weent
he
adj
acentthoraci
cvert
ebr
ae.

2.Ar
thr
odi
al(
sli
dingj
oint
)
 Thesear
efoundbet
weent heart
icularsur
facel
ocatedashor
tdist
ancefr
om t
he
headoft
heribandafacetonthetransver
seprocessoft
hevert
ebrae.

3.Car
ti
lagi
nousj
oint
s
 Thesearejointsofventralendsoft
heri
bsatt
achedtothesternum.
 Examplesofcar t
il
aginousjoint
saresy
nchondr
oses(j
ointsi
nwhi chbonesar
e
j
oinedbyhy ali
necarti
lage)andsymphyses(
sli
ght
lymov abl
ejoint
smadeof
fi
brocar
ti
lage).

Joi
ntsoft
het
hor
aci
c(f
ore)l
i
mb
1.Scapul
o-t
hor
aci
c(sy
nsar
cosi
s)j
oint
 I
tisaj
ointbet
weent
hescapul
aandt
hor
ax,
itsat
tachmenti
sbymuscl
eand
l
i
gaments.

2.Shoul
derj
oint(
bal
landsocketj
oint
)
 I
tisaj
ointbet
weenscapul
aandhumer
us.

3.El
bowj
oint(
hingej
oint
)
 I
tisaj
ointbet
weenhumer
usandr
adi
usandul
na.

4.Car
pal
joi
nts(
sli
dingandgl
i
ding)
 Thesear
ejoi
ntsoft
hecar
pus.

5.Car
po-
met
acar
pal
joi
nt
 Thesear
ejoi
ntst
hatconnectcar
pust
omet
acar
pus(
sli
dingandgl
i
ding
movements)
.
6.Fet
lockj
oint(
gingl
ymusorhi
nges)j
oint
s.
 Thesearej
oint
sbetweenmetacar
pusandthef
ir
stdi
git
.
 Theyal
lowextensi
onandfl
exi
onofthefoot
.

7.Past
ernj
ointandcof
fi
njoi
nt
 Thesear
ejoi
ntsf
oundi
nsi
det
hehoof
.

Joi
ntsoft
hepel
vi
c(hi
nd)l
i
mb
1.Sacr
o-i
l
iacj
oint
 I
tisaj
ointbet
weensacr
alr
egi
onandt
hei
l
ium oft
heos-
coxae.

2.Hi
pjoi
nt(
bal
landsocket
)
 I
tisaj
ointbet
weenpel
vi
cgi
rdl
eandf
emur
.

3.St
if
lej
oint
 I
tisaj
ointbetweenf
emurandt
ibi
a.
 I
tcont
ainssynovi
alf
lui
d.

4.Hockj
oint(
sli
dingandgl
i
dingmov
ement
s)
 Thesej
oint
sar
efoundamongt
het
arsal
bones.

5.Tar
so-
met
atar
sal
joi
nt
 I
tjoi
nstar
sust ometat
arsus.
 I
tischar
acter
izedbysl
idingandgl
i
dingmov
ement
s.

6.Gi
ngl
ymusj
oint
s(asi
nthef
orel
i
mb)
 Theyarethesameasi nthef
oreli
mb.
 Thesearejoi
ntsbetweenmetacar
pusandthef
ir
stdi
git
.
 Theyal
lowextensionandfl
exi
onofthefoot
.

7.Past
ernj
ointandcof
fi
njoi
nt
 Thesear
ejoi
ntsf
oundi
nsi
det
hehoof
.

Mov
ementofj
oint
s
 Glidingorsl idingist hemov ementt hatoccur sbet weent wor el
at i
velyflatsurf
aces
i
napl anejoints.
 Flexioni sthemov ementi nt hesagi tt
alplanet hattendst odecr easet heangl e
betweensegment smaki ngupaj oint
.
 Thecar pusmustbef lexedwhenahor se’sf rontf ootispickedf ortrimmi ng.
 Extensi onist her everseoff l
exion.
 Mov ementi nt hesagi ttalplanet hattendst oi ncreaset heangl ebet weensegment s
formi ngt hejoint.
 Hy perext ensioni st hemov ementi nwhicht heangl ebetweensegment sis
i
ncr easedbey ond1800orast raightl
ine.
 Thef etl
ockoft hehor sei shy perextendedwhi leinnor mal standingposi t
ion.
 Rot ationreferst ot wisti
ngmov ementofasegmentar oundi tsar m axis.
 Shaki ngt hehead“ no”i sanexampl eofrotat i
on, inthiscasebet weent heat l
asand
axisoft hever tebralcolumn.
 Adduct i
oni sthemov ementofanext remi t
yt owar dt hemedi anpl ane.
 Abduct i
oni sthemov ementofanext remi t
yawayf rom themedi anpl ane.
 Circumduct i
oncombi nest heot hert y
pesofmov ementexceptr otation.
 Pronat i
ontendst or otateanext remit
ysot hatt hedor sum isup.
 Supi nationisamov ementt hatt endstor otateanext remitysot hatt hepal maror
plant araspectoft hel i
mbi sup.

Funct
ionsofj
oint
s
 Joi
ntspermitmoti
on/mov ement.
 Theyprovi
destabi
li
ty.
 Theyholdtheskel
etalsy
stem t
ogether
.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Constr
uctmodel
sofdi
ff
erentt
ypesofsy
nov
ial
joi
nts.Uset
heconst
ruct
edmodel
s
toshowmovementofj
oint
s.
Muscul
arsy
stem
 Thestudyofmusclesisknownasmy ology.
 Amusclei sdefi
nedasatissuecomposedofcont
ract
il
efi
bresandcel
l
s.
 Thebuil
dingblockofmusclesismyof
ibri
l.

Fi
g.2.
4.1 Thest
ruct
ureofamuscl
e.

Muscl
efi
breormuscl
ecel
l
 I
tisthest r
ucturaluni
tofmuscl es.
 Fi
bresarel ong,narr
owandmul ti
-nucl
eatedcel
ls.
 Musclefibrelengthvari
esbutmanyat t
ain34cm.
 Thediamet erofmuscl efibr
esrangesbetween10t o100μ, di
ff
eri
ngfr
om one
muscletot heotherduet ospecies,br
eedandsex.
 Musclefibresareincreasedbyage, pl
ainofnut
r i
tion,
trai
ninganddegreeof
devel
opmenti nbodywei ghtrat
herthanbodywei ghtit
sel
fandbyt he
administ
rationofoestradiol
.

Fi
g.2.
4.2 Thest
ruct
ureofamuscl
efi
bre.

 Agivenmusclecontainsfi
bresofv ar
yingdiamet ersuchthatthesmall
eronesare
ontheoutsi
dewhilethebiggeronesar etowar dst hecent
re.
 Therel
ati
veproport
ionofwhi t
eandr edf i
bresist hebasisforcl
assi
fyi
ngmuscles
asredorwhitedependingoncol ouri
ntensit
y .
 Redmuscleshavemor er
edf i
bresthanwhi tefibr
esandwhi t
emuscleshavemore
whit
efibr
esthanredmuscl es.
 Int
ermedi
atemuscl
etypehasequal
proport
ionsofwhi
teandr
edf
ibr
es,
for
example,
semit
endi
nosis(
thi
ghmuscle)i
npigs.

Tabl
e2.
4.1Di
ff
erencesbet
weenr
edandwhi
temuscl
e.

Redmuscl
e Whi
temuscl
e

 Most
lyf
oundi
nact
ivemuscl
es.  Foundi
nlessact
ivemuscl
es.

 I
thasasmal
ldi
amet
er.  I
thasabi
ggerdi
amet
er.

 Ithaswelldef
inedl
ongi
tudi
nal  Ithasbett
erdef
inedt
ransv
erse
stri
ati
ons. stri
ati
ons.

 I
thasacent
ral
l
ylocat
ednucl
eus.  I
thasal
esscent
ral
l
ylocat
ednucl
eus.

 I
thasabundantcy
topl
asm.  I
thasl
esscy
topl
asm.

 I
tr eact
ssl
owlytosti
mulibut  Itr
eact
smor er
api
dlyt
osti
mul
ibut
reacti
onmaint
ainedforl
ong showfati
guemorequi
ckl
y.
period.

 I
thasnumeroussmal
l  I
thasf
ewerbutl
ongermi
tochondr
ia.
mit
ochondr
ia.

Sar
comer
e
 Thesar comereisafunctionalunitoft hemyofibri
l.
 Theyarel ongfi
brousproteins(my ofil
l
ament s)thatsl
idepasteachotherwhent
he
musclescont r
actandrelax.
 Thethickonesar ecal
ledmy osinwhilethethinonesar ecal
ledacti
n.
 Wh enviewedunderami croscopet heyappearasdar kandlightbands.
 Darkbands( ABand)ar eov erl
appingthickandt hi
nmy ofi
laments.
 Li
ghtband(IBand)aret
hinmyofi
l
aments.
 Thedi
agram bel
owi l
l
ustr
atest
hestr
uct
ureofasar
comer
e.

Fi
g.2.
4.3 Sar
comer
e

Ty
pesofmuscl
es
 Ther
earethr
eet
ypesofmuscleswhichareskel
etal,
viscer
alandcardi
acmuscl
es.
 Eachoft
hesemuscl
etypeshasspecif
icchar
act
eristi
csandfuncti
ons.

Tabl
e2.
4.2Ty
pesofmuscl
esandt
hei
rappear
ances.

Muscl
ety
pe Cont
rol Appear
ance

Skel
etal
/st
ri
ated Vol
unt
ary St
ri
ated

Vi
scer
al/
smoot
h I
nvol
unt
ary Smoot
h,un-
str
iat
ed

Car
diac I
nvol
unt
ary Str
iat
edandcross
connect
ions

Fi
g.2.
4.4 Muscl
esofacow

Fi
g.2.
4.5 Muscl
esofabi
rd.

St
ri
ated/
skel
etal
muscl
e
 I
tisamusclethatisconnectedateitheroneorbot hendst
oaboneandmov
es
part
softheskelet
on.
 I
tischar
acteri
zedbyt r
ansversestr
ipes.
 I
tisvol
untar
il
ycontroll
ed(underconsciouscontrol)
.
 I
thasoneat t
achmentcalledtheinsert
ion,whi
chi smovabl
eandanot
her
att
achmentcall
edorigi
nwhi chisalmostimmov able.
Gr
oupsofassoci
atedst
ri
atedmuscl
esaccor
dingt
othei
ract
ion
 Stri
atedmuscl escanbecl assif
iedasf l
exorsorext ensorsdependingontheir
action.
 Flexorsarestri
atedmusclest hataregenerall
yar r
angedi nantagonist
icpai
rs
(opposite)
.
 Flexorsaremuscl eswhosecont racti
onscauset heangl ebetweenbonest owhich
theyareattachedt obereduced, f
orexamplehumer usandradius.
 Extensorsaremuscl eswhosecont r
acti
onincreaseangl ebetweenbones, f
or
exampl emuscl esatthebackofhumer usandr adius.

Accessor
yst
ruct
uresassoci
atedwi
thst
ri
atedmuscl
es
 Jointcapsule(li
gament)i
sadoubl e-
lay eredsleeveoffi
broust i
ssuesurr
ounding
thejoi
nt sofli
mbsandenclosingthej ointcavityofasynov i
alj
oint
.
 Synovialsheathisamembr aneli
ningt hecav i
tyofbonet hroughwhichat endon
mov es.
 Bursai sfoundbetweenski
nandol ecr anonprocess( pr
ojecti
onofulna).
 Theirinnerlay
erproducessynovi
al f
luidwhi chisresponsibl
eforlubr
icat
ion.

Di
str
ibut
ionofst
ri
atedmuscl
es
 St
ri
atedmuscl
esf
ormt
hemuscl
esoft
hel
egs,
head,
neck,
ver
tebr
aeandabdomen.

Muscl
esoft
hef
orel
i
mb
1.Tr
apezi
us
 Itsorigi
nstret
chesfrom backoft
heheadt
olumbarv
ert
ebr
aeandi
nser
ti
oni
son
spineofscapula.
 Itlookstri
angulari
nshape.

2.Rhomboi
deus
 I
tli
esunder
neat
hthet
rapezi
usandi
snotv
isi
ble.

3.Ser
rat
usv
ent
ral
i
s
 I
tist
helar
gestandmostimportantmuscl
ethatat
tachesfr
ontl
i
mbtothebody.
 I
tsor
igi
nextendsf
rom cer
vical
vertebr
aet
oribsanditi
nsert
sonmedi
alofscapul
a.

4.Br
achi
ocephal
uicusandsupr
aspi
nat
us
 Muscl esaref oundi ntheball
andsocketj oi
ntofscapul
aandhumer us.
 Brachiocephal usstret
chesfrom l
ateralsi
deofhumer ustoocci
pit
alboneoft
he
skullandcer vicalvert
ebrae.
 Itpull
sshoul derforwar dandupward, t
husextendsthearm.
 Su pr
aspinatusi sfoundont helat
eralsideofscapul
a,ori
gini
sonscapulaand
i
nsertsonl ater al
tubersit
yofhumer us,al
soextendi
ngtothearm.

5.Ter
esmaj
or,
lat
issi
musdor
siandi
nfr
aspi
nat
usmuscl
es
 Theyant agoni
zeact
ionsofbrachiocephal
i
usandsupr
aspi
nat
usmuscl
es.
 Theyflexthearm.
 I
nfraspinatusal
soabductandflexthearm.

6.Pect
oral
muscl
es
 Theyar
ethemai
nabduct
orsoft
heshoul
derandf
leshcal
l
edbr
isket
.

7.Tr
iceps
 Theyar
ethestr
ongestext
ensorsofel
bow.
 Tri
cephast
hreeheadswhichinser
tonol
ecr
anonpr
ocessoful
na.

8.Bi
cepsbr
achi
i
,br
achi
ali
sandpr
onat
ort
eres
 Theyar
ethemai
nfl
exorsofelbow.
 Theyor
igi
nat
efr
om humerusandinser
tonr
adi
us.

9.Ext
ensorcar
pri
radi
ali
sandext
ensorcar
pri
ulnar
is
 Theseext
endt
hecar
pus.

10.Fl
exorcar
pri
radi
ali
sandf
lexorcar
pri
ulnar
is
 Theyar
efl
exor
soft
hecar
pus.

Muscl
esoft
hehi
nd-
li
mb
1.Hamst
ri
ngmuscl
es
 Theyconsi
stofbi
cepsfemors,
semitendi
nosusandsemi
membr
anosus,
for
ming
topsi
deandsil
ver
sidest
eak.
 Theyareext
ensor
sofhipandchieff
lexor
sofsti
fl
e.

2.I
li
acusandpsoasmaj
or
 Theyfor
mt hethi
nfl
ankandfi
ll
etsteak.
 Theyarefl
exor
softhehi
p,andtheylocat
edcr
ani
alt
othef
emur
.

3.Quadr
icepsf
ermor
is(
from i
l
li
um t
opat
ell
a).
 Thesear
ethemai
next
ensor
sofst
if
le(
knee)j
oint
.

4.Gast
rocnemius,
super
fi
cial
digi
tal
flexor
,bi
cepsf
ermor
isand
semit
endinosus
 Theseatt
achtotendonofachil
l
es.
 Theyarefl
exor
sandextensorsoft
hehock(
ankl
e)j
oint
.

Muscl
esofhead,
neckandv
ert
ebr
ae
1.Loi
nmuscl
eandl
ongi
ssi
musmuscl
e
 Theyareresponsibl
eforf
lexi
on(
str
aight
eni
ng)andl
ater
alf
lexi
on(
bendi
ng)of
ver
tebr
alcolumn.
 Longi
ssimusdor sii
sasegmentofi
t.

2.Spl
eni
usandcompl
exus
 I
tiswelldevelopedandstrong.
 I
tli
ft
sorext endsneckandhead.
 I
tori
ginatesfrom ver
tebr
aeandi nser
tsonocci
pit
alboneoft
heskul
l
.

3.Li
gament
um nuchae
 I
tisheavyelast
icbandandhasawel l
-dev
elopedmuscl
e.
 I
tstr
etchesfrom vert
ebraet
oskull
.
 I
tgiv
esai dtoextensors.
 I
trei
nforcesextensorssi
nceheadandneckareal
soinf
luencedbygr
avi
ty.Thi
s
 hel
pinpul
l
ingagai
nsti
t.

4.St
ernocephal
i
us
 I
textendsfr
om st
ernum t
oskull
.
 I
tassist
sinlower
ingofheadandneck.

Abdomi
nal
muscl
es
 Abdominalmusclesi
ncl udeexternalabdominalobli
que,i
nternalabdomi
nalobl
i
que
(l
i
eunderneath)andtr
ansv ersusabdomi ni
smuscl eswhichar et
hedeepest
i
nnermost.
 Theysupportdi
gesti
ve,reproductiveanduri
naryorgans.
 Theyal
soassistindefecati
on, uri
nati
onandpar t
urit
ioni
nf emales.
 Theyareal
souseddur ingregur gi
tati
onandexpirati
on.

1.Rect
usabdomni
s
 I
tisf
oundont
hef
looroft
heabdomen.

Respi
rat
orymuscl
es
1.I
nter
nal
int
ercost
almuscl
es
 Theyareusedforexpi
rat
iontoget
herwi
thabdomi
nal
muscl
esast
heyr
educesi
ze
ofthor
ax,f
orci
ngairoutoflungs.

2.Di
aphr
agm andext
ernal
int
ercost
almuscl
es
 Theyarer
esponsi
blefori
nspi
rati
onastheycreat
eparti
alvacuum i
nthor
ax.
 Diaphr
agm i
sdoom shaped,i
tsepar
atesthor
aciccav
ityfr
om abdominal
cavi
ty.

Smoot
hMuscl
e(i
nvol
unt
arymuscl
e)
 Theydonotcontainmyofibri
lsandhavenost r
iat
ions.
 Theyalsodonothaveoriginsandinsert
ionsastheyarenotat
tachedtot
he
skel
eton.
 Theyoccuri
nwal l
sofdigestivet
ract,
uri
narytr
actandbloodvessels.
 Indigesti
vetract,t
heyassisti
nmov i
ngandmixi
ngoffood(
peri
stal
i
sis)and
controlsdi
amet erofbloodvessel
s.
 Mu sclesarecontrol
ledbyautonomicner
voussy
stem (
ANS).

Car
diacmuscl
es(
inv
olunt
aryst
ri
atedmuscl
es)
 Cardi
acmusclespossesscr
ossstr
iat
ionsli
keinst
ri
atedmuscles,butar
e
contr
oll
edbyautonomicner
voussyst
em, f
orexample,muscl
esfoundinthehear
t.

Theci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem
 Thecir
culatorysystem consist
sofblood,hear
t,ar
ter
ies,
capi
l
lar
ies,
vei
nsand
l
ymphv essels.
 Art
eri
escar r
yoxy genat
edbl oodtoti
ssues.
 Vei
nscar r
ydeoxy genatedbloodtoheart.
 Lymphv esselscarryl
ymphf lui
dtothevenacav a.

Gener
alf
unct
ionsoft
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem
 I
ttr
ansportsnutr
ientstocell
s.
 I
ttr
ansportsoxygentor espi
ri
ngcell
sandmet
abol
i
cwast
esf
rom cel
l
s.
 I
tdi
stri
buteshormones.
 I
tprot
ectsagainstinj
uryandmi cr
obes.

Bl
ood
 Bloodisasti
cky
,viscous,redcol
ouredflui
dorl
i
qui
dti
ssuet
hati
scar
ri
edf
rom t
he
heartandl
ungstothetissuesofthebody .
 Th ebl
oodisati
ssuebecausei thascel
ls.

Bl
oodcomposi
ti
on
 Thetwomai
ncomponent
sofbloodar
ethepl
asmaandcel
l
s.
 ThepHofbl
oodr
angesbetween7.
35and7.
45.

1.Pl
asma
 Thepl
asmamakesup55%volumeofthebl
ood.
 Pl
asmaconsi
stsof90%wat
erand10%ofav ar
iet
yofsubst
ancest
hatar
ein
 sol
utionandsuspension.
 Nutr
ients,
wastes,sal
tsandprot
einsconst
it
ute10%ofthepl
asma.
 Sal
tsandpr ot
einskeepthepHnear7.4andmaintai
nosmoti
cpressur
eoft
he
bl
ood.

2.Bl
oodCel
l
s
 Ther
ear
ethreegroupsofbloodcel
lswhichi
ncl
uder
edbloodcel
l
s(er
ythr
ocy
tes)
,
whit
ebl
oodcell
s(leukocy
tes)andpl
atel
ets(
thr
ombocy
tes).

Fi
g.2.
5.1 Bl
oodcel
l
s

Redbl
oodcel
l
s(er
ythr
ocy
tes)
 Thesear esmal lbi
concavediskswhi chhav enonucl euswhenmat ure.
 Thebiconcav eshapeofr edbloodcel l
sincreasessur f
aceareaf orgaseous
exchangeacr ossthecellmembr ane.
 Redbloodcel lscontai
nhaemogl obin(ar espi
ratorypigment).
 Haemogl obi
ngi vesredbloodcellstheabi l
it
ytocar r
yoxygen.
 Theabsenceoft henucleuscreatemor espacef orhaemogl obin.
 Redbloodcel lsl
ackmi tochondri
aandt hiscreatesmor esurfaceareaf oroxy
gen
absorpti
on.
 Inaddit
ion,theabsenceofmi t
ochondr i
ameanst hatredbloodcellshav etor
espi
re
anaerobical
l
yandt hismeanst hattheydonotuseupanyoft heoxy gentheycar
ry.

Whi
teBl
oodCel
l
s(l
eukocy
tes)
 Thesecel
lsplayani
mport
antr
olei
nthebody
'sdefencemechani
smsagainst
di
seases.
 Thetwocategori
esofwhi
tebl
oodcel
lsar
egranul
ocytesandagr
anul
ocy
tes.

1.Gr
anul
ocy
tes
 Granulocy
tesaremadeinthebonemar
rowbycellsdif
ferentfrom t
hoset
hatmake
redbloodcell
s.
 Thelif
espanofgranul
ocytesi
safewhours.
 Granulocy
tescanbefur
thergr
oupedi
ntoneutr
ophil
s,eosinophil
sandbasophi
l
s.

a.Neut
rophi
l
s(phagocy
tes)

 Thesefor
mt hefi
rstl
i
neofdefenceagai
nstforei
gninvasions.
 Theyareablet
opassthroughbl
oodvesselstoengulfbacteri
aandt
heengul
fed
ti
ssuefor
mspus.
 Neutr
ophil
sdestr
oythemselv
essoonafterengul
fi
ngbact eri
a.
b.Eosi
nophi
l
s

 Theyar eabletopasst hrought hebloodv esselsbutdonotengul fbact

eria.
 Eosi
nophi lsarescarce,buttheyincreaseinnumberwhent herei
sachr onic
i
nfection.
 Theydet oxif
ymat er
ialsthatareintr
oducedt hroughlungsanddigesti
vetractas
wellast oxi
nsproducedbypar asit
esandbact eri
a.
 Hormonespr oducedbyt headr enalcort
exi nresponset ovari
ouskindsofstress
controlthenumberofeosi nophi l
spresentint hebloodst r
eam.

c.Basophi
l
s

 Basophi l
sarerarecell
si ntheblood.
 Basophi l
sproducehepar in(ananti
-cl
ott
ingprotei
ninareasofi
nfl
ammation)and
histamine(achemi calfoundindamagedt issueswhichisi
nvol
vedini
nfl
ammat i
on)
.
 Ba sophil
sdonotl astl
ong( onlyafewhours)becausenewcel l
sareal
ways
requiredatsi
tesofi nf
lammat ion.

2.Agr
anul
ocy
tes
 Agranul
ocyt
espossessnon-
granul
arcy
topl
asm andt
heyhav
eei t
heranov
alor
beanshapednucl
eus.
 Thetwotypesofagranul
ocy
tesaremonocy
tesandly
mphocytes.

a.Monocy
tes

 Monocytesrespondtolessacuteandlongt er
mi nf
ectionssuchast ubercul
osi
s.
 Theyentert
issuesanddev el
opintolar
gerphagocytescal l
edmacr ophages.
 Monocyteswor kt
ogetherwithneutr
ophilstofor
m asy stem ofphagocytes
thr
oughoutthebodywhi chactsasaf i
rstli
neofdefenceagainstinfect
ion.

b.Ly
mphocy
tes

 Lymphocytesareproducedint
hethy
musglandandl
ymphoi
dti
ssuesfr
om cel
l
s
whichori
ginatei
nthebonemar r
ow.
 Theyproduceanti
bodiessuchasimmunogl
obul
i
ns,Tcel
l
sandBcell
swhichfi
ght
for
eignparti
cl
es.

3.Pl
atel
ets(
Thr
ombocy
tes)
 Platel
etsareirr
egularl
yshaped,membrane-
boundcel
lfragmentsformedfrom
specialbonemar rowcel l
s.
 Th eyusuall
ylacknuclei
.
 Th eyareimportantinbloodcl
ott
ing(
coagul
ati
on)sothatlossofbodyfl
uidsis
prevented.
 Th eyproduceserotoni
nhor monewhi
chstimul
atesl
ocal const
ri
cti
onofinj
ured
 vessel
s.
 Bloodcl
ott
ingi
sal
sof
aci
l
itat
edbyf
ibr
inogenandpr
othr
ombi
n.

Thehear
t
 Thehear tisanor gant hatpumpsbl oodar oundt hebody ,suppl y i
ngt hecel lswi t
h
oxygenandnut ri
ent sandr emov ewast essuchascar bondi oxidef rom t hecel ls.
 Thehear tisl ocatedwi t hint het horaci ccav it
yoft hebodybet weent het wol ungs.
 Iti
sat tachedt oot hert horaci cstructur esbyl argear ter
ies, veinsandt heper icardial
sac.
 Thehear tissur roundedbyt oughser oussaccal ledper i
car dium ( pericardialsac) .
 Theper i
car dium cont ai nsonl yasmal lamountoff luid(pericar dialfluid)between
thetwodi stinctlay erswhi chr educesf ri
ctionbet weent hehear twal l and
surroundi ngt issueswhent hehear tisbeat ing.
 Theout erpar tofper i
car dium consi stsofi nel asticwhi t
ef ibroust i
ssueswhi ch
preventt hehear tfrom bei ngov erstretchedorov erfil
ledwi thbl ood.
 Theout erwal l
soft hehear tar emadeupofmuscul artissuescal ledmy ocar dium
muscl eswhi lethei nsi dewal lislinedwi thendot heli
al l
i
ningcal ledendocar di um.
 Thehear tissepar atedi ntol ef tsi
deandr ightsi debyawal l ofmuscl ecal l
ed
septum.
 Ithasf ourchamber s,twouppert hinwal ledat ria( r
ightatrium andl ef tatri
um)and
twol owert hi ckwal ledv ent ricles( r
ightv ent ricleandl ef
tv ent ri
cle).
 Thel eftv entricl
ehast het hi ckestwal lsoft hehear tbecausei thast opumpbl ood
athighpr essur etoal l par tsoft hebody .
 Bloodhast hehi ghestpr essur einthel eftv ent r
icle.
 Thev alv esf oundont her i
ghtsi deoft hehear taret ri
cuspi dv alveandpul monar yor
semi -l
unarv alvewhi l
et hoseont hel eftsi dear emi tral(bicuspi d)v alveandaor ti
c
valve.

Fi
g.2.
5.2 Hear
t
Bl
oodf
lowt
hrought
hehear
t
 De- oxygenat edbl oodcomesf rom ot herpar t
soft hebodyt ot hehear tthrought wo
l
ar gev einscal ledt hecr anial andcaudal venacav a.
 These, empt ybl oodi ntot her i
ghtat ri
um.
 Whent her i
ghtat rium i sf il
ledwi thblood, itcont r
act s,pushi ngbl oodt hrought he
ri
ghtat r i
o- ventricul arv alveort ri
cuspi dv alv e,i
nt ot her ightv ent ri
clewi tht hehelpof
thecar di acmuscl es.
 Whent her i
ghtv ent ricleisf ul l
,itcont racts, sendingbl oodt hroughpul monar y/semi-
l
unarv al vest ot hepul monar yar tery.
 Pul monar yar terybr anchest olef tandr ightpul monar yar teri
eswhi chsuppl yt helef
t
andr ightl ungs, wher ebl oodget soxy genat ed.
 Eachpul monar yar ter ydiv i
desr epeat edlyi ntoar teriolesev entuallygi vingr i
set o
capi l
l
ar ieswi t
hi nt hel ungs.
 Thecapi l
lariesar ei nv erycl osecont actwi thlungt issuesot hatoxy geni nhaledis
absor bedi ntot hebl ood.
 Capi l
lariescombi net of or mv enul eswhi chwi llcomet oget hert ofor m pul monar y
veins.
 Oxy genat edbl oodi st henr eturnedt ot hehear tbypul monar yv eins, i
ntot helef t
atrium.
 Oncet hel eftatrium i sf i
lledupwi t
hoxy genat edbl ood, itcont ractst herebysendi ng
bloodt ol eftvent riclet hroughbi cuspid( mi tralorl eftat ri
ov entricular)v alve.
 Whent hel eftv ent ri
clei sf ull,i
tcont ract s,pumpi ngbl oodoutt oall partsoft he
bodyt hr ought heaor taandt hisi scont r
olledbyt heaor ti
cv alve.

Fi
g.2.
5.3 Ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem

Thecar
diaccy
cle
 Thecar diaccy cleist hesequenceofev entswhi cht akepl acedur i
ngt hecompl et
ion
ofonehear tbeat .
 Iti
nvolv esrepeat edcont r acti
on( sy stol
e)andr elaxation(di astole)oftheheart
muscl e.
 Thecar diaccy clebegi nswi t
ht hecont racti
onoft heat r
ium ( atri
um sy stol
e).
 Astheat ri
um cont racts, bloodpushest heat ri
ovent ri
cularv alveandget sint
ot he
ventr
icleswher etherei sl owbl oodpr essure( semi l
unarv alv espr eventback-f
low).
 Theat rium thenr el
axesf orabout0. 7seconds( atri
al di
ast ole).
 Whent heat ri
al wal l
scont ract,theyseal offthev enacav aandt hepul monaryv ei
ns.
 Thev ent r
icl
econt r
act s(v entr
icul arsystole)gener atinghighpr essur ewhichshuts
theatrioventricularv alveandf or cest hesemi lunarv alvest oopensucht hatblood
i
sal l
owedt of lowi ntot heaor ta
 Thisflowofbl oodi ntotheaor tagener atesadet ectablepul se.
 Thev ent r
icl
est henr elax( ventri
cul ardiastole),tobef ol
lowedbyt henext
contract i
onoft hev ent r
icles.
 Af
tercont
ract
ionsoft
hecar
diacmuscl
e,t
hemuscl
esr
elaxandr
ecoi
l
.

Bl
oodv
essel
s
 Bloodvessel
sarenarr
owt ubesthroughwhi chthebloodcirculatesar
oundt
hebody
.
 Bloodvessel
swhichcarr
ybloodar earter
ies,capil
lar
iesandv eins.
 Eacharter
yandveinconsi
stsofthreelayer swhichareendothel i
um,t
uni
camedi
a
(middl
ecoat)andtuni
caexterna(exter
nal coat
).

Fi
g.2.
5.4 Ty
pesofbl
oodv
essel
s

1.Endot
hel
i
um
 I
tisani
nnerl
i
ningofsquamousepi
thel
i
um.

2.Tuni
camedi
a(mi
ddl
ecoat
)
 I
tisami
ddl
elay
erofsmoot
hinv
olunt
arymuscl
eandel
ast
icf
ibr
es.

3.Tuni
caext
erna(
ext
ernal
coat
)
 I
tconsi
stsmai
nlyofi
nel
ast
icwhi
tef
ibr
es(
col
l
agenf
ibr
es)
.

Ar
ter
ies
 Arter
ieshav et hickandel ast i
cwal l
st hatcont ainl ayersofconnect i
veandsmoot h
muscl et i
ssues.
 Thisenabl est hem t odilate( i
ncreasei ndi amet er)wi t
houtbei ngrupturedwhent he
heartcont ract sandf orcesbl oodintot hem athi ghpr essure.
 Arter
iescar rybl oodawayf rom thehear t.
 Theaor t
a, sub- clav
iansandcar oti
dsar elargear teri
escl oset otheheart.
 Thesev essel sar eabl etowi t
hstandt hehi ghpr essur eofbloodl eavi
ngt helef
t
ventr
icleoft hehear t
.
 Arter
iesf ur t
herawayf rom t heheartpossessr elativ
elymor esmoot hmuscl efi
bres
i
nt hemi ddlel ayer.
 Allarteri
escar ryoxy genat edbl oodexceptpul monar yar t
eries.
 Whent hepul seofbl oodpassest hrough, eachar ter
yexpandsandt heelasti
crecoi
l
thefibrescausi ngi ttospr ingbackaf terwards, thushel pingthebloodal ong.
 Thisisknownassecondar ycircul
ationandi treducest hebur denont heheart
.
 Arter
iesspl i
tt of or
mv erysmal lar
teriescal l
edar ter
ioles.

Ar
ter
iol
es
 Bl
oodf
rom ar
ter
iespassesi
ntosmal
lvessel
scal
l
edar
ter
iol
es.
 Ar
teri
olesconsistofendothel
i
um onlywrappedaroundbyaf ewmuscl
efi
bresat
i
nterv
als.
 Ar
teri
oleshavesphincter
satthepointwheretheyentert
hecapil
l
ari
es.
 Thesesphinct
erscontrolt
heflowofbloodinthecapil
lar
ies.

Capi
l
lar
ies
 Thesearet
hesmallestbloodvessel
sinthebodywhi chconsi
stofendotheli
um
onl
y.
 Capil
l
ari
esrecei
vebloodfrom t
hearter
iol
es.
 Capil
l
ari
esform amassivenetworkofvessel
spenetrati
ngall
bodyparts.
 Capil
l
ari
eshavethi
nwal l
sselecti
vel
ypermeable.
 Capil
l
ari
esall
owmat eri
alandgasexchangebet weenthebodycell
sandbl ood.

Venul
es
 Venulesreceivebl
oodf r
om capil
l
ariesandpassiti
ntoveinswhichwi
l
lev
ent
ual
l
y
car
ryitbackt otheheart
.
 Venuleshavewal l
swhichconsistofat hi
nlay
erofcoll
agenfi
bres.
 Coll
agenf i
bresaretoughandinelasti
c.

Vei
ns
 Veinsarebloodv esselswhi chhavelessmuscl eandelasti
cf i
bresi
ni t
smiddle
l
ayerthananar tery.
 Thelumendi amet erofv einsisgreaterthanthatofart
eries.
 Veinspossesssemi l
unarv alv
eswhichar eformedfrom foldsoftheinnerwall
sof
thevei
n.
 Semi-l
unarv al
vespr eventbackf l
owofbl ood.
 Manyv einsarelocatedbet weenthelargemuscl esofthebody .
 Whenmuscl escontractt heyexertpressureont hevei
nsandsqueezet hem f
lat
.
Thishelpstheflowofbl oodt otheheart.

Tabl
e2.
5.1Compar
isonofar
ter
ies,
capi
l
lar
iesandv
eins.

Ar
ter
ies Vei
ns Capi
ll
ari
es

Funct
ion
 They  Theytranspor
t  Theyli
nkarteri
esto
tr
ansport bloodtowards vei
ns.
bl
oodaway theheart.  Theyaresitesof
fr
om heart
. exchangeofmat er
ial
s
betweenbloodand
ti
ssues.
St
ruct
ur
 Theyhav ea  Theyare  Theyhavenot unica
e thicktuni
ca rel
ati
velyt
hin mediaandt heonly
medi a, andonlysli
ghtl
y ti
ssuepresentis
composedof muscularwit
h squamous
elasti
cand fewelasti
c endothel
i
um.
smoot h fi
bers.  Theyhavenoel asti
c
muscl e. fi
bers.

 Theyhav eno  Theyhav e  Theyhavenosemi

l
unar
semilunar semilunarval
ves val
ves.
val
ves atint
ervals
except alongthelengt
h
wheret hey topreventback
l
eavet he fl
owofbl ood.
heart
.

Bl
ood
 Blood  Bloodpressur
e  Bloodpr
essur
efal
l
s
pr
essur
e pressur
eis i
sl owwithno andther
eisnopul
se.
hi
ghwi tha pulse.
pulse.

Blood
 Bloodfl
ows  Bl
oodfl
ows  Bl
oodf
lowssl
owl
y.
fl
owr at
e rapi
dly
. sl
owl
y.

Blood
 Blood  Bloodv olumei
s  Bl
oodv
olumei
shi
gh.
volume volumei
s muchhi gher
l
ow. thanint he
capil
lari
esand
arter
ies.

Blood
 Theycarry  Theycarr
yde-  Theycarr
yboth
carri
ed oxygenat
ed oxygenat
ed oxygenat
edandde-
bl
oodexcept bl
oodexceptin oxygenat
edbl
ood.
i
npul monary pul
monar yv
ein.
art
ery.

Ly
mphat
icsy
stem
 Thel
ymphat
icsy
stem i
sanet
wor
koft
issues,
organsandv
essel
sthathel
pto
 mai nt
ainthebody’sfl
uid.
 Th emammal i
anlymphati
csystem consist
sofl y
mphat i
cvessel
sandthelymphoi
d
organs.
 Itconsistsofaseri
esofnodes,ductsandv esselsthatwor
kclosel
ywiththe
cir
culatorysyst
em andsupport
sthebody ’
sdefences.
 Lymphv essel
s,l
ymphnodes,thymus, t
onsilsandspleenarepar
tofthely
mphatic
system.

Fi
g.2.
5.5 Ly
mphat
icsy
stem

Funct
ionsoft
heLy
mphat
icSy
stem
 Thel y
mphat i
csystem i
sresponsibleforther eabsorpti
onofexcessiveti
ssuef l
uid
bylymphat iccapi
ll
ari
es.
 Th efl
uidisthenbet r
anspor t
edthrought hely mphaticpathwayanddisposedinto
theblood.
 Th eti
ssuesandor gansoft hely
mphat icsy stem produce,matureandstore
l
y mphocy tesandmacr ophageswhi charer esponsibleforbodydefenceagainst
diseases.
 Th ely
mphat i
csystem i
sresponsiblefortheabsor ptionofcert
ainfatt
yacidsinthe
smal li
ntesti
nethroughlymphaticcapill
ariescalledlacteal
s.

TheLy
mphVessel
s
 Lymphat icvesselsar ef oundal ongsi debl oodv essels.
 Whenbl oodi scircul atingi nbl oodv essel s, waterandmet aboli
tesmayf lowoutof
thebl oodv esselst ofor mi nter-cel l
ularf l
ui d( t
issuef l
ui d).
 Thisf lui
dshoul dber eabsor bedi ntot hebl oodst ream buti tdoesnotre-enter
throughcapi l
lar
iesorv einsdi rectlybuti tispi ckedupbyt hin-
wall
edlymphv essel
s.
 Oncet histi
ssuef lui dent erst hel ymphat icv esselsitiscal l
edlymph.
 Lymphat icvesselsar ef oundi nmostpar tsoft hebodyexceptbones, teeth,bone
mar rowandt hecent r
al nervoussy stem.
 Lymphv esselsbegi nbl i
ndlyi nint er-cel
lul arspaces, wher etheycoll
ecttissueflui
d.
 Oncet het i
ssuef luidi scol l
ect ed, iti
st ranspor tedtol argerlymphductsandt hen
fi
nallyempt i
edint ot hecr anial venacav aoroneofi tst ri
butar
ies.
 Gravityorchangi ngpr essur esofadj acentst ructuresf acil
it
atesmov ementof
l
y mph.
 Forexampl e,cont ract i
onofamuscl ef or cest hel ymphf urt
hertowardsthehear t
sincet hev alv
esef fectivelypr ev entbackf low.
 Lacteal sarespeci ali
zedl y mphat i
ccapi l
lar iesoft heint esti
nalmucosa.

Fi
g.2.
5.6 Asummar
yoft
hel
ymphat
icsy
stem.

Bonemar
row
 Thebonemar rowisaly
mphoidorganwhichi
sasi t
eofori
ginati
onf
oral
lty
pesof
bl
oodcell
s.
 Bonemarrowcont ai
nsl
ymphoi
dt i
ssuet
hatproducesl
ymphocy t
es(
TandB
l
ymphocytes)
 Blymphocytesarely
mphocy
testhatmaturei
nthebonemar row.
 Tlymphocytesarely
mphocy
testhatmaturei
nthethymusgland.

Ly
mphnodes
 Thesearedi screteknot sofl y
mphoi dt i
ssuet hatoccural ongl ymphati
cv essel
s.
 Lymphnodesf il
terl y
mphandactasoneoft hefi
rstbodydef enceagai nstinf
ecti
on
byharbouringlymphocy tes,plasmacel l
sandmacr ophages.
 Anodei sdividedi ntonodul esbyconnect iv
et i
ssue.
 Eachnodulecont ainsasi nus( openspace)f ill
edwithmanyl ymphocy t
esand
macrophages.
 Lymphispur i
fi
edofi nf
ections, or
ganismsandanyot herdebr isasitpasses
thr
ought hesinuses.
 Lymphent ersal ymphnodet hroughaf f
er entlymphaticvessel s.
 Whenl y
mphent ersthenodes, itmovest hroughaser iesofsi nusesandt henexit
s
atthehil
us.
 Lymphexi t
sal y mphnodet hr
oughef ferently mphati
cv essels.

Fi
g.2.
5.7 St
ruct
ureoft
hel
ymphnode

Thespl
een
 I
tisthelargestlymphoidorganl ocat
edi ntheupperl ef
tabdomi nalcavi
tyj
ust
beneaththedi aphragm.
 Thespleenissur roundedbyaf ibr
ouscapsul e.
 Thespleencont ainsbothTcells,Bcell
s, r
edbl oodcell
sandmacr ophages
 Thesinusesi nthespleenarefi
lledwithbloodandnotl y
mph.
 Thetwor egionsoft hespl
eenar eredpulpandwhi tepulp.
 Redpulpi sri
chi nlymphocyt
esandr eticul
arf i
bres.
 I
naddi t
ion,theredpulpisresponsibl
ef orredbl oodcel
ldisposalandrecycl
ing.
 Ontheot herhand, whit
epulpisr i
chi
nmacr ophagesandr eti
cularfi
bres.

Funct
ionsofSpl
een
 I
tcleansesthebloodbyr emov ingol
dredbloodcel
lsandpl
atel
ets,
aswellas
debri
sf r
om theblood.
 I
tservesasabl oodr eser
voirandmakesbloodavail
abl
eint
imesofl owpr
essur
eor
whent hebodyneedsext raoxygeninthebl
ood.
 I
tisasi t
eoferythrocyteproducti
oni
nt hef
oetus.
Thet
hymus
 I
tisl
ocatedalongthet r
acheabehindthester
num intheuppert
hor
aci
ccav
ity
.
 Theglandi
salsodividedintolobul
esbyconnecti
vet i
ssue.
 Thel
obulesofthethy musar ethesi
teforTcel
lmaturation.
 Thethymusismostact iveinyoungerani
mals.
 I
tdoesnotcontainreti
cularfi
bresanditl
acksBcells.

Tonsi
l
s
 Tonsil
sar eencapsulatedaggr egatesoflymphat icnodul
esassociatedwi t
hthe
pharyngealmucosa.
 Theylackafferentlymphat i
cvessel sbuttheyrelyontheirpr
oximitytotheepit
hel
i
al
surf
acet omakecont actwithantigens.
 Tonsil
shav edeepi nvaginati
onsont hei
repit
helialsur
facescall
edcr ypt
s.
 Thesecr y
ptsincreaset hesurfacear eaforcontactwithlymphati
ctissue.

Respi
rat
orysy
stem
 Respi rati
oni st hesuppl yofoxy gent othebloodandr emov alofcar bondi oxide
from thebl ood.
 Allstruct urest hatar er esponsiblef ortheexchangeofgasesbet weent heblood
andt heext ernal system orenv ironmentar epartoftherespiratorysy stem.
 Sinceani mal sdonothav east oragear eaforgases,thereisneedf orcontinuous
suppl yofoxy genandr emov al ofcar bondioxi
de.
 Oxy gensuppl yi sav i
tal r
equirementofani mals.
 Ther espi rator ysy stem i nvolv
esgaseousex changebet weent heext ernal
environmentandt hebl oodint hel ungs.
 Ital
soi nvolv esgast ransportationi nthebloodaswel lasgasexchangebet ween
bloodandcel lsatt issuel evel
.
 Someoft hesecondar yfunctionsoft herespi
rat
orysy st
em incl udev oi
ce
product ion, pHr egul ati
oni nbodyf lui
dsandt emperaturecont rol.

Anat
omyoft
her
espi
rat
orysy
stem
 Therespi
rat
orysystem consist
sofnost
ri
ls,
nasal
cav
ity
,si
nuses,
phar
ynx
,lar
ynx
,
tr
achea,l
ungs,t
horaxandpl eur
a.

1.Nost
ri
ls
 Nostril
saretheexternalopeningsoft heairpassageswhicharelargel
y
character
izedbythenasal carti
l
ages.
 No st
ril
svaryinsi
zeandshapeaccor dingtoanimalsizeandspecies,f
orexample,
nostri
lsofhorsesaresoftandpl iabl
e,whi l
ethoseofpigsareri
gidopeningsint
he
snout.
 Th eskinsurr
oundingthenost r
il
sf or
mspar tofthemuzzle.
 Th emuzzleiscoveredbyhai randcont ainsbothsebaceousandtubular(sweat
)
glands.

2.Nasal
cav
ity
 Itisseparatedf r
om themout hi
ntot wohalvesbyamedi ancar ti
l
aginousseptum
whi chinvolvessoftandhar dpalates.
 Thenasal cavit
yisli
nedwi thmucusmembr aneswhi chcov ersscrol
lli
keconchae
(turbinat
ebones)l ocat
edont helateralwall
oft henasal cav i
ty.
 Themucusmembr aneint hecaudal partofthenasal cavitycontainssensory
endi ngsoftheol f
actor
yner ve,whichmedi atesthesenseofsmel l
.
 Thenasal cavit
yhassomehai rsknownasci li
awhicht rapdustandot herf
oreign
bodi es.
 Airiswar medandmoi stenedbef oreitpassesintothenasophar ynx.

Fi
g.2.
6.1 Par
tsoft
heupperr
espi
rat
orysy
stem.

3.Si
nuses
 Thesearecavi
ti
esfi
lledwit
hairwhichar
efoundi
ncer
taincranialboneswhich
openintot
henasalcavit
y.
 Examplesofcr
anialboneswit
hsinusesi
ncl
udefr
ont
al,pal
atine,maxil
lar
yand
sphenoi
d.

4.Phar
ynx
 Iti
sacommonpassagef orf oodandai rbutundernor malcir
cumstancesair
cannotbei nspiredatthesamet i
mef oodi sbeingswallowed.
 Op eningsintothepharynxincludetwocaudal nares(openi
ngsfrom t
henasal
cav i
ty)andt woeustachi
an( auditor
y)tubesf r
om t hemiddl
eears,t
hemout h,t
he
l
ary nxandt heoesophagus.
 Wa llsofthephar y
nxaresuppor tedbyst r
iatedmuscl eswhichassi
stindeglut
it
ion
(swal l
owing)andphonat i
on.

5.Lar
ynx
 I
tisalsoknownast hev oi
cebox
 Thelary
nxcont r
olsinspirat
ionandexpirat
ionofai
r.
 I
talsopr ev
entsinhalat
ionoff or
eignobj
ects.
 Thelary
nxi sessenti
alforvoiceproduct
ion.
 Theentranceintothelarynxiscov er
edbyspade-
shapedepigl
oti
ccar
ti
lage
(epi
glot
is),whi
chliesjustcaudaltothebaseofthetongue.

Fi
g.2.
6.2 Respi
rat
orysy
stem

6.Tr
achea
 Thetracheaextendsfrom thecaudalendofthelarynxtothebronchi
.
 Tracheaisfor
medbyaser iesofC-shapedhy al
i
netrachealcar
ti
lages(r
ings)t
hat
provi
decrosssectionalri
gidi
tyt
or esi
stcoll
apse.
 Thetracheaspli
tsintotwobronchi (
singul
ar:br
onchus)atit
slowerend.

7.Br
onchi
andbr
onchi
oles
 Eachlungwi l
lhaveit
sownbr onchus.
 Withi
nt helungs,eachbronchussubdi vi
desmanyt i
mesi
ntomuchsmal lertubes
call
edbr onchiol
es.
 Bronchioleswillf
urt
herbranchintofinertubes,
endi
ngwi
ththealv
eolarducts
whichleadi ntosacscal
ledalveolarsacs.
 Thewal lsofmostoft herespi
ratorypassageareli
nedwi
thcil
i
atedepit
helialcel
l
s
andgobl etcell
swhichsecretemucus.

8.Pl
eur
a/Pl
eur
alCav
ity
 Thepl eur
ai sasmoot hserous/f
lui
dmembr anewhichaidsmovementofl ungs
withi
nt hethorax.
 Thepl eur
aconsi stsoftwoconti
nuousseroussacs,onesurr
oundingeachlung.
 Thepl eur
at hatli
nesthethoraxi
sthepari
etalpl
eurawhilet
hepleurathatcover
s
thelungsist heviscer
alpl
eura.
 Thejunct
ionoft
hetwopl
eur
alsacsneart
hemi
dli
neoft
het
hor
axf
ormsadoubl
e
l
ayerofpleur
acal
ledt
hemedi
asti
num.

9.Lungs
 Thel ungsar el
ocatedi nthethoracic(chest)cavit
yandaresurroundedbyanai
r
ti
ghtspacebet weenthepl euralmembr anes.
 Pleuralfl
uidthatisbetweent hepleural membr aneswhichal
lowsf r
eemovement
asthel ungsarev ent
ilatedbyt hediaphr agm andri
bs.
 Thisf l
uidpreventsfr
ictionont helungs.
 Lungspr ovidealargesur faceareatot heairthatfl
owsinandout .
 Gaseousexchanget akespl aceinallorganismsbyt hephysi
calprocessof
di
f f
usion.

I
nter
nal
andext
ernal
int
ercost
almuscl
es
 Int
ercostalmusclesli
ebetweentheri
bs.
 Int
ercostalmusclesextendandcontr
actinor dert
ohelpwi thi
nhal
ati
onand
exhalati
on.
 Theinternali
nter
costalmusclesdr
awt heribsdownwar dsandinwards,decreasi
ng
thevolumeoft hechestcavit
yandforci
ngai routofthelungswhenbreathingout.
 Theext er
nali
ntercost
al muscl
espull
theribsupwar dsandoutwards,i
ncreasing
thevolumeoft hechestcavit
yanddrawingai ri
ntothelungswhenbreathingin.

Phy
siol
ogyoft
her
espi
rat
orysy
stem
 Vent i
lationi st hepr ocessbywhi chai ri
smov edi n(inspi rat
ion)andoutof
(expiration)t hel ungs.
 Alveoliar et hepr imar ysiteofgaseousexchangei nthel ungs.
 Thehy drost aticpr essuregr adient(atmosphericpressur e)betweent heout si
deair
andai rpassagesi nthel ungscausesai rtomov eint hrought heupperai r
waysand
downt ot heal v eoli(i
ntrapulmoni cpressure).
 Thisgr adi entisgener atedbyl ungexpansi on.
 Thecont r acti
onandf l
atteningoft hediaphragm andf orwar dandout war d
mov ementoft her ibcagei sresponsi bl
efortheenl argementoft horaciccav i
ty.
 Whent het horaci ccav i
tyexpand, pressureinthelungsdecr easescausi ngairto
mov ei ntot hel ungs.
 Expirationi nr estingani malsi sapassi v
epr ocessthatdoesnotr equiremuscl e
contract ion.
 Elasti
cityoft hecoast alcartil
ages, l
ungsandabdomi nal walltendstor eturnthe
thoraxt oasmal l
erv olumewi t
houtmuscul areffortdur ingrespirati
on,ev enif
forcedexpi rationr equiresaconsi derableamountofmuscul areffort
.
Gasexchangei
nthel
ungs
 Gasexchangebet weenbl oodandal veol
arairinthelungsoccursacr ossthewalls
ofal veoli
.
 Alveol arwallconsistsoft heendothelial
cellofpulmonarycapill
ari
esandt his
i
ncr easest heef f
iciencyofgaseousexchange.
 Exchangest artsassoonasbl oodentersapul monarycapil
lar
yf r
om pulmonar y
arterialvesselsandcont inuesunt i
lequil
ibr
ium betweenalveolarairandplasmai s
reached.
 Plasmaent eri
ngpul monar ycapil
l
ariesfrom thepulmonaryart
er i
escontainsthe
highestconcent r
ationofcar bondioxideandl owestoxygen.
 Duet othecont i
nuousgasexchangei nthepul monarycapil
lar
ies,alveol
arair
cont ainslessoxy genandmor ecarbondioxidethaninspi
redair.

Fi
g.2.
6.3 Gaseousexchangei
ntheal
veol
us.
Di
gest
ion
 Digest ionisapr ocessbywhi chf oodi sconv ertedintosimplersubst ances(glucose,
ami noaci ds, fattyacidsandur i
caci d)thatcanbeabsor bedandassi milatedbythe
animal 'sbody .
 Thispr ocessi sachi evedintheal iment arycanal bymechani cal,enzymat i
cand
micr obi al
breakdownoff oodi ntosi mplerchemi calcompounds.
 Thedi gestivesy stem hassev eral partswhi chpl ayapivotalr
ol einthebreakdown
andabsor pti
onoff ood.
 Someoft hesepar tsincludethemout h, teeth,t
ongue, oesophagus, stomach, small
i
ntest ines, l
argei ntesti
nes,rectum, anusandaccessor yglands( sali
varyglands,
l
iverandpancr eas).
 Allpar tsoft hedi gestivesystem f orbothnon- rumi nantsandr uminantsaret he
sameexceptont hest omachpar t.
 Rumi nantshav efourst omachchamber swhi l
enon- ruminantshav easingle
chamber .

Fi
g.2.
7.1 Thedi
gest
ivesy
stem ofanon-
rumi
nant(
pig)
.

Themout
h
 Themout hi
salsoknownast heor alorbuccalcavity
.
 I
trecei
vesfoodandthef oodisreducedinsizebyt hegri
ndingact
ionoft
het
eet
h.
 Foodismixedwithsali
vainthemout h.
 Anenzymecalledsal
ivaryamylasedigestsstarchintomalt
ose.
 Mucusbindsfoodparti
clesandact sasalubricantinswall
owing.
 Thetonguerol
lsthefoodint
obol useswhichcanbeswal l
owed.

Teet
h
 Therearefourtypesofteethandthesearei
ncisors(
frontt
eeth),canines(t
hesear
e
nexttoinci
sors)
, pr
emolars(si
deways)andmol ar
s(t
hesear elocatedattheendof
j
aws) .
 Teethreducefoodparti
clesint
osmal l
erpar
ti
clesthr
oughmast i
cati
on.

Thet
ongue
 Thetongueisamuscul
aror ganfoundi
nthemout
hwhichdi
rect
sfood.
 Thetonguesei
zeorcatchfood,bri
ngst
hefoodt
othemolar
s,hel
psinswal
l
owi
ng
anddetect
ionoff
oodtaste.

Phar
ynx
 Iti
st hecommonpassagef orfoodandai rwhichi
satt hebackoft heoralandnasal
cav i
ti
es.
 Foodi spr event
edfrom enter
ingt helar
ynxandnasal cavi
tybyr efl
exesand
mechani csofswal l
owing.
 Ithasal i
ni ngofmucousmembr anesandsurr
oundedbymuscl es.
 Th emuscl esofthewal l
softhephar ynxdir
ectair
,foodandl iquidsinsuchaway
thatairfr
om nasal cavi
tyisdirectedint
otheventr
al l
arynx,andf oodandli
quidsare
directedintodorsaloesophagus.

Oesophagus
 I
tisamusculartubet
hatext
endsfrom thepharynxt
othest
omach.
 Theoesophagusli
esonthel
eftsi
deoft hetr
achea.
 Foodandwateraremovedbycontracti
onwav esoft
hemuscul
arwal
l.
 Thi
sprocessisknownasperi
stal
sis.

St
omach
 Thest omachofamonogast ri
cani mal canbedi videdint
of ourcont i
nuousregions.
 Theser egi onsar ecar dia,fundus, corpusandant rum.
 Thecar di aisadj acentt otheoesophagus.
 Theoesophagusandt hecar diaar ejoinedbycar diacsphi
nct erorcaudo-
oesophageal sphi ncter.
 Thecor pusi st hemai npar toft hest omachwhi l
et heantr
um i sthesecti
ont hat
enterst hesmal li
nt esti
nes.
 Thest omachhast hef oll
owi ngf unctions:
1.Mi xi
ngoff oodwi t
hsecr et i
ons.
2.Ear l
ydi gest i
onoff ood.
3.Cont rol empt i
ngofcont ents.
4.Secr eteshy drochloricaci d,pepsinogenandmucusf rom itswall
s.
 Whenf eedent erst hest omach, acidsbegi ntobr eakitdown, togetherwit
ha
numberofenzy mes.
 Anenzy mecal ledpepsi nogendi gestspr ot
einsintosmal l
chai nsofpeptides.
 Digestioni nt hest omachr equiresaci diccondit
ions.
 ThepHi nthest omachi susual ly2.
 Thest omachcont ent scalledchy mear eoff
loadedi nt
otheduodenum.

Rumi
nantst
omach
 Ruminantsareanimalsthatregur
gitateandr e-chewtheirfood.
 Theruminantstomachhasadapt edf orf er
ment ati
onofingestedf
oodbybact
eri
a
andprotozoa.
 Ruminati
onisimpor t
antbecauseitassi stsferment at
ionbygr i
ndi
ngf
oodst
uff
sup
morefinel
yandi ncr
easesurfaceareaf ormi crobest oattack.
 Thefourcompar tmentsi
ncluderumen, r et
iculum, omasum andabomasum.
 Thesefourcompar
tmentsareal
soknownasthefor
e-st
omachs.
 Therumenisfoundonthelef
tsi
dewhil
etheabomasum isont
heri
ghtsi
de.

Fi
g.2.
7.2 Thedi
gest
ivesy
stem ofar
umi
nant
.

1.Rumen
 Ther umenal l
owsf orsoaki ng, ferment ationandmi xingofbul kfibrousf eeds.
 Ther umenbecomesf unct i
onal atsi xweekswhent hecal fstartsfeedi ngonfibr
e.
 Thewal lsoft her umenar elinedupwi t
hmi ll
ionsofpapi l
lae( shortpr ojecti
onson
wall ofrumen)neededf orabsor pti
on.
 Ther umenhousesmi cr oorgani smsnamel yprotozoa, bact eri
aorf ungi.
 Thesemi croorgani smssecr eteanenzy mecal ledcel l
ulasewhi chdi gestroughage
l
ikecel l
uloseandhemi -cell
uloset omakeVol atil
eFat tyAci ds(VFA’ s)whi chare
acetat e,but y
ricandpr opi onicaci ds.
 TheseVFA’ sar eabsor bedbyr umenwal l
.
 Ther umencont ract i
onsoccuratar at eofonet otwopermi nute.
 Thisi sdonei nor derfort her ument omi xcontents, aidiner uctationofgasesand
mov ef l
uidandf erment edf eedst uffintotheomasum.
 Bolusofpr evi
ousl yeat enf oodst uffiscar ri
edbacki nt othemout hbyr everse
peristalsis.
 Afterr e-chewingt hebol usi sre-swal lowedbutt hi
st i
mei tbypassest herumenand
getsi ntot hereticulum.

2.Ret
icul
um
 I
tisf oundunder neathandt owar dthefrontoft herumenandi tli
esagainstt
he
di
aphr agm.
 Ther eti
culum haspol ygonal cel
lsthatgiveitar et
icular
,honey -
combedappearance.
 Thehoney combst r
ucturetrapshardwar econsumedbyt heanimal.
 Someoft hehar dwar ethatcanbeconsumedbyt heanimal incl
udenails,
wir
eor
othershar pheav yobject.
 Ther eti
culum i
sal soknownast he“hardwar estomach. ”
 Ther eti
culum collectssmallerdigestapar t
icl
esandmov ethem int
otheomasum,
whilelett
inglargerpar t
icl
est oremainint herumenf orfurt
herdigesti
on.

3.Omasum
 Theomasum isconnectedtothereti
culum byashortt
unnel.
 I
tisspher
icali
nnat ur
e.
 I
tisalsor
eferr
edt oasthebi
bleduetot hemanyf ol
dsorl
eav esthatresembl
e
pagesofabook.
 Thesefol
dsincreasethesur
faceareafornutri
entandwaterabsorpti
on.
4.Abomasum
 I
tisthetruestomachandi tfuncti
onsthesameasi nnon- r
uminant
s.
 I
tsecretesacidsandfuncti
onsv erysi
mi l
artoamonogast r
icstomach.
 I
tstart
sdi gest
ionofdegradedconcentratesandroughage.
 I
tdigestsmi cr
obesoffer
ment ati
onprov i
dingpr
oteintotheani
mal.

Di
gest
iveAccessor
yOr
gans/
Glands
1.Sal
i
var
ygl
ands
 Thet hr
eepr i
marytypesofsal i
v ar
yglandsarepar
otid,mandi
bul
arandsub-
li
ngual
.
 All
thesegl andssecretesali
va.
 Thesecr et
ionofsali
v aiscontroll
edbythesympatheti
candparasympat
het
ic
nervoussystem aswel lashormones.
 Sal
ivalubri
catechewedf oodandmoi stenmouthwal l
s.
 Sal
ivacontainssali
varyamy lasewhichdigestst
arch.

2.Pancr
eas
 Thepancr easisbothanexocrineandendocr inegland.
 Thepancr eascanbereferr
edt oasanexocr ineglandbecausei tproduces
di
gestivesecreti
ons.
 Thepancr eati
cjui
cecontai
nsdi gesti
veenzy messuchaspancr eati
camy l
ase,
pancreati
clipaseandtr
ypsin.
 I
tisalsoreferredtoasanendocr i
negl andbecausei tproduceshormones.
 Theendocr i
necellsar
elocatedint heisl
etsofLanger hans.
 I
tislocatedalongtheduodenum.
 Pancreati
cductconnectsthepancr east otheduodenum.
 Thetypesofcel l
sandthehor monest heypr oducear eshownbyt hetabl
ebelow.

Table2.7.1Endocr
inecel
l
soft
hepancr
easandt
hehor
mones
theysecrete.

Endocr
inecel
l Hor
monesecr
eted

Al
phacel
l
s Gl
ucagon

Bet
acel
l
s I
nsul
i
n

Del
tacel
l
s Somat
ost
ati
n
Thel
i
ver
 Theli
verisamul t
ipur poseor ganwi thmor ethanf i
vehundredfunct
ions.
 Someoft hefuncti
onsi ncl
udedet oxifi
cati
on, product
ionofbil
eandbi l
esalts,
prot
einsynthesi
s,stor ageofmat erialsaswel lascarbohydrat
eandf atmetaboli
sm.
 Bi
leisproducedinthel i
verandst or edingal l
bladder.
 Bi
leisrel
easedintot hesmal li
ntest i
nesfrom t hegallbl
adderthr
ought hebil
educt.
 Bi
leisimportanti
ntheemul sif
icationoff ats.

Smal
li
ntest
ines
 Chymef rom thest omachent er
sintothesmal l
intest
inethroughthepy l
ori
c
sphincter.
 Thesmal lint
estineshav et hr
eesectionswhichareduodenum, jej
unum andil
eum.
 Mostenzy mat i
cdi gest
ionoccur sintheduodenum.
 Bil
er el
easedbyt hegall bladderactasanemul sif
ieroffats.
 Thepancr eat
icjuicecont ainsenzymeswhichdi gestsstarch,prot
einsandfat
s.
 Thet ablebelowshowsenzy mesinvolvedi
nt hedigesti
onoff oodinthesmall
i
ntest i
nes.

Tabl
e2.
7.2Enzy
mat
icdi
gest
ioni
nthesmal
li
ntest
ines.

Enzy
me Subst
rat
e Endpr
oduct

Pr
otease Pept
ides Ami
noaci
ds

Mal
tase Mal
tose Gl
ucose

Sucr
ase Sucr
ose Glucoseand
fr
uctose

Lact
ase Lact
ose Glucoseand
galact
ose

Li
pase Fat
s Fat
tyaci
dsand
gl
ycer
ol
Nut
ri
entabsor
pti
on
 Mostnut ri
entabsor ptiont akespl acei nt hej ejunum andi leum.
 Thewal lsoft heintest i
nesar el i
nedupwi thfinger-l
ikepr ojectionsknownasv il
l
i.
 Ther eisat hicknet wor kofbl oodcapi llariesandsmal lly
mphat i
cvessel sunderthe
vil
liinthemucosal membr ane.
 Thepr esenceofv il
liincreaset hesur f
acear eaf ortheabsor ptionofdi gestive
product s.
 Absor bedpr oduct sar ecar r
iedawayf rom v i
llibycapi l
lari
es.
 Nut ri
ent sar eabsor bedt hroughsi mpl edi f f
usion( highert olowerconcent rati
on
area),f acilitateddi ffusion( agai nstthegr adientusi ngchannel orcarri
erpr otei
ns)
andact ivet ranspor t(diff
usi onwi thATP) .
 Vitami ns, mi neral
sandwat erar eal soabsor bedi nthesmal lintest
ines.
 Wat eri sabsor bedbysi mpl edi ffusion.
 Miner alssuchasi ron, calcium andsodi um ar eabsor bedt hroughact i
v etransport
i
nt hesmal lintesti
nes.
 Car bohy dr atesar eabsor bedi nt hef orm ofmonosacchar idessuchasgl ucose,
galactoseandf r
uct ose.
 Ther eisaspeci fi
ccar r
iermol ecul eforgl ucoseandgal actosebutgl ucosehashi gh
affi
nityf ort hi scar r
iermol ecule, thusi tisabsor bedr eadily.
 Fatsmaybeabsor bedi nthef orm ofdr opl etsofanemul sionofmonogl yceri
neand
fattyaci ds.
 Usual l
yf atabsor ption, i
nvol vest hemi celles.
 Fatsol ubl ev it
ami nssuchasv itami nA, D, EandKar eabsor bedwi thf atsinthe
smal lint estines.
 Afterdi gest ionandabsor ptiont hesmal lintest i
nespr opelst hecont entsintothe
l
argei nt est i
nes.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingnut
ri
entabsor
pti
oni
nani
mal
s.
 Therear
eseveralfact
orswhichaffectnut
ri
entabsor
pti
onandtheseincl
ude
di
seases,par
asit
es,drugs,
presenceofanti
-nut
ri
ti
vefact
ors,
ageoftheanimal
and
st
ress.

1.Di
seases
 Di
seasesi
nani
malsreducetherateofabsorpti
onofnutr
ient
s,f
orexampl
e,
di
arr
hoear
educesnut
rientabsor
pti
onwillbereduced.

2.Par
asi
tes
 I
nter
nal
par
asitessuchasroundwor
msandtapewormstendt
ocompet
ewi
tht
he
ani
malf
orfood.
 Thi
smeansthatlessnut
ri
entsar
eabsor
bedbytheani
mal.
3.Dr
ugsadmi
nist
ered
 Cert
aindrugssuchasanti
bioti
cstendt
oaffectabsor
pti
onofnutr
ients.
 Anti
biot
icski
llsomeofmicroorgani
smsthatpl
ayanimport
antrol
ei ndigest
ion,
hencehinder
ingnut
ri
entabsorpti
on.

4.Pr
esenceofant
i-
nut
ri
ti
vef
act
ors
 Thepr esenceofant
i-
nutr
it
ivef
act
orsinfeedhi
ndert
heabsorpt
ionofcert
ain
minerals.
 Anti
-nutri
ti
vefact
orssuchasphyt
atesandoxal
ateshi
ndert
heabsorpti
onofiron,
cal
cium, zi
ncandcopper.

5.Ageoft
heani
mal
s
 Ani
mal
stendt
obecomel
essef
fi
cientatabsor
bingnut
ri
ent
sast
heygr
owol
der
.

6.St
ress
 Str
esschangest
hebody
’sdi
gest
iveef
fi
ciencyandsubsequent
lynut
ri
ent
absor
pti
on.

Lar
gei
ntest
ines
 I
tbegi nswher etheileum ends.
 Therei sal argemi crobi
alpopulati
oni nt hel ar
gei ntesti
neandt hesemi cr
o-
organismsf ermentmostoft heremai ningf eed.
 Digestat henmov esf r
om thesmal li
nt est i
netothel argei ntest
ine.
 Thef i
br ewi l
lbef ermentedtoacids, whi char eabsor bedf rom thegutandcanbe
usedasasour ceofener gybyt heani mal .
 Howev er,t
hisfer mentati
onismuchl essext ensi
vet hant hatwhi chtakesplacein
therumenofsheepandgoat s.
 Thelar geintestineisthemai nsit
ef rom whi chwat erisabsor bed.
 I
tisimpor tantthatthispartofthegutr emai nshealthysot hattheanimal doesnot
l
oset oomuchwat erinit
sdung( takespl acewhent heani mal hasdiarr
hoea).
 Thelar geintestinesisdivi
dedintot wopar ts,whichar ethecaecum andcol on.

1.Caecum
 Thecaecum hasdif
ferentdegreesofdev el
opmentindiffer
entani
mal
s.
 Thecaecum i
swel l
dev elopedi
nt hehorseandrabbi
t.
 I
thasmanymi croorganismswhi chfer
mentf i
brousfeeds.

2.Col
on
 Thecoloniscoi
ledi
npigsandr uminants.
 Micr
obialdi
gesti
onalsotakesplaceinthecol
on.
 Waterandelect
rol
yteabsorpt
ionalsotakespl
aceint
hecol
on.

Rect
um
 Thest rongandext ensi
vemassmov ementsoft hecolonmov efaecalmat
eri
ali
nto
therectum.
 Ther ectum temporaril
ystorefaecalmat t
erbeforeitisdefecated.
 Thedi stensionoftherectum sti
mulatestheneedt odef ecate.
 Thef aecal matteri
sexcretedthroughtheanus.
 Thecont r
actionofabdomi nalmusclesincreasesintr
a-abdomi nalpr
essur
ewhich
helpsint heempt yi
ngofther ect
um.
Ur
inar
ysy
stem
 Theur i
narysystem isagr oupoforgansi
nt hebodyconcer nedwi
thfi
lt
eri
ngout
excessf l
uidandot hersubstancesfr
om t
hebl oodstream.
 Theur i
narysystem isalsoknownast herenalsystem.
 Thesy stem consistsoftwokidneys,t
wour et
ers,bladderandur
ethr
a.
 Fig2.8.1showst heur i
narysystem.

Fi
g.2.
8.1 Theur
inar
ysy
stem.

Funct
ionsoft
heur
inar
ysy
stem
 Theurinarysyst
em pl ay
sanimport
antroleinther
emovalofcert
ainsal
tsand
ni
trogenouswast es.
 I
thelpstomai ntainthenormal
concent
rationsofwat
erandelect
roly
teswit
hin
bodyflui
ds.
 I
tregulatesthepHandv ol
umeofbodyfluids.
 I
thelpstocont r
ol r
edbloodcel
lpr
oductionandbloodpr
essure.

Theki
dney
 Theki dneyisareddishor ganlocat
edhighont hepost er
iorwalloftheabdomi nal
cav i
ty.
 Th ekidneyplaysav i
talrolei
nhomeost asi
s.
 Kidney shaveexcret
or yandosmor egul
atoryf
unct ionssuchasur i
nepr oducti
on,
wast eproductremov al,r
egulat
ionofwatercont entofbodyflui
ds,acid-base
balanceandr egulat
ionofchemi calcomposit
ionofbodyf l
uidsbyremov alof
substanceswhi charei nexcessofrequir
ement s.

St
ruct
ureoft
heki
dney
 Themai npart
soft hekidneyarerenal cort
ex ,r
enalmedulla,renalpel
vi
sand
nephrons.
 Kidneysar
elocatedint hedorsal
par toftheabdomi nalcav i
tyoneachsideofthe
aortaandvenacavaj ustvent
ralt
ot hef i
rstfewl umbarvertebrae.
 Mo stdomesti
canimal shavebean-shapedki dneys,
withtheexcept i
onofthecow
whichhaslobulat
edki dneysandthehor sewhi chhasahear tshapedri
ghtki
dney.

Fi
g.2.
8.2 Tr
ansv
ersesect
ionoft
heki
dney
.

 Thehi lusiswher ear teriesandner vesent ert heki dney .

 Theur eter,vei nsandl y mphat icv essel sleav et heki dneyt hrought hehi l
us.
 Thet wodi stinctst ructur esshownbyt het ransv ersesect i
onoft heki dneyar ethe
cor t
exandmedul la.
 Thecor t
exi scomposedofgl omer uli,renal capsul esandnephr ons.
 Themedul l
ai scomposedoft ubul arpar t
soft henephr onsandbl oodv essels.
 Themedul l
aandt hecor texar ear rangedi nuni tsknownasl obeswhi char econe-
shapedaggr egat esoft her enal t
issue.
 Thenephr onsandbl oodv essel st oget herf ormr enal py rami ds.
 Theapexofeachpy r
ami di scal ledapapi ll
a.
 Allthepy rami dspr ojecti nt ot hepel viswhi chl eadsi nt otheur eters.
 Aki dneyhasal argenumberofbl oodv essel swhi chr unst hroughi tandsuppl ya
vastnet wor kofbl oodcapi llaries.
 Ther enal arteryent ersint ot heki dneyt hrought hehi lusandi tbr anchesi ntosev eral
branchescal ledt hei nter lobul arar ter ies.
 Interl
obularar t
eriesgi ver iset oar cuat ear t
eries.
 Interl
obularar t
eriespassal ongt hej unct ionbet weent hecor t
exandmedul lainan
archedmannersucht hatt heybecomear cuat ear teries.
 Thear cuat ear teriesgi ver iset ot hei nt erlobularar terieswhi cht hensuppl ythe
glomer ulibymeansofaf fer entar ter ioles.
 Thecapi ll
ar i
esoft hegl omer uluscomet oget heri ntoanef ferentar teri
ole.
 Theef ferentar t
eriolel eav est hegl omer ulus.
 Theef ferentar t
eriolescomet oget hert ofor m ar cuat ev einswhi chdr ainbl oodf r
om
bot hthecor texandmedul la.
 Efferentar t
er i
olespasst hr ought hemedul laasi nterlobul arv einsandent ert he
renal vei
ns.

Nephr
on
 Anephr
onisabasicstr
uct
uralandf
uncti
onaluni
tofthekidney.
 I
tisr
esponsi
blef
oruri
neformati
on.
 Thegl
omerul
icapsul
e(Bowman'scapsul
e)andtherenal
tubulearet
hemai
n
 str
ucturesoft henephrons.
 Thegl omer ulusisamassofbl oodcapill
ari
eswhi charepar t
ial
l
yencl
osedbythe
bl
ind-endregi onofthet ubul
ecall
edtheBowman' scapsule.
 Therenal tubul esi
ncludeproxi
malconvolut
edt ubule,
loopofHenleanddist
al
convolutedt ubule.
 Thelongt ubul esofthenephronareresponsibl
ef orwaterreabsor
pti
on.

Fi
g.2.
8.3 Thest
ruct
ureofanephr
on.

Bowman’
scapsul
e
 Ultraf i
ltrationi st hef irstst epi nur inepr oduct i
onandt akespl acei nt heBowman’ s
capsul e.
 Ultraf i
ltrationi sf i
ltrationunderpr essur e.
 Thepr essur ecomesf rom t hebl oodpr essur eandi sknownaspumpi ngpr essur eor
hydr ost at i
cpr essur e.
 Bloodf rom t her enal arteryent erst hegl omer ulust hr
ought heaf ferentar teriol
eand
l
eav est hr ought henar roweref ferentar teriole.
 Bloodunderpr essur edi rectf rom t hehear tent erst heglomer uluswhi chisaknotof
bloodcapi l
lariesencl osedbyt hecupshapedBowman’ scapsul e.
 Thedi amet eroft hecapi l
lariesi nt hegl omer ulusi smuchl esst hant hatoft he
arter i
ol eandt hismeanst hat ,ast hebl oodent ersthenar rowcapi l
lariespressur e
ri
ses.
 Theaf ferentar ter iolehasal argedi amet ert hant heefferentar terioleandt his
mai nt ainst hehi ghpr essur ei nt heki dney .
 Thehi ghpr essur ef orcessubst ancest hr ought heendot helial poresoft he
capi ll
ar iesacr osst hebasementmembr aneandi ntotheBowman’ scapsul eby
ultr
af iltrationt hr oughsl i
tpor es.
 Thef il
ter edf luidt hati scol lect edi ntheBowman’ scapsul eiscal l
edt heglomer ular
fi
ltrate.
 Subst ancesi nt hegl omer ularf il
tratei ncl udegl ucose,ami noaci ds, salts,
v i
tami ns,
somehor mones, ureaandwat er.
 Largesubst ancessuchasr edandwhi tebl oodcel ls,
plateletsandpl asmapr oteins
remai ni nt hebl oodbecauset heyar et ool arget opasst hrought hef i
lterofthe
basementmembr ane.
 Thegl omer ularf iltratepassesf rom t heBowman’ scapsul ei ntot hepr oxi
mal
conv olut edt ubul e.

Pr
oxi
mal
conv
olut
edt
ubul
e
 Theproxi
malconvol
utedtubul
etr
ansport
sf i
l
trat
efrom t
hebowman'scapsul
eto
thel
oopofHenle.
 Themainfunct
ionoftheproxi
malconvol
utedtubul
eisther
eabsor
pti
onof
 gl
omerularf
il
trat
e.
 Allami
noacids,gl
ucose,
vit
aminsandhormonesarereabsorbedint
heproxi
mal
convol
utedt
ubule.
 About80%ofsodium chl
ori
deandwaterareal
soreabsorbedintheproxi
mal
convol
utedt
ubule.

Thel
oopofHenl
e
 Thef unct ionoft heloopofHenl eistor etainwat er.
 Ast hel engt hoft heloopofHenl eincreases, uri
nepr oducedbecomesmor e
concent rat ed.
 Thel oopofHenl eislongi ndeser tanimal sbecauset heyhav eawi demedul la.
 Thel oopofHenl ehast hreedi sti
nctregi onswhi char ethedescendi ngli
mb, thi
n
ascendi ngl i
mbandt hi
ckascendi nglimb.
 Thedescendi nglimbhast hinwal lswhi char ehi ghlyper meabletowat erandmost
solutes.
 Thet hinascendi nglimbi sthel owerhal fpar toft heascendi ngli
mbwhi chhast hin
wallsandper meabl etowat er.
 Thet hickascendi nglimbi stheupperhal fpar toft heascendinglimbwhi chhas
thi
ckwal ls.
 Thecel l
soft hethickascendi ngl i
mbact ivelyreabsor bsodium, chlori
ne,potassium
andot herionsf rom thetubul e.
 Thet hickascendi nglimbi sper meablet owat er.
 Thel oopofHenl edirectl
yabsor bswat erf rom thegl omer ul
arfil
tr
at ei
ntothebl ood
str
eam causi nganaccumul ationofsodi um chl or i
dei nthemedulla.
 Thisr esultsi nthemov ementofwat eroutoft hecol l
ectingductsbyosmosi s.

Thedi
stal
conv
olut
edt
ubul
e
 Thedistalconv olut edtubuleshav ecellssimi lartothoseoft heproximal
convolutedtubul e.
 Thedistalconv olut edtubuleshav emi crovill
i l
ini
ngintheinnersurfacet oincr
ease
thesurfacear eaf orr eabsorpt
ion.
 Thecel l
sofdi stal conv ol
utedtubuleshav emanymi t
ochondr i
atosuppl yener
gyfor
acti
vet r
anspor t
.
 Thedistalconv olut edtubulesareinv olvedi nfinecontroloftheexactamount sof
waterandsal tsr eabsor bed.
 Thisfi
necont rol isi mportanti
nosmor egul ation.
 Thedistalconv olut edtubulesalsocont r
ol bloodpH.
 BloodpHi smai nt ainedat7. 4byexcr et i
onofhy drogenionsandr etenti
onof
hydrogencar bonat ei onsifthepHf allsandt hereverseifbloodpHr ises.
 Thisactioncausest hepHofur i
net ov arybet ween4. 5and8. 5.

Col
l
ect
ingduct
 Thispartoft heurinarysyst
em carr
iesf
luidfrom theouterregi
onoft
hemedull
ato
thepy r
ami ds.
 Wa terl
eav esthecol l
ecti
ngductbyosmosi s.
 Ast heflui
dmov esdownt hecoll
ecti
ngduct ,
t het
issuefl
uidinthemedul
la
surroundingtheduct sgetsmoreandmor econcentrat
ed.
 Th eanti
diureti
c/vasopressi
nhormoneandal dost
eronehormoneareinvol
vedi
n
regulat
ingt heamount sofsalt
spresentinthebody .

Ur
eter
s
 Theur eteri
samusculartubethatextendsf r
om theki dney
stocarryurinetothe
bladder.
 Th esmoot hmuscleoftheur
eterunder goesperi
st al
ti
cwav esofcontract
ionthat
promot etheflowofuri
netotheurinarybladder
.
 Th emanneri nwhicht
heureterpassesobl i
quel
yt hroughthewallofthebladder
formsanef fecti
veval
vetopreventret
ur nfl
owofur i
netothekidney.

Ur
inar
yBl
adder
 Aurinarybladderisahollowandel asticmuscul arorganthatstoresur
inebef
oreit
i
seliminated.
 Detr
usermuscl esattacht othebladderandsphi nctertocontroluri
nat
ion.
 Themuscl eoft hebl
adderwal l
isarrangedinaci rcul
armanneratt heneckofthe
bl
adder,formingasphi ncterthatcontrolspassageofur i
neintotheurethr
a.
 Mict
ur i
ti
onr ef
erstotheexpul si
onofur inefrom thebladder.

Ur
ethr
a
 I
tist
hetubethatcar
ri
esuri
nef
rom theuri
nar
ybl
addert
otheout
sideoft
hebody
.
 Theneckoft
hebladderi
scont
inuouswit
htheur
ethr
acaudal
l
y.

Funct
ionsoft
heur
inar
ysy
stem i
nhomeost
asi
s
 Theurinarysystem playsani mportantrolei
nhomeost asi
s.
 Homeost asi
sist heabilit
yofthebodyt omai ntainit
si nter
nal conditi
onsatan
equi
li
brium orstablestatedespi t
echangesi ntheext ernalenv i
ronment.
 Thehomeost aticfunctionsoftheur i
narysystem includethecont r
olofthebal
ance
ofwater,chl
oride,sodium, cal
cium, magnesium, potassium, hydrogenionsand
phosphate.
 Theregulati
onofhomeost asi
sbyt heurinar
ysy stem occursi nthekidneys.

1.Regul
ati
onoff
lui
dandel
ect
rol
ytebal
ance
 Bloodsol
uteconcentrat
ion,orosmolari
tyi
sregul
atedbyt
hekidneysthr
ought
he
conser
vati
onoreli
mi nat
ionofwat erandel
ectr
oly
tesli
kesodi
um, pot
assi
um,
phosphat
eandcalcium ions.

2.Regul
ati
onofbl
oodpH
 Thekidney
sregul
atebl
oodpHbyconser
vingorel
i
minat
inghy
drogenand
bi
carbonat
eions.

3.Mai
ntenanceofosmot
icpr
essur
e
 Theki
dneysdir
ectl
yinfl
uencebloodpr
essurethr
oughtheircont
rolofbl
oodv ol
ume.
 Ki
dneyssecr
eteanenzy mecall
edreni
nwhichactiv
atesthereni
n-angi
otensi
n-
al
dost
eronesystem andincr
easesbl
oodpressur
e.

4.Regul
ati
onofbl
oodv
olume
 Ki
dney
sregul
atebl
oodv
olumebyei
therconser
vingwat
erorel
i
minat
ingi
tinur
ine.
Repr
oduct
ion
 Repr
oduct
ioni
sthepr
ocessbywhichani
malsproduceoff
spri
ng.
 Themaleandf
emalerepr
oduct
ivesy
stemsdif
feri
nstruct
ureandfunct
ion.

Mal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem
 Themal ereproductivesystem consi
stsoft wot estesenclosedinthescrotum,
accessor yorgans( ductsandglands)andt hepeni s.
 Theaccessor yglandsincludetheampul l
ae,semi nalvesicl
es/vesi
cularglands,
prostateglandandCowper ’sgl
and.
 Theduct soft hemal ereproducti
vesystem includeepi di
dymisandduct usdef er
ens.
 Theor gansandgl andsoft hemalereproductivesy st
em areresponsibleforthe
productionanddel i
veri
ngofmal egamet eintother eproducti
vesystem ofaf emale.
 Thedi agram belowi l
lustr
atesthereproductiv
esy stem ofamal eanimal .

Fi
g.2.
9.1 Themal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem.

1.Scr
otum
 Thescr otum isasacorpouchofski nt hatconfor
msi nsize,shapeandl ocati
onto
thetestesitcont ai
ns.
 Thescr otum hassev er
al f
unctionsandt heseincl
udecar r
y i
ngandpr ot
ectingthe
test
iclesaswel l asregulati
onoft emper at
ureofthetestes.
 Thescr otum regulatesthet emper at
ureoftestesbydr awingclosetothebodyor
hangingawayf rom thebody .
 Whencol d, t
het esti
clesar edrawncl osetothebodyforwar mthandwhenhot ,t
he
test
iclesfreel
yhangawayf r
om thebody .
 Thet esti
culartemper aturemustbebel owtheanimal bodyby2. 5to3°C.
2.Test
es/
test
icl
es
 Alt
hought hetest iclesoff arm ani mal sdi ff
erinshape, sizeandl ocati
on,they
performt hesamef unct i
ons.
 Testesar eencl osedi nt hescr ot um.
 Thescr otum casedangl esout sidet hebody .
 Thet esti
clesar et hepr i
mar yrepr oduct iv
epar tofmal ef ar
m animal s.
 Spermat ozoaandt estost erone( mal esexhor mone)ar epr oducedbyt est
es.
 Thesemi nif
eroust ubules, epididymi sandduct us(for
mer l
yknownasdef erensv as
deferens)maket het esti
cl es.
 Eacht estisconsi stsofamassofcoi ledsemi nifer
oust ubulessurroundedbya
heav yfi
brouscapsul ecal l
edt unicaal buginea.
 Semi nif
eroust ubul esar et hesi t
eofsper mf ormation(sper matogenesis)
.
 Leydigcel l
swhi char elocat edi nconnect ivetissuebetweensemi ni
feroustubules
secretetestoster one.
 Thesust entacul arcel l
s( Sertolicells)wi thi
nt hesemi ni
feroustubulesenv elop
developingsper mat ozoaandt heirpr ecursors.

Rol
eofhor
monesi
nregul
ati
ngt
est
icul
arf
unct
ion
 Hor
monessuchasGonadotr
opi
n-r
eleasi
nghormone(GnRH),Fol
li
cleSti
mulat
ing
Hor
mone(FSH)andLut
eini
zi
ngHormone( LH)r
egul
atetest
icul
arfunct
ion.

1.Gonadot
ropi
n-r
eleasi
nghor
mone(
GnRH)

 I
tisahor
monethatissecret
edbythehy
pothal
amus.
 GnRHsti
mul
atessecret
ionofant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
yhor
monessuchasFSHandLH.

2.Fol
l
icl
eSt
imul
ati
ngHor
mone(
FSH)

 I
tisahormonesecret
edbyt
heanter
iorpit
uit
arygl
andthatsti
mul
atest
he
f
ormati
onofandrogenbi
ndi
ngpr
otei
n( ABP)bynursecel
ls.

3.Lut
eini
zi
ngHor
mone(
LH)

 Iti
sahor
monesecr
etedbytheant
eri
orpi
tui
tar
ygl
andt
hatst
imul
atesi
nter
sti
ti
al
cel
lst
osecr
etet
est
oster
one.

Epi
didy
mis
 Epi
didy
misi sal
ongconv
olutedt
ubethatst
oressper
msmanufactur
edfr
om t
he
semini
fer
oustubul
esunt
ilt
heymatur
eandbef or
etheyar
erel
easedbyej
acul
ati
on
dur
ingmating.
 Spermat
ozoawil
lbei
mmat urewhentheyleavet
hetest
issot
heyneedt
ogo
thr
oughaperi
odofmatur
ationt
hatusuall
ytakes10to15day
s.

Duct
usdef
erens
 Theductusdefer
ensisamuscul artubethattr
ansportsspermfr
om t
heepidi
dymis
totheuret
hraattheti
meofej acul
ati
on.
 Theductusdefer
ensundergoesperistati
ccontr
acti
onsdur i
ngej
acul
ati
onandthi
s
propel
sspermatozoafrom t
heepidymi stot
heurethra.

Accessor
ysexgl
ands
 Accessorysexglandsar efoundalongt heporti
onoftheuret
hra,withductswhich
emptytheirsecr
eti
onsint otheurethra.
 Accessorysexglandsincludeampul lae,v
esculargl
ands(seminalvesi
cles)
,
prost
ateglandsandbul bourethr
alglands.
 Themal eaccessorysexgl andsproducet hebulkoft
hesemen( themedi um f
orthe
tr
ansportofsperm)

1.Ampul
l
ae
 Theampul l
aeareglandul
arenl
argementsthatar
eassociat
edwitht
heter
minal
partsoftheduct
usdeferent
ia.
 Theseglandscontr
ibutetot
hesemenv olumebyemptyingint
otheduct
us
deferent
ia.

2.Vesi
cul
ar/
Semi
nalgl
ands
 Theseareapai roflobularglandsthatareeasi
lyidentifi
edbythei
rknobby
appearance.
 Theyappearasacl ust
erofgr apes.
 Theyproducet hesemi nalfl
uidthattr
ansport
sandpr otectst
hesperm.
 Thevesicularglandsofthest al
li
onareholl
ow, pear-shapedsacs,whi
lethoseof
bul
ls,r
amsandboar sarelobulat
edglandsofconsi derablesi
ze.

3.Pr
ost
ategl
ands
 Prost
at egl
andsaresingl
eglandsl
ocatedaroundandalongtheuret
hra.
 Thepr ost
aterel
easesanalkali
nef
lui
dthatgivessemenitsodour
.
 Thefluidnour
ishessperms.
 Thepr ost
atecanbecomeenl ar
gedandint
erferewit
huri
nati
oninoldint
actmal
e
animals.
4.Bul
bour
ethr
algl
ands/
Cowper
’sgl
ands
 Cowper’sglandsexisti
npairsandar el
ocatedoneit
hersi
deoftheur
ethrainfr
ont
oftheotherglands.
 I
tsecretesaf l
uidwhichpassesthroughtheuret
hrapri
ort
othesemen.
 Thisfl
uidcleansesandneutral
izestheuret
hratoal
lowthesper
mt osurv
ivethe
passagetot hepeni
s.

ThePeni
s
 Thepeni sist hemal eor ganofcopul ationwhi chdeposi tssemeni ntothefemale
reproduct i
vet ract.
 Thet hr eeregionsofapeni sarethegl ans( fr
eeext remit
y),body( t
hemainpor t
ion)
andt het wocr ur
a( root sthatattacht othei schialarchofthepel vi
s).
 Thel argerpar toft hepeni l
ebody ’sinternalstructureiscomposedofpai red
columnsofer ectiletissuecal l
edt hecor poracav ernosa.
 Eachcor puscav ernosum i srepletewi thbloodsi nusoidsdividedbysheetsof
connect i
vetissuecal l
edt rabeculae.
 Increasedf lowsofbl oodmakest hepeni senlargedandst iffenoughtofacil
i
tateit
s
penet rati
oni ntot hev agina.
 Dur i
nger ection,thepeni slengthenst hrought hest rai
ghteningofthesigmoid
flexure.
 Thepeni salsopl ay sani mpor tantroleint heexcr et
ionofur ine.

Pr
epuce/
sheat
h
 Pr
epucei
saf
oldofski
nthatcov
ersandpr
otect
sthepeni
swheni
tisr
elaxed.

Sper
mat
ogenesi
s
 Spermat ogenesisr eferstoall pr
ocessest hatareinvol
vedi nt
hef ormat i
onof
mat ur
emal egamet esfrom themostundi ff
erenti
atedgerm cell
s.
 Thepr ocessofsper mat ogenesisoccursi nthesemi ni
fer
oustubul es.
 Spermat ogenesisinv olvessev eral
mi t
oticcelldi
visi
onsthataref oll
owedbyt wo
meioti
ccel ldivi
sionswhi chreducet hechromosomenumberf rom diploidto
haploi
d.
 Foll
icl
eSt i
mul ati
ngHor mone( FSH)stimulatesstem cell
stodividebymi t
osisto
producemor esper mat ogonia.
 Mitoti
ccel ldiv
isi
onsdoubl ethenumberofcel l
sateachst ep,
whi chmeanst hat
onesper mat ogonium gi vesrisetomanysper matozoa.
 Themei oticcelldivisionsoccurdur ingthedev el
opmentofgamet esi nthetesti
s
andov ary.
 Beforet hef ir
stmei oticdivision, DNAr epl icat i
onoccur s.
 DNAr epli
cat i
onl eadst othef ormat ionofchr omosomest hatconsistoftwo
i
dent i
cal chromat ids.
 Homol ogouschr omosomespai rupal ongt hemi ddl eoft hecel li
nprepar ati
onf or
thefirstmei oticdi v i
sion.
 Onechr omosomeofeachhomol ogouspai rmov esi ntoeachdaught ercel ldur
ing
thefirstmei oticdi v i
sion.
 Thef i
r stmei oticdi visiongi vesr i
set ot wosecondar ysper mat ocyt
es.
 Afterthef ir
stmei ot icdivision, eachdaught ercel lhasahapl oidnumberof
chromosomes, buteachconsi stingoft wochr omat ids.
 Duringt hesecondmei oti
cdi visionoft het wodaught ercel l
s,eachoft her esul
ting
fourdaught ercel l
sr eceivesoneoft hechr omat i
ds.
 Thesecondmei ot icdi vi
siongi vesr iset of oursper mat i
ds( roundedcells).
 Spermat i
dsunder goapr ocessknownassper miogenesi s.
 Duringsper mi ogenesi ssper mat idsmodi f
yt oassumeaspeci fi
cshapeoft he
sperm.
 Spermat i
dsal soel ongat eandr eor gani zei nt ernal structur et oacquir
et hepar t
icul
ar
shape.
 Thef ollowingchangesoccurdur ingsper miogenesi s:
1.Condensat ionoft henucl eus.
2.Cent riolesf or m acol l
arar oundneck.
3.Gol gi bodyf or msacr osomal cap- prot eolyti
cenzy mes.
4.For mat ionoff l
agellum bymi crotubul es.
5.Cast ingof fofexcesscy t
opl asm asr esidual body .
6.Ar rangementofmi tochondr iaasspi ral aroundneck.
7.Br eakingofcy t
oplasmi cbr idgesandr eleaseofsper msf rom Sertolicel
lsto
li
ef r
eei nl umenofsemi ni feroust ubul es.
 Amat uresper m hasahead, neckandt ai l
.
 Thedi agram bel owshowst hest agesofsper mat ogenesi s.

Fi
g.2.
9.2 Sper
mat
ogenesi
s

Thef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem
 Thef emal
er eproduct
ivesyst
em consi
stsoft
woov
ari
es,
twout
eri
ne/
fal
l
opi
an
tubes,ut
erus,vaginaandthevul
va.

Fi
g.2.
9.3 Thef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem.

Ov
ari
es
 Ov
ari
esar
ethepr
imar
yor
gansoft
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem t
hatar
elocat
ed
 behindthekidneys.
 Ovariesareendocri
neandcytogeni
c(cellproduci
ng)innatur
ebecausethey
producehor mones.
 Ovariesarealmondshapedinmostanimal sexceptinhorseswheret
heyar ebean
shaped.
 Thef unct
ionsoftheovar
iesincl
udeproductionofeggs/oocyt
esforf
ert
il
izati
on
andhor monessuchasoest r
ogenandot hergrowthfact
ors.

Ut
eri
net
ubes/
Ovi
duct
s/Fal
lopi
ant
ubes
 Thesearepai
redconv ol
utedtubesthatcar
ryt
heeggfrom t
heov ar
ytot heut
erus.
 Theporti
onoftheoviductadjacentt
otheovar
yisexpandedtoform afunnell
i
ke
st
ruct
urecall
edtheinfundibul
um.
 Thecil
i
alini
ngandmuscul arl
ayerofsmoothmuscl
esoftheuteri
netubeaidthe
movementoftheova.

Funct
ionsoft
heut
eri
net
ubes
1.Uter
inetubestr
anspor
tspermsandovafr
om eachovaryt
other
espect
ivehor
nof
theuter
us.
2.Theyarealsosi
tesoffer
ti
li
zat
ionofov
abyspermatozoa.

Ut
erus
 Theuterusconsi stsofabody( corpus),
cervix(neck)andtwohorns(cornua).
 Thestructur
eoft heovari
esdif
f erwit
hspecies, f
orexample,i
tislar
geinmar e,
aver
agei ncowandsmal li
ndogs.
 Theuteri
newal lconsistsofaliningofmucousmembr ane,ani
ntermediat
esmoot h
musclelayerandanout erser
ousl ayerofperit
oneum.
 Duri
ngpr egnancyt heamountofmuscl eintheuterinewall
incr
eases,bothinsize
andcellnumber s.

Funct
ionsoft
heut
erus
1.Provisi
onofattachmentforthef oetus.
2.Transport
ati
onofsper ms.
3.Secreti
onofhor monessuchasPGF2al phawhichdisruptst
hecorpuslut
eum (CL)
.
4.Nourishmentoft hef
oetus.
5.Iti
ncreasesmet abol
i
sm withinthesper m headtogeneratemoreenergyfort
he
sperm sothatitcanbepropelledt othesit
eoffert
il
izati
on.
6.Thisprocessisknownascapaci t ati
on.

Cer
vix
 Thecerv
ixisasmal l
openi
ngintot
heuterus.
 Thecerv
ixhast hi
ckwal
lsandaconstr
ict
edlumen.
 I
tisti
ghtl
yclosedbysphi
nctermuscl
esandonlyopensatpar
tur
it
ionanddur
ing
heat
.

Funct
ionsoft
hecer
vix
1.I
tprovi
despr otecti
ontot heuterus.
2.I
tfaci
l
itatessper mtransport
.
3.I
tmayactasasper mr eser
voir.
4.I
tmaypl ayar oleinsperm sel
ect i
on.

Vagi
na
 Thev agi
naisthatport
ionofthebir
thcanallocat
edwi
thi
nthepel
vi
sbet
weent
he
uteruscrani
all
yandthevulvacaudall
y.
 Th evagi
naismuscularandcapableofstret
ching.
 Th eabil
i
tyofthevagi
nat ostr
etchisimport
antwhengi
vi
ngbir
th.

Funct
ionsoft
hev
agi
na
1.Thevagi
naservesasasheat htoacceptthepeni
sdur
ingmat
ing.
2.I
tisasit
eofsemendeposi tion.
3.I
tact
sasabi rthcanalduri
ngbirth.
4.I
tisi
mpor t
antintheexcret
ionofwast eproduct
s.
5.I
thasasecretoryandabsorptiv
ef unct
ion.

Vul
va
 I
tist
heexternalport
ionoffemal
egenit
ali
a.
 I
tist
hesi
mpl elabiaindomesti
canimal
s.
 I
thasaurethral
orif
iceatvagi
nal
-vul
vaj
uncti
on.

Oogenesi
s
 Oogenesi sisf ormation, devel
opmentandmat ur
ationofanov um.
 Mitosi
sceasesatbi rth,immediatelymeiot
icdivi
sionoccur suptolateprophasein
theovaryr esulti
ngi nprimar yoocytesr
eachingadi plotenest
ageatwhi chtheyare
maintai
nedunt i
lpuber t
y.
 Gamet epr oduct i
oncont inuesintheembr y
onicov aryt hr
oughmit
oticdivi
sionof
thepri
mor di
al germ cells.
 Thesear ecel l
st hatstartoutlif
einastructurecl
oset otheembryoni
cgutcal l
ed
thegenital r
idge.
 Thecellsdi vi
der apidlyandmi gratetotheovaryformi ngoogoni
a.
 Oogoni af ur thergiverisetof olli
clecel l
sandt hepr i
mar yoocy tes.
 Thepr imar yoocy tesremai nr estingwi thinsmal l f
oll
iclesunt i
l puber t
y.
 Wi tht hemaxi mal numberofoocy t
est hataf emal ewi lleverhav ebeingpr esentat
thistime; ifdest ructi
onoft hegamet esoccur s, theani mal willbecomei nferti
le.
 Dev elopmentofoogoni aupt opr i
mar yoocy tesi snoti nfl
uencedbygonadot ropin
(gonadot ropi nindependent ).
 Oogenesi sr esultsinonemat ureeggandt hr eer udiment ar ycel l
s/ pol
arbodi es.
 Thepr ocessofov ul
ationisst artedandcont r
ol ledbyadr opi nt hehor mone
oest rogen( most l
yestradiol)toal owerl evel.
 Whenadr opi noest r
ogenl evelsoccur st hehy pot halamus( apar tofthebr ai
n)is
signal ledt oi ncreaseitssecr etionofgonadot ropi n-
releasinghor mone( GnRH)t hus
sendi ngamessaget ot hepituitaryglandt oi ncr easei tssecr etionoff oll
icl
e-
stimul at inghor mone( FSH) .
 Thei ncr easei nFSHcausest hegr owt hoft heov ari
anf ol
licles.
 Ov ulationr eferstorupt ureoft hemat uref olli
cl e/graafianf ol l
icle.
 Ov ulationoccur sinresponset ophy siologi c,bi ochemi cal andbi ophysicaleffects.
 LHhor monei snecessar yandal sopr ostagl andi ns( PGs)f rom gr anul
osacel ls.
 PGsmayst i
mul ateovar i
ancont r
actionsandr eleaseofpr ot eoly ti
cenzy mes.
 Thedi agr am bel owsummar isest hepr ocessofoogenesi s.

Fi
g.2.
9.4 Oogenesi
s

Compar
isonofsper
mat
ogenesi
sandoogenesi
s
 Ther
ear
esi
mil
ari
ti
esanddi
ff
erencesbet
weensper
mat
ogenesi
sandoogenesi
s.

Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weensper
mat
ogenesi
sandoogenesi
s
 Bothpr
ocessesbegi
nwi thmitosi
sandlateroninvol
vemei
osi
s.
 Theybot
hinvol
vecel
lenlargementbeforemeiosis.
 Theybot
hproducehaploidcel
ls(gametes).
 Theybot
hproducespeciali
zedgametes.

Tabl
e2.9.1Di
ff
erencesbet
weensper
mat
ogenesi
sand
oogenesi
s.

Sper
mat
ogenesi
s Oogenesi
s

Locat
ion
 Spermsar
epr
oducedi
nthe  Eggs/
ovaarepr
oducedi
n
test
es. theovar
ies.
I
nit
iat
ed
 I
tst
art
sdur
ingpuber
ty.  I
tstar
tsdur
ing
dev
elopmentoff
oet
us.

Pauses
 I
thasnopauses.  I
tpausesduring
pr
ophaseIandbetween
pr
ophaseIIand
metaphaseII
.

Number
 Foursper
msar
epr
oduced.  Oneovaispr
oducedand
of pol
arbodi
esdegener
ate.
gamet
es

Ceases
 I
tcont
inuousunt
ildeat
h.  I
tceasesatmenopause.

Hor
monalr
egul
ati
onoft
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem
 Hormonesplayapivot al
rolei
nr egulati
ngt hef
emalereproducti
vesy stem.
 Hormonesinvol
vedint hereproducti
v esystem ofaf
emal eanimalinclude
oestr
ogen,
progesterone,gonadotropinreleasi
nghormone, f
oll
icl
estimulati
ng
hormoneandlutei
nizinghormone.
 Thetabl
ebelowsummar i
sestherolesofhor monesinreproducti
on.

Tabl
e2.
9.1Rol
eofhor
monesi
nthef
emal
erepr
oduct
ive
syst
em.

Hor
mones Gl
and Rol
eoft
hehor
mone

 Gonadotr
opi
n-  Hy
pot
hal
amus  Itst
imul
atest
her
eleaseofFSH
rel
easi
ng andLH.
hormone
(GnRH)

 Foll
i
cle-  Pi
tui
tar
ygl
and  I
tst
imul
atesdevel
opmentoft
he
sti
mulati
ng mat
uri
ngovari
anfoll
i
cle.
 hor
mone(
FSH)  I
tcontrolsovum pr
oduct
ioni
n
thefemale,andsper
m
product
ioninthemale.

 Lut
eini
zi
ng  Pi
tui
tar
ygl
and  I
tstimulatest heov ar
iest
o
hor
mone( LH) produceoest rogenand
progesterone.
 I
ttriggersov ulat
ion.
 I
tpr omotest hedev el
opmentof
thecorpusl uteum.

 Oest
rogen  Ovar
ies  Itpr
omot esthemat urationand
 Pl
acenta(
dur
ing rel
easeofanov um duringeach
pr
egnancy
) cycl
e.
 Iti
sresponsibleforthe
developmentandmai ntenanceof
mostf emalesecondar ysex
character
ist
ics.

 Pr
ogest
erone  Cor
pusl
uteum  I
tprepar estheut er
inel
iningfor
thereceptionanddev elopmentof
theferti
li
sedov um.
 I
talsosuppr essest heproducti
on
ofoest r
ogenaft erovul
ationhas
occurred.

Fer
ti
li
sat
ion
 Ferti
li
sat
ionr eferstot hef usionofmal eandf emal egamet es.
 Ferti
li
sat
ionoccur sint heut eri
net ube.
 Dur i
ngnaturalcopul at i
onsper msar edeposi tedint hev agina.
 Sperm mov ementi nt hef emal er eproducti
v esy stem isf acil
it
atedbyinherent
sperm mot i
li
tyandal somuscul arcont racti
onsoft hef emal ereproducti
vesy st
em.
 Spermsmustr emai ni nt hef emal er eproductivetractforacer tai
nperiodoft i
me
afterej
aculati
onbef oret heyar ecapabl eoff ert
ili
sation.
 Spermsgot hroughapr ocessknownascapaci tationwher ebytheyareconv ert
ed
from bei
ngnon- f
ertil
et obei ngf ert
il
e.
 Sperm capacitati
onr ef erst ot hechemi calchangesi nthesper mt hatincr
easesi t
s
abili
tyt
openet rateandf erti
lizeanegg.
 Inordertohav easuccessf ulfertil
i
zationbot hgamet esshoul dhav eundergonea
 mat urat i
onpr ocesswher ebyhesper m acqui rest hef er t
il
isingabi litywhi l
et he
ovum becomesf ertil
i
sabl e.
 Dur ingov ul ationazonapel l
uci dasur roundst hev itellinemembr aneoft heov um.
 Thezonapel lucidai sasemi -permeabl emembr anet hatassi stsi npr otectingt he
ovum andhasr ecept orsi tesf orattachmentofsper mat ozoadur i
ngf ertil
isation.
 Dur ingorj ustaf terbindingandat t
achmentt ot hezonapel lucida, spermat ozoa
goest hroughaser iesofev ent scalledacr osomer eact ion.
 Acr osomer eact ionpr ovidest hesper m wi thanenzy mat i
cdr i
ll t
ogett hrought he
zonapel luci da) .
 Althoughsev er al spermat ozoamayat t
acht ot hezonapel lucidaofasi ngleov um,
onlyonesper m wi l
lfert
il
iset heegg.
 Thel astst ageofsper m penet rati
oni ntot heeggi nv olvest heat tachmentoft he
sper m headt ot hesur faceoft hevitell
inemembr ane.
 Thesper m pl asmamembr aneandv i
tell
inemembr aneoft heeggt henr uptureand
fusewi thoneanot hertof orm acont i
nuouscel l membr aneov ertheov um and
out ersur faceoft hesper m.
 Theot herdef encemechani sm agai nstpol y
sper myi sshownbyt hev it
elli
ne
membr aneandi st ermedt hev it
ell
inebl ock.
 Thef er ti
li
zi ngsper mi sact ivelyengul fedbyt hev itel l
ine; butsubsequent l
y, t
he
vit
el li
nesur facebecomesunr esponsi vet osper m cont actandnof urt
hersper ms
areengul fed.
 Theabi li
tyoft heov atobef ertil
i
sedi sachi evedt hr oughcompl etionoft hepr ocess
ofmei osisf rom pr ophase1oft hef ir
stmei oticdi v isionatpuber ty.
 Ov um mat urat ionandmei osisar eonl ycompl etedaf terfertil
izationwhent heov um
becomesazy got e.
 Fert i
lisationr esul ti
nt hef ormat i
onofazy gote.

Mat
ernal
recogni
ti
onofpr
egnancy
 Mat ernalrecogni t
ionistheprocesswher et hedam recogni sest hatitispregnant
sucht hatmechani smswhi chcoul dr esultintoembr yol ossar estopped.
 Mat ernalrecogni t
iontakesplaceappr oximat el
ybet weenday16and17.
 Theut eruswi llproduceprostaglandi nF2awhi chwi l
lregr esst hecor pusluteum.
 Ifthecor pusluteum regresses, cir
culatingpr ogesteronel ev el
sdecr easeandt he
embr yocannoti mplant.
 Itisnowbel i
evedt hatembr y
opr oducesapr ot
einorhor mone- li
kesubst ancewhi ch
signalstheut erusofitspresenceandt herebyei t
herbl ockssecr eti
onofut erine
prostali
andi nF2aorr endthecor pusl ut
eum i nsensit
ivet ol uteolyt
icact i
on.
 Theembr y
odev el
opt otheblastulast agewhi l
esti
llencl osedi nazonapel lucida.
 Thezonapel l
ucidaisshedpr iortot heat t
achmentoft heembr y
ot otheut eri
newal l
forplacent ati
on.

Embr
yodev
elopment
 Impl antation/ nidationst artsatday20andcompl et edbet weenday40and45.
 Impl antationi st hepr ocesswher ebyt henewembr y obecomesest abli
shedata
dev elopment al sit
eont heendomet r
ium int heut erus.
 Dur i
ngi mpl ant ationt heembr yoestabl i
shesphy sical andnut r
iti
onalcontact st othe
mot her .
 Impl antationoccur si nt hesowabout11day s,inthebi tchabout15day s, i
nt he
eweabout16day s, i
nt hecowabout35day sandi nt hemar eabout55day s.
 Ast heembr yoi ncreasesi nsize,thepr ocessofdi ffusi onwhi chnourishest he
zygot ebecomesi nadequat etomai ntainlifeandcont inuedgr owt h.
 Henceext raembr y
oni cmembr anesorpl acent adev elopasameansofmeet ing
thisincr easingnut rit
ional demand.Thi sprocessi sknownaspl acentati
on.
 Thepl acent aconsi st sofanar r
angementofmembr anessucht hatnutri
tionf rom
thedam canr eacht hef oetusandi nt urn,wast epr oduct sfr
om t hefoetuscanbe
excr etedbyt hedam.
 Foet al membr anessuchasamni on,al l
antochr i
onandy olksacdev elopdur ing
placent ation.
 Theamni oni st hei nnermembr anefor medf r om themesoder m andectoder m.
 Theamni onencl osest heembr y oinacompl etesac, protectsandsuppor tst he
embr yo.
 Theal l
ant ochor ionf useswi t
htheendomet rium tof or m apl acenta.
 Thepl acent aisf orsust enanceoft heembr yo.
 Exchangeofnut ri
ent s, wat er
,carbondi oxide, oxygenandwast eoccur sthrought he
placent a.
 They olksaci sanear lysour ceofnut rientsbutl ateroni tregressesandf or mst he
primi t
ivegut .

Causesofembr
yoni
cdeat
h
1.I
nfecti
ons
2.Di
sturbanceofendocrinef
uncti
ons
3.I
nherit
edlethalgenes
4.Defectsi
ntheeggorsper m bef
oref
ert
il
izat
ion
5.Nutri
ti
onaldefi
cienci
es

Foet
aldev
elopment
 Duri
ngthefoet
alstage,t
heembr yoiscall
edfoet
us.
 Organdi
ffer
ent
iat
ionbeginsfrom t
hediffer
entgerml
ayers.
 Growthbecomesnon-li
nearandmor ethan50%ofweightisgai
nedatt
hisst
age.

Repr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
soff
arm ani
mal
s
 Astatusinwhichtherepr
oducti
vef
unct
ionofafemaleormalei
stemporari
lyor
per
sistent
lysuspendedordi
stur
bedandabnor
mal of
fspr
ingar
eproduced.

Repr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
sofaf
emal
eani
mal

Tabl
e2.
9.2Repr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
sofaf
emal
e.

Repr
oducti
ve Descr
ipt
ion
di
sorder

Fr
eemar
ti
n
 Inbov i
ne,unli
ke-sexedtwinandmul ti
plepregnancy,
about92%off emal efoet
usesfailt
ohav enormal
sex ual
diff
erentiati
on.
 Th esefoetusesar eli
kel
ytohaveanomal iesinthei
r
reproducti
veor gansthatleadt
oabsol utester
il
it
y.
 Th i
ssteri
lecowi sknownasaf reemarti
n.

Ov
ari
ancy
sts
 I
tisacondit
ioninwhi
chanov ari
anf ol
l
icl
egr owst
o
morethan2.5cm i
ndi
amet erwit
houtovulat
ingandis
di
videdi
ntofoll
i
cul
arcystandluteal
cyst.

Si
lentheat
 I
tisacondi
t i
oninwhichoest
rusdoesnotoccur
normall
yev
ent houghovar
iancycl
ehappens.
 Ma t
ingi
sdistur
bedbecauseoestr
ussi
gnsare
uncl
ear.

Ret
ained
 Iti
sacondi t
ioni nwhichthef uncti
oningofcorpus
pl
acenta l
uteum continuest oexi
stforal ongerperiodthan
normal oest
ruscy clei
ntheabsenceofpr egnancy.
 Thecor pusl
ut eum secr
etespr ogesteronewhich
suppressesthegr owthofov ari
anf ol
li
clescausing
extendedperiodofanoest r
us.

Py
omet
ra
 Iti
sacondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chpuscol
l
ect
sint
heut
eri
ne
cavi
ty.
Mucomet
raand
 I
tisacondi ti
oninwhichconsider
ableamountsof
hy
dromet
ra fl
uidsaccumul atei
ntheuter
us.
 Theseflui
dsr angesfr
om wateryandviscousmucus
tosemi-fl
uidmucousmassescont aini
ngdenatur
ed
ti
ssuefragment s.

Vagi
nit
is
 I
treferst
otheinfl
ammati
onofthevagina.
 Thi
smi ghtbecausedbybact
eri
ali
nfecti
onorv
agi
nal
i
rri
tati
on.

Ur
ovagi
na
 I
tref
erstoacondi
tioni
nwhichpartormostpar
tof
t
heurinefl
owsbackwardi
ntovagi
nalfl
oorandi
s
r
etai
nedtemporar
il
yorper
sist
entl
y.

Cer
vici
ti
s
 I
tist
hei
nfl
ammat
ionoft
hecer
vix
.

Endomet
ri
ti
s
 Iti
stheinf
lammationoftheendometr
ium.
 Iti
scausedbyalluter
inedi
seasesanditcauses
concept
ionfai
l
ures.

Abor
ti
on
 Itisacondi
ti
oni nwhichthefoetusi
sdeli
veredl
iv
eor
deadbeforereachingthest
ageofv i
abi
l
ity.
 Th edel
iv
eredfoetusisgener
allyofamacroscopi
cal
size.

Dy
stoci
a
 I
tisaconditi
ondur ingthedel i
verypr
ocessinwhich
t
hefir
ststage( openingperiod)orthesecondstage
(
expul
sion)issopr olongedt hatdel
iv
eryisdi
ff
icultor
i
mpossiblewithoutassistance.

Vagi
nalpr
olapse
 I
tiscondit
ioninwhi
chpar
torent
ir
evagi
nal
wal
l
pr
otrudesfrom t
hev
ulv
a.

 Ot
herr
epr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
sincl
udemy
omet
ri
ti
sandper
imet
ri
ti
s,sal
pingi
ti
s,
 ovul
ationf
ail
ure,ov
ari
ti
s,f
oet
aldeat
h,pr
olongedgest
ati
on,
uter
inepr
olapseand
ret
ainedpl
acenta.

Repr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
sofamal
eani
mal
 Thecommonr epr
oduct
ivedi
sor
der
sinmal
eani
mal
sincl
udecr
ypt
orchi
dism,
her
nia
andorchi
ti
s.

1.Cr
ypt
orchi
dism
 Itisthef ail
ureoft het estistodescendi ntothescr otum.
 Anani mal wit
hcr yptorchi di
sm iscall
edacr yptorchid.
 Anani mal i
nwhi cht het estisdescendsi ntothei nguinalcanalbutnotint
othe
scrot um iscalledahi gherf lanker
.
 Ac r y
pt or
chidwi thbot ht estesretai
nedint heabdomi nal
cav i
tyi
sli
kelytobester
il
e
sincesper msdonotsur v i
veatbodyt emper ature.
 On et esti
smi ghtdescendi ntothescrotum whi letheot herremainintheabdomen.
Thismeanst hattheani mal mightbef er
t i
l
e.
 Re tainedtestismi ghtdev el
opt umours.

2.Or
chi
ti
s
 Thisr
efer
stotheswel
li
ngofthetestes.
 Orchi
ti
scanbecausedbybacter
ialorvi
ral
inf
ect
ion.

3.Scr
otalher
nia
 Apr otrusion,bul
georpr oject
ionofanor ganorapartofanorganthr
oughthebody
wallthatnor mallycontainsit
,iscal
ledherni
a
 I
ngui nal orscrot
alherniascommonl yoccurinpigsandhorsesandaresuspect
ed
tobeher edit
ary.
 Scrotal herni
acausest heswel l
ingofthescrot
um.

Causesofi
nfer
ti
li
tyi
nfar
m ani
mal
s
 I
nferti
li
tyhaseconomi clossesinter
msoft hecostofkeepi
ngtheanimalandl
oss
ofincomeiftherefewy oungonesbor n.
 Thereareseveralcausesofinfert
il
it
ywhichincl
udenutri
ti
on,management,
i
nfecti
ousagent sandher edi
tar
yfactors.
1.Poormanagementpr
act
ices
 Overst
ocking,l
ackofspaciousaccommodati
onandpoorhygi
eneexposeani
mal
s
toi
nfecti
ons.
 Theseinf
ectionsmightcausetheani
malstobecomei
nfer
ti
le.

2.Poornut
ri
ti
on
 Post-part
um nutri
ti
onismosti mportantforf
erti
li
tybecausei
ftotaldi
gesti
ble
nutr
ientsarelow,theanimal canbecomei nf
ert
il
e.
 Lackofv i
taminDsuppr essest hesi
gnsofoestrusanddelaysovulati
on.
 Lackofcopper ,cobal
tandmanganesecanr esulti
npoorsperm countandquali
ty.
 Overfeedi
ngmal eanimalswi ll
resul
tinobesi
ty.
 Anobesemal eanimalwillbelazytomate.Thisiscommoni nboars.

3.I
nfect
iousdi
seases
 I
nfecti
onscausedbybact er
ia,vi
rusesorparasit
esmaycauser eproductivefai
lur
e.
 Di
seasessuchasbr ucel
losi
s,inf
ect i
ousbov i
neandcampy lobacterfoetuscauses
i
nfert
il
it
yinani mal
s.
 Thesediseasesmightcauseabor t
ioninpregnantani
mals.
 Ut
erineinf
ectionscancauset heinflammat i
onoftheuterus(met r
iti
s).
 Theuteruscanbef i
lledwithpusandt hepuscanpreventthenormal l
uteoly
tic
mechanism fr
om occur r
ing.

4.Abor
ti
on
 Abor tionisacondi ti
oni nwhi chthef oetusisdeli
veredli
veordeadbef orereachi
ng
thest ageofv iabil
it
y.
 Pregnanci eslostatear l
yst agesofpr egnancyareusuall
yr ef
err
edt oasearly
embr yonicdeat hs.
 Af oet usbor ndeadatal aterstageofpr egnancyandf ul
ltermisdefinedas
sti
llbirth.
 Bact erialdiseasessuchasbr ucellosi
s, l
eptospi
rosi
s,campy l
obacteri
osis(
v i
bri
osis)
andl isteri
sosis.
 Starv ationmayr esul
tinplacent alinsuffi
ciencyandabortion.
 Vitami nAdef ici
encyr esul
ti nthickeninganddegener ati
onofplacentaandabor t
ion
i
nl ategest ati
on.

5.Toxi
csubst
ances
 Toxi
csubstancessuchasmycotoxi
nscancauseabort
ion.
 Exposur
etoindust
rial
orenv
ironmental
toxi
nscanaff
ectsper
m pr
oduct
ion.
6.St
ress
 St
resscancauseabor
ti
on.

7.Def
ormat
ions
 Amaleanimalwit
hdeformedorweakl egscannotbeabl etomountafemale.
 Afemalewit
hdeformedlegswillf
inditdiff
iculttostandwhenmounted.
 Condi
ti
onssuchasscrotalher
nia,cr
yptorchidism andorchi
ti
swi
llaf
fectsper
m
pr
oducti
on.
 Thi
smightresul
tinper
manentort empor ar
yi nfer
ti
li
ty.

8.Age
 Asmaleanimal
sgetold,
thei
rli
bidodecrease.
 Thefer
ti
li
tyoff
emaleani
malswilldecl
i
newi thageduet
othedecr
easei
nqual
i
ty
andnumberofeggs.

Anal
ysi
sofur
ineandbl
oodsampl
esf
orhor
monalchanges
 Urineandbl oodsampl escanbeusedt odet ermi
nehor monal changes.
 Howev er, ur
inesampl eanalysist endtogivebet t
erresultsbecauset hereareless
fl
uctuationscompar edt obl
oodsampl es.
 Thel evelsofprogesterone,luteinizi
nghor moneandf ol
licl
estimulat
inghor monein
uri
neorbl oodcanbedet erminedbyELI SA-basedqual i
tati
vetestkit
s.
 Hor moneassay sar eusual l
yusedf ormanagi ngbreeding.
 ELISA-basedqual i
tativetestkitsar ebasedonacol ourchanget hatcorrespondsto
arangeofhor monev alues.
 Bloodorur i
nesampl escanbesendt oanendocr i
nologyorv eteri
narylaborat
oryto
determinehor monal changes.

I
nter
pret
ati
onofhor
moneanal
ysi
sresul
ts

1.Pr
ogest
erone
 Ri
seinprogest
eronelevelsdet
erminesovulat
ionf
orappropr
iat
ebr
eedi
ng.
 Pr
ogester
onelevel
sar elowbefor
eov ul
ati
on.
 I
nthecaseofpregnancy, pr
ogest
eronelevel
stendtor
ise.
2.Lut
eini
singhor
mone(
LH)
 Ur
ineorbl
oodsamplescanbeusedtomeasureLHlev
els.
 Whenthelev
elsofLHstar
ttori
seitmeanst
hatov
ulat
ioni
saboutt
ohappen.
 LHprepar
estheoocyt
eforovul
ati
on.

3.Fol
l
icl
est
imul
ati
nghor
mone
 Hi
ghlevel
soffoll
i
clest
imul
ati
nghor
monemi
ghtbeasi
gnofmal
funct
ioni
nthe
ov
aryortest
is.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Vi
sitt
henear
estabat
toi
randi
dent
if
yrepr
oduct
ivepar
tsofdi
ff
erentani
mal
speci
es.

TOPI
C3

NUTRI
TON

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionoff
eedst
uff
s
 Af eedstuffi
sanyconst it
uentofarati
onthatserv
esausef ulf
uncti
oninananimal
nutri
ti
on.
 Therear esever
altypesoff eedst
uff
sthatcanbeusedt omeett henutr
it
ional
requir
ement sofli
vestock.
 Feedst uff
sareclassif
iedaccordi
ngtouseandnut ri
ti
onalcomposit
ion.
 Thenut ri
ti
onalcomposi t
ionofafeedstuf
fdeterminesit
suse.
 Feedstuffsar ecat egori
zedi nt
of ourbroadcat egori
eswhichar eroughages,
concentrates(highener gyfeeds), f
eedsuppl ement sandfeedaddi t
ives.
 Th eyar
ef urtherclassif
iedintosev enclasseswhi charedryr oughages, for
agesand
fodder(sil
ageandhay )
,highener gyfeeds,proteinsupplement s,mineral
supplement s,vit
ami nsuppl ementsandnon- nutr
iti
vefeedaddit i
ves.
 Th emainnut ri
tivecomponent sinfeedst hatareessentiali
nani mal product
ionar
e
crudeprotein( CP),crudefibre(CF)andt otaldigesti
blenutr
ients( TDN) .

Roughages
 Roughagesar
efeedst
uff
swhichcont
ainmorethan18%CFandlessthan60%
TDN.
 Theyaremorebul
kyandhav
elowdigest
ibi
l
ityduet
ohighCFcontent
.

Dr
yroughages
 Roughagesar ebulkyfeedst uffsthatcontai
nasmal lerpropor
ti
onofdi gesti
ble
nutri
ents.
 Theyaredi vi
dedintotwo, carbonaceous( dr
yroughages)andpr otei
naceous
roughages.
 Dryroughagesar ebulkfeedst uffsthathavelowmoi stur
eandnut ri
entcontent.
 Theyhav eacr udefibr
e(CF)cont entt
hatrangesbetween18and50%and
approxi
mat ely10%CP.
 Dryroughagesar emai nl
yusedf orbodymai nt
enanceast heyhaveal owcrude
protei
ncont entwhichisinsuffici
entforanimal pr
oducti
on.
 Examplesofdr yroughagesar egrasshays,straws,f
odderandst overstal
ks,hul
ls
andshel l
s.

Gr
asshay
s
 Grasshayr eferstogr asspl antsthathavebeencut ,dr
iedandst oredsot hatt hey
canbeusedt ofeedl i
v estock.
 Exampl esofgrasspl ant sthatcanbeusedt omakegr asshayi ncludestargr ass,
ryegrass, ti
mot hy,fescue, bromeandot hergrassspeci es.
 Haycanbeusedasani mal fodderwhent her
ei snoenoughpast ureorf eedf orthe
animal s.
 Iti
sal sousedwhenani mal sarekeptinanenv i
ronmentt owhicht heycannotgr aze
i
ndividual l
y.
 Nutri
entcomposi t
ionofgr asshayi susuall
yinfluencedbyt henumberofl eaves
andthemoi st
urecont ent .
 Grasshayhashi ghcr udef ibrecontentandal owcr udepr ot
einandcal cium
content .
 Orchar dandBer mudagr asseshav easl i
ghtl
ylowercr udepr ot
einandcal cium
contentt hant i
mot hygr ass.
 Gener ally
,grasshayhas8t o10%CP, 0.
38t o0.51%cal cium content,15%moi sture
 cont
entand60%TDN.

Fi
g.3.
1.1 Bal
eofgr
asshay
.

St
raws
 Strawr efer
st ot hedr ystalksofcer ealorlegumepl antst hatremainaft
erthegrain
andchaf fhav ebeenr emov ed.
 Strawsar euseddur ingthewi nterperi
odespeci all
ywhent hecowi sonthesecond
tr
imest erast heirproteinandener gyrequirementsar elowert handuri
ngthelast
tr
imest erandear l
ylactation.
 Goodqual i
tystrawcont ri
but es75%ofawi nter
ingcow' sdietbutlowqualit
y
contributes50%oft hedi et.
 Beefani malsdi gestst r
awatasl owerratet hanhay,thereforeanimal
sshoul d
consumest rawi nlowerquant i
ti
es(about1. 25%oft heirbodywei ght
).
 Strawhas1t o8%CPand25t o65%i nCF.
 Fl
axst r
awshoul dnotbef edt oanimal swheni tisstil
lgreenbecauseoft he
presenceofpr ussicacid.
 Nut r
ientcomposi t
iondi f
fer swi t
hthepl antusedf orexampl ewheatstrawhas3. 9%
CP; 45%TDNand0. 18%cal cium whilelenti
lstrawhas6. 4to8. 5%CP,45%TDN
and0. 65%cal cium.

Fi
g.3.
1.2 St
raw

FodderandSt
overst
alks
 Harvestedcropsl i
kemai zehaveabout40t o50%pl antr
emains(l
eaves,st
alks,
husksandcobs)andt heseareusedasani mal feed.
 Maizest overi
st hemaj orcropresidueinZi mbabwe.
 Fodderorst overstal
ksar eusedf orfeedi
ngwi nt eri
ngbeefanimalsandwinteri
ng
stockeranimalst obef at
teneddur i
ngthesummerseason.
 Fodderandst overstalksareessent i
alinfeedingdr yani
malsastheyrequi
remor e
energy.
 Maizest al
kshav eahi ghnutri
entquant i
tythanst raws.
 Theyar echaracteri
sedbyl owpr otei
ncont entandhi ghf
ibr
econtent
.
 Thecr udeproteinpercentageofmai zestov erisar ound6%andishigherthanthat
ofstraw.

Hul
l
sandshel
l
s
 Thesei ncl
udenutshel
l
sandareusedasli
vest
ockfeedespeci
all
yinr
uminant
sand
rabbits.
 Pe anuthul
lshaveahighcr
udefi
brecont
ent(whi
chisabove60%ofthedrymatt
er)
.
 Ligni
ncont entisalsoveryhigh( 6t o45%ofdr ymatter
).
 Thecr udepr ot
eincontentofhul lsandshel l
sisabout7%.
 Peanuthul lscanbeusedt orepl acehaydur i
nghotseasonssincet heyhavel
ow
energycont ent.
 Peanuthul lscanbeusedasaf eedf ordairycowsespecial
l
yifafflatoxi
n
contami nati
onhasnotbeendet ected.
 Peanuthul lscanbeusedt of eedpi gsdur i
nggr owi
ngandfini
shingper i
ods.
 Theyshoul dbef edtopigsinsmal lerproporti
onsbecausetheyhav ehighfi
bre
content.
 Inrabbitsitcanalsobeincorpor atedfrom 8t o25%oft het
otalfeedduet oit
s
reduceddi gesti
bil
i
tyinrabbi
ts.

For
agesandf
odder(
prot
einaceousr
oughages)
 Foragesarety
pesofplant
sthatareusedt ofeedani
mal s.
 Foddersaredri
edcropsorpl
antsthataregiventoanimalsasfeed.
 Examplesofforagesar
egreenpasturesorgrazi
ngar easandlegumehay.
 Foragesandfodderhaveahighernut
rientandmoisturecont
entthandr
y
roughages.

Gr
azi
ngpast
ures
 Grazingpast ur escanbei nthef orm ofgr assesandl egumes.
 Grazingar easwi thasi nglepl antspeciesar etempor arypast ureswhi legrazi
ng
areaswi thav ari
et yofspeci esar eper manentpast ures.
 Pasturesar edi fferentf r
om r angelands.
 Pasturesar ei ntensivelymanagedt hroughseedi ng,mowi ngandf erti
l
izati
onwhil
st
rangelandsgr ownat urall
yandar erarelymanaged.
 Pasturegr assesorl egumespl ayasigni f
icantroleinli
vest ockpr oduction
especiallywhent heyar enotf ull
ymat urebecauseast heygr owi ndi gesti
ble
substancesl ikel igni
ni ncrease.
 Thenut r
ientcomposi ti
onofgr azi
ngpast uresdifferswitht hety peofv egetati
on
(ei
thergr asses, legumesorshr ubs).
 Otherf actorst hatinfluencenut r
it
ionalcomposi tionincludest ageofgr owth,
geographi clocat ion,grazingmanagement ,soi
lsandf erti
li
zert reat ment .
 Legumepast uresusedf ordairyanimal shas20t o23%cr udepr otein.

Fi
g.3.
1.3 Cat
tl
egr
azi
ngongr
asspast
ures.

Legumehay
 Hayisdivi
dedint
ot wotypes,whi
charelegumeandgr asshay.
 Leguminoushayisprot
einaceousandgrasshayi scar
bonaceous.
 Legumehayar elongst
em leguminousplantspeciest
hatar
ecut,dri
edandst
ored
asanimalfeed.
 Exampl esofl egumehayar ealfalf
a( Lucerne),
cloverandbirdsfoottref
oil
.
 Alfalf
ahayi shighlynutri
ti
ousandmostcommoni nZimbabwe.
 Legumehay shav eabet t
ercrudepr otei
ncont entbecauselegumepl antshav
ea
symbi oti
crelati
onshipwithRhizobiabact eri
a.
 Rhizobiabact eri
af i
xesni
trogeninther ootsofplants.
 Itcanbeusedt of eedacti
velactati
ngandy ounganimalsthatrequir
ehighenergy
.
 Legumehay shav e16.5%CPand52t o64%TDN.
 Moi stur
econt entofhayisbet ween40and60%.

Si
l
age
 Silageisanani mal f
eedpr oducedt hroughcont rolledf ermentationofacr opwi t
h
highmoi stur econt ent.
 Silagecanbef edtocat tle, sheepandgoat s.
 Ensi l
agei st hepr ocessofst ori
ngt heharv estedpl ant sorcr opsinasi l
o.
 Legumes, grassesandwhol ecerealssuchasmai zeandwheatcanbeusedt o
makesi lage.
 Dur i
ngsi lagemaki ngpr ocess, fermentationoft hechoppedpl antsisdoneunder
restrict
edoxy gen.
 Theseal ingoft hesilohel pst oreduceaer obicmi cr obialactiv
itywhichcancause
cont aminat ionoft hef eed.
 Silageisusedf orthefinishi ngofweaner s, yearl
ingsandst eers.
 Itcanbeusedasf ullfeedi ngorassuppl ement ar yf eeding.
 Ful l
feedi ngi swheni tisusedat20t o100%oft het otaldiettoensur ehighgrowth
rates.
 Silageisal sof edtocat tlei nordert oachievesat isf actorybodycondi ti
onatcal vi
ng,
i
mpr ovemi lkpr oduction, r
educer i
skofgr asst etanyandr eachagoodcal ving
i
nt ervalof12mont hs.
 Silageensur esear lysexual maturi
tyduet oi ncreasedgr owt hrateinheifers.
 Dur i
ngadr oughtseason, silagecanbeusedf orbot hmai nt
enanceandpr oducti
on.
 Nut ri
entcomposi t
ionofsi lagesdependsont het ypeofcr oporpl antused.
 Cor nsilageshav eabout7%CPand87%TDN.
 Alfalfasilagehas21%CP.
 Themoi st urecont entofsi lagesrangesbet ween60and75%.

Fi
g.3.
1.4 Tr
act
orcl
ampi
ngsi
l
agewi
thacl
ampi
ngr
ake.

Hi
ghener
gyf
eeds(
concent
rat
es)
 Highener gyfeedsarealsocalledcar
bonaceousfeeds.
 Highener gyfeedsarecarbonaceousconcentr
ateswhicharenormall
ygrai
nsand
theirpr
oducts.
 Th eseproductscontai
npr ot
einsandfibr
elessthan20%and18%, respect
ively
.
 Highener gyfeedshavelowpr otei
ncontentwi
thhighvari
abi
li
ty,
lessfi
bre,high
TDNornetener gy,
lowlevelsofcalci
um andmoder at
ephosphorus.
 Exampl
esofhi
ghener
gyf
eedsar
emai
ze,
oat
s,mol
assesanddr
iedbeetpul
p.

Mai
zegr
ain
 Theuseofmai zegraininfeedsbyf ar
mer si
st oi ncr
easet hei
rcow’smet aboli
zabl
e
energyformi lkproductionorbodycondi t
iongai n.
 Mai zegraincanbeusedcompl ementarywithwheatwhent heanimal i
sfedalotof
grainperdaysoast omaintainamor establerumenpH.
 Mai zecanalsobeusedwhenanani mal i
satriskofaci dosisespeciallyifi
twas
gi
v enwheatasaf eed.
 Smal lamount sofmai zemi ghtbeusedt omi t
igat et
her i
skofacidosi s.
 Mai zegraincanbef edtofreshlycal
vedcows( 3t o4weeksaf tercalving),t
o
preventtheef f
ect soffeedintakesuppressi
onexper iencedduringear lylact
ati
on.
 Mai zehas8t o9%CPand80%TDN, l
owcalcium cont entandmoder ate
phosphor uslevels.

Oat
s
 Oatsareloweri nenergyandmor ebulkythanot hercommonf eedgr ai
nssincei
t
thr
esheswi tht hehullintact
.
 Thehullcommonl yaccountsf orabout24t o30%oft hetotalwei ghtoftheoat
kernel
.
 Oatsarebul kyandhav elowerener gydensitycompar edtoothergr ai
ns,andthi
s
makest hem v aluabl
ef orcalveslearni
ngt oeat.
 Oatscanal sobeusedascr eepf eed.
 Oatscanal sobeusedt ogetherwithchoppedf oragesinheif
erpr oducti
on.
 Whenhei fersar efedwi thoatsalone,theywillbecomeext r
emel yfat.
 Oatshav e12%CPand65t o70%TDN.
 Theyarehi ghl
ypal atableandl essexpensive.

Dr
iedbeetpul
p
 Beetpul
pisaby -
productf
rom t
heprocessi
ngofsugarbeetwhi
chisusedas
fodderf
orl
ivest
ock.
 I
tislowinsugarandothernon-
str
uctur
alcar
bohydrat
esbuthi
ghinenergyand
fi
bre.
 Beetpul
pisusuall
yfedtoanimali
nconjunct
ionwit
hhay.
 Beetpul
phas8t o10%CP,65t o70%TDNand18%CF.

Mol
asses
 I
tisav i
scousproductresul
ti
ngf r
om refi
ningsugarcaneorsugarbeetsint
osugar
.
 Sugarcanemolassesar eusedforsweeteningandflavouri
ngfoods.
 Molassessuppl
yenergyandhel pinsolvingprot
eindefi
ciencysyndr
omes.
 Molasses-
basedsupplement scanbef edtoweaners,heif
ersandsteer
s.
 Themoi sturecontentofmol assesis25%.
 Onawetwei ghtbasis,molasseshasaboutt wo-
thir
dsmor eener
gyperki
l
ogram
thancer ealgrains.
 Mol asseshashi ghpotassi
um levelsandlowsodi
um levels.
 Gener al
lysaltisaddedt omol asses.
 Mol assesi salsolowinphosphor us.
 Total di
gest i
blenutri
entsandcr udeprot
eininmolassesis55t o75%and3to7%,
respectively.

Fi
g.3.
1.5 Cat
tl
eli
cki
ngonmol
asses.

Feedsuppl
ement
s
 Thesearecomponentsusedtoimprovethenut
ri
tional
val
ueofthebasalf
eedso
astodealwit
hanyf or
m ofdef
ici
ency.
 Examplesoffeedsuppl
ementsareprot
ein,mi
neralandvi
tami
nsupplements.

Pr
otei
nsuppl
ement
s
 Thesef eedst uffswi thahighr atiooramountofami noaci ds.
 Proteinsuppl ement sar eusedsoast oensur ethatal l
essent i
alami noaci dsare
availableint heani mal ’
sfeed.
 Essent i
al ami noacidsar eami noaci dsthatcannotbesy nthesizedbyanor ganism
sot heymustbesuppl i
edint hef eed.
 Exampl esofessent ialaminoaci dsi ncl
udepheny lalanine, vali
ne,threonine,
tryptophan, i
sol eucine,met hionine,hist
idine,arginine,lysineandl euci ne.
 Ther ear ealsonon- pr otei
nni tr
ogensuppl ement ssuchasur eawhi char egivent o
rumi nantsonl y.
 Proteinsuppl ement scanbeofpl antorani mal origin.
 Plantsour cesofpr ot ei
nsuppl ement sar esoy abeanmeal ,wheypr otein,oilseed
cakesandcot t
onseedmeal .
 Ani mal sourcesar ef ishmeal ,meatmeal , bl
oodmeal andbonemeal .
 Non- proteinni t
rogensubst ancessuchasur ea,biur etandpoul tr
ywast ecanbe
usedaspr oteinsuppl ement s.

Soy
abeanmeal
 Soyabeanmeal isthemosti mpor t
antprot
einsourceusedt ofeedf
arm ani
mals.
 I
thasav eryhighprot
eincontent.
 Heati
ngsoy abeanswillhelpinbreaki
ngdownt ry
psininhibi
tor
.
 I
tcontai
nsal l
theessentialaminoacidsbuttheconcentrati
onsofcyst
eineand
methi
oninearebelowopt imal.
 Soyabeanmeal has44t o48%CP, 71-80%TDNand6. 2%CF.
Cot
tonseedmeal
 Cot
tonseedmeali
stheby-pr
oductofoil
extracti
onfrom cottonseeds.
 Cot
tonseedmealcanbeusedtosupplementcattlef
eedingongr ass.
 Cot
tonseedmealhasgoodprot
einquali
tybutlackscyst
eine.
 Cot
tonseedmealshoul
dnotbefedtolayersduet ot
hepr esenceofgossy
pol
whi
chresul
tsi
nyolkmottl
i
ngandpinkalbumen.
 Cot
tonseedmealhas41to48%CP, 15to17%CFand52t o68%TDN.

Fi
shmeal
 Fishmeal i
saproteinsuppl ementofani mal or
igin.
 Itisproducedbycooki ng, pressing,dr
yingandgr i
ndingf
reshfi
shorfi
shtri
mmi ngs.
 Fishmeal i
sahighpr oteinpr ovi
derinli
v estockandhaslongchainomega3f atty
acidswhi chareessential i
nanani malbody .
 Fishmeal hasabalancedami noacidcont entwhichcombineswit
hotheranimal
andv egetablepr
oteinsi nthef eedt oi
mpr ov egrowthrat
eandreduceproducti
on
costs.
 Ithas35t o70%CPandi ti
sagoodsour ceofv i
taminB.

Meat
,boneandbl
oodmeal
 Meatmeal i
smadef rom carcasstri
mmi ngs,condemnedcar casses,condemned
l
ivers,i
nedibleoffal
(lungs)andbones.
 Bloodmeal madef r
om f r
eshandwhol ebloodcol l
ectedfrom sl aught
erhouses.
 Thebloodi scoagulatedandst eam dri
ed.
 Bonemeal i
sami xt
ureoff i
nelyandcoarselygroundani malbonesaswel las
sl
aughterhousewast eproduct s.
 Bonemeal fr
om rumi nantsi
susedt ofeedmonogast ri
canimal whil
ebonemeal
fr
om monogast ri
canimal si
susedt orumi nant
s.
 Thisisdonet opreventthespr eadofbov i
nespongiform encephal opat
hy(BSE)or
madcowdi sease.
 Bloodmeal i
ssomet imesmi xedwi t
hmol assesbeforeitisfedt ocattl
e.
 Thenut r
ientcontentofmeat ,boneandbl oodmeal variesbutt heyaregenerall
y
hi
ghi nnon-protei
nnitrogen.

Non-
prot
einni
tr
ogen(
NPN)
 Theyar ecompoundst hatcanbeconv ertedintoprotei
nsbyrumenmi crobes.
 Thesecompoundsi ncl
udeur ea,ammoni aandbi ur
et.
 Non- proteinni
tr
ogensubst ancesareusuallyincl
udedinthedietofli
vestock
especi all
yincatt
leproducti
onbutt hei
rlevel
smustbecont r
oll
ed.
 Ov ersupplyofnon-prot
einnitrogencompoundssuchasur eacanresulti
nammonia
toxicit
y .
 Ureai sthemostcommonl yusednon- protei
nni t
rogencompoundi nZimbabwe.
 Ureai susuallyusedduringdroughtper
iodswhent hecompositi
onofpr otei
nor
nit
rogeni nfeedsisverylow.
 Non- prot
einnitr
ogencompoundsar eusedt osuppl ementl
owqual i
typastur
esand
rati
ons.
 Non- prot
einnitr
ogencompoundshav ethehi ghestcrudeprot
eincontent.
 Ureahas281%cr udeprotei
nequival
ent,hencei tshoul
dbeusedi nsmal l
quant
it
ies.
 Biuretcontains41%nitrogenandanequi valentof256%cr udeprotei
n.

Fi
g.3.
1.6 Cat
tl
eli
cki
ngur
eabl
ocks.

Mi
ner
alsuppl
ement
s
 Miner al supplement saremi ner alsthatareaddedi ntothemai nfeedduetot heir
absence.
 Somef eedslackcer tainmi ner als,soi nordertoimprovet hequal i
tyoft
hef eed,
mi ssingorl ackingmi neralsar eadded.Mi ner
alsaredividedi nt
omacr oandmi cr
o
el
ement s.
 Exampl esofmacr omi neralsar ecal ci
um, magnesium, phosphor us,pot
assium,
sodi um, chlori
neandsul phur .
 Exampl esofmi neralsupplement sforcalcium andphosphor usarecott
onseed
meal ,soyabeanmeal ,
corngl utenf eedandwheatmeddl i
ng.
 Sodi um andchl ori
necanbemi xedwi thsi
lage.
 Magnesi um suppl ement scanbei nform ofsalt.
 Magnesi um suppl ement smustnotbegi v
enasbl ocks.
 Sul phurcanbesuppl ement edbyf eedinganimalswi t
hby -productssuchas
di
st il
lers’grai
nsandcor nglutenf eed.
 Coppershoul dbesuppl ement edascoppersul phate,t
ri
basi ccopperchlor
ideoran
organi ccompl exform.
 Zincsuppl ement aryisdonet hrought heuseofzi ncmet hionine.
 Seleni um issuppl ement edassodi um selenit
e.

Vi
tami
nsuppl
ement
s
 Vit
ami nsar eessent i
al organicnut r
ients,r equir
edi nsmal l
amount s.
 Vit
ami nsar erequiredf orgrowt h,maint enance, reproducti
onandl actation.
 Therear etwocl assesofv itaminswhi char ewat ersolubl
eandf atsol ublevi
tami
ns.
 Watersol ublevitaminsi ncludeBv i
tami nsandv itaminC.
 Fatsolublev i
tami nsincludev it
ami nA, D, EandK.
 Mostwat ersolublev i
tami nsaresy nthesi zedbyt her umenmi crobes.
 Vit
ami nscanbeobt ai
nedf rom sourcessuchasdi et
,rumenbact eriaandsun.
 Fatsolublev i
tami nsshoul dbeav ai
lablei nt hefeed.
 Supplement ati
onofv itaminAcanbet hr oughdi etori nj
ecti
on,proteinorenergy
supplement s.
 Vit
ami nEi sfoundi nf orages.
 Thesef oragesmustbekeptunderashedawayf rom sunbur n.
Non-
nut
ri
ti
vef
eedaddi
ti
ves
 Feedaddit
ivesar
emat erial
saddedtofeedrati
onstoincreaseper for
mance.
 Examplesofnon-nut
rit
ivefeedaddi
ti
vesareantibi
oti
cs,probi
otics,enzymes,
organi
cacids,modif
ier
sofr umenfer
mentationandoligosaccharides.

Ant
ibi
oti
cs
 Thesearebact eri
cidalorbact eri
ostaticcompoundst hati
nhibi
tmicroorgani
sms
suchasEscher ichiacoli (
E.coli
)andt heSal monellaspecies.
 Theyimpr ovefeedef fi
ciencyandwei ghtgain.
 Theyeli
mi natemi croorganismswhi chcanpr oducetoxinsthati
nhi
bitgrowthoft
he
animal.
 Theyincreasetheabsor pti
vecapacityoft hesmal li
ntesti
nebydecreasingthe
thi
cknessoft heintesti
nal wall.
 Theyaremost l
yusedi npi gandpoul tryproducti
on.
 Examplesofant ibioti
csar echlort
etracycl
ine,oxytetr
acycli
ne,monensinand
l
asaloci
d.

Pr
obi
oti
csandpr
ebi
oti
cs
 Theystimul atethegr owt hofcer t
ainbact eriai
nt herumeni nor dertof acil
it
ate
i
mpr ovedf eedint ake.
 Prebiot
icsar especi al t
y pesoff i
br ethatcanbeusedt of eedbenef i
cial bacter
iain
thedigestivesyst em.
 Probiot
icsar ebenef i
cial bacter i
asuchasl actobacill
ifoundi ncertai
nani malfeeds
orsuppl ements.
 Theypr eventthecol onizat i
onoft hedigestivetractbypat hogenicmi croorganism
suchasE.col i
.
 Theyalsoneut r
alizet heent erotoxinsproducedbypat hogenicbact eria.
 Theyenhancet hei mmunecompet ency.
 Prebiot
icsmodi fymi crof l
oral balancebypr omot i
ngthegr owthofbenef ici
al
bacteri
a.
 Theydecr easet heat t
achmentsi tesfortheunf avourablebact er
ia.
 Exampl esofpr ebioticsar egal acto-ol
igosacchar i
des(legumeseeds) ,fructo-
oli
gosacchar i
des( cereal grains)andmannan- oli
gosacchar i
des( yeastcel lwal
ls).

Enzy
mesuppl
ement
s
 Thesearesingl
epur i
fiedenzy mesthatareaddedtofeedstoenhancethedigest
ion
offeedcomponent s.
 Thesefeedsmi ghteit
herbei ndi
gesti
bleormightnotbedigestedef
fici
ent
ly.
 Ane xampleofanenzy met hatcanbeusedasanaddi t
iveisphyt
asewhichisa
si
ngleenzymesuppl ementusedi npoultryandswinefeeds.
 Phytasel
iberat
esphosphor usf r
om phytatesothati
tbecomesav ai
l
abletothe
 animal.
 Theyarealsousedtohelpinthedi gesti
onofcompl excarbohydr
atesandcol
lagen
i
nski nandbones.
 Theysupplementtheinsuf
fici
entenzy mesecretionbyy ounganimalsespeci
all
y
enzymessuchasamy l
ase,proteaseandl i
pase.
 Theyimprovetheavai
labil
i
tyofpl antstor
agepol ysacchari
des(star
chandoil
s)by
degradi
ngcellwal
ls.
 Theydestroyant
i-
nutr
iti
vemat eri
alsthatinhi
bitdigesti
onlikecel
lul
ose.

Feed-
gradef
atandant
imi
crobi
als
 I
tisaddedinswi nefeedingtoenhanceperfor
mance.
 Canbeaddedat5%pert ot
alrat
ion.
 Theyreducethedustinessoffeedandi ncr
easespal
atabil
it
y.
 Anti
-micr
obialsubst
ancesst i
mulategrowth,f
eedeff
iciencyandr
educemor
tal
i
ty.

Hor
mones,
hor
monel
i
kepr
oduct
sandi
mpl
ant
s
 Hormoneschemi calsubst ancespr oducedi nthebodythatcontr
olandregulat
ethe
acti
vi
tyofcert
aincellsoror gans.
 Hormone-l
ikeproductsar esy ntheticsubstancesorcompoundst hatactl
ike
hormones.
 Hormoneimplantsar esubst ancest hatareimplantedinananimalbodydesigned
forsl
owbutconst antreleaset opr omotegr owth.
 Theyregul
ateanimal growt h,reproducti
onandmet abol
ism.
 Theyincr
easeproteinsy nthesisandmuscl edev el
opment.
 Theyalsoimprovefeedef fici
encyandr ateofgrowth.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Vi
sitanyfeedprocessingcompanysuchasPr ofeeds,Agr
if
eed,
Feedmixand
Novatekandidenti
fydiff
erenttypesoffeedsproduced.
2.Documentandcl assi
fydiff
erentfeedty
pesusedbyf ar
mersint
helocal
area.

Nut
ri
entcomposi
ti
onoff
eedst
uff
s
 Feedstuf
fshavedif
ferentnutri
ti
onalcomposit
ions.
 Thesevari
ati
onscanbedet erminedbyseverall
aborat
oryexper
iment
s.
 Theseexperi
mentsincludeproxi
mateanalysi
s,aciddet
ergentf
ibr
eanal
ysi
s(ADF)
andneutr
aldeter
gentfibreanal
ysis(
NDF).

Pr
oxi
mat
eanal
ysi
s
 Thismethodofanalysi
swasf ormulatedbyHenneber
gandSt ohmann.
 I
tisalsocal
ledtheWeendesy stem.
 Proximat
eanalysi
sdividesafeedintosixfr
act
ionswhi
char emoistur
e,ash,
crude
protei
n(CP)
, et
herextr
acts(EE),
crudefibr
e(CF)andnit
rogenfreeext
racts(
NFE).

1.Moi
stur
e
 Moist
ureisthefi
rstcomponenttoberemov edi
npr oxi
mateanaly
sis.
 Feedstuf
fisdri
edbyheatingattemperatur
ebetween95°Cto100° C.
 Moist
urecontentisdet
erminedbythelossofweightaft
erdr
ying.

2.Ash
 I
tisdeterminedbyignit
ingthedrymatterat550°C.
 Theresiduethatisl
eftaft
erigni
ti
ngthedr ymatt
eriscall
edash.
 Theigni
t i
onprocessremov esal
lthecarbon.
 Ashrepresentsthei
norganiccomponent soft
hef eedsuchasminer
als.

3.Cr
udepr
otei
n(CP)
 I
tiscalculatedf r
om theni t
rogencont entinthef eed.
 I
tisdetermi nedbyt heKjeldahl process.
 TheKjeldahl processinvolvesthedi gesti
onoft hefeedsampl ebysul phuri
caci
d.
 I
tconvertsal lthenit
rogeni nthef eedtoammoni aexceptnitrogeninf or
m ofni
tr
ate
andnitr
ite.
 Theammoni aisli
beratedbyaddi ngsodium hydroxidetothedi gest
.
 I
tisthendi sti
lledandcollectedi nstandardacidanddet erminedbyt i
trat
ion.
 Theassumpt ioninanimal feedi sthatprot
einscont ain16%ni t
rogen.
 Ther
efore, t
heCPcont entisf oundbymul t
ipl
yingnitrogenby6. 25.

4.Et
herext
ract
s(EE)
 Thesear efoundbysubjecti
ngadr i
edsampl etoacontinuousextr
actionwi
th
petroleum ether(di
ethyl
ether)foracer t
ainperi
odoft i
me.
 Thedi ethyletherdi
ssol
vesf ats,
oils,
pigmentsandf atsolubl
esubstancesi
nthe
feedsampl e.
 Diethyletheristhenevaporatedfrom thefatsol
uti
on.
 Afterev aporati
ngether
,theresulti
ngresidueisweighed.
 Ther esidueisknownaset herext r
actorcrudefat.

5.Cr
udef
ibr
e(CF)
 Car
bohydratesaredivi
dedi ntoCFandNFE.
 CFisdeter
mi nedbyexposi ngthefeedsampl
etof
urt
hert
reat
ment
sli
keboi
l
ing
aci
dandalkaliconcentr
ations.
 Theresi
dueleftisthecrudef i
bre.

6.Ni
tr
ogenf
reeext
ract
s
 Ni
trogenfreeext
ract
saref
oundbysubt
ract
ingthesum ofmoist
ure,
ash,
crude
pr
otein,
etherext
ract
sandcrudef
ibr
efr
om 1000.
 1000–( Moistur
e+Ash+CP+EE+CF)=ni tr
ogenfreeext
ract
s.

Neut
ral
det
ergentf
ibr
e(NDF)andaci
ddet
ergentf
ibr
eanal
ysi
s
(
ADF)
 Thesemet hodsoff eedanal ysiswer edev elopedbyVanSoest .
 Theyf urthercl assi fycr udef i
brebyanal ysingitsdi gest i
bi l
i
ty .
 Thei deol ogyoft heseanal ysisist hatpl antcel l
scanbedi videdi ntomostdi gesti
ble
cellcont ents( starch, sugar s,fructans, pect i
nsandor gani caci ds)andl ess
digest iblecel lwal l
s( hemi cel l
ulose, cel l
uloseandl i
gni n).
 Itisimpor t
antt onot et hatNDFi st her esi duet hatisl eftaf terext r
acti
onwi t
h
boili
ngneut ral solutionsofsodi um l aur y lsulphateandet hy l
enedi aminet etr
aacet i
c
acid( EDTA) .
 Ther esi dueaf terboi lingconsi stsofcel l
ul ose,li
gninandi not herinstances
hemi cel luloses.
 Ther ef oreNDFconsi st sofcel l
ulose, ligninandhemi celluloses.
 NDFi sdesi gnedf orf or ages, butcanbeusedf orst archf oodsi famy l
aset reatment
i
sused.
 ADFi st her esiduet hati sleftafterr efluxingwi t
h0. 5mol essul phuricacidandcet yl
tri
met hyl-ammoni um br omi de.
 Aciddet er gentf i
br eanal ysisgi vesagoodst ati
stical correlationofdi gest i
bil
ity
.
 Itrepr esent scr udel igni nandcel l
ulose.
 Inordert odet ermi net hecel lul
oseandcr udel ignin, t
hecont entsareboi ledf or
l
ongerper i
odsandt hest r
engt hofaci di si ncreased.
 ADFi st reatedwi th72%sul phur i
caci dwhi chiscapabl eofdi ssol vi
ngcel l
ulose.
 Ashingt her esiduedet ermi nescr udel igni n.
 Ther ef oreNDFandADFensur ethedi gest ionofhemi celluloses, cell
uloseandl i
gnin.
 Hemi celluloseshav et hehi ghestdi gest ibilit
yfollowedbycel lul
oseandl astl
yl i
gnin.

Fi
g.3.
2.1 Si
l
agef
eedsampl
etobeanal
ysedf
orpr
oxi
mat
e,NDFandADFanal
ysi
s.
Exper
iment1:
 Thepar
ti
ti
oningofnutr
ient
sandnon-nutr
ientcomponent
sbasedoncommon
chemi
calpr
ocesses(proxi
mateanal
ysis)
.

Ai
m
 Det
ermini
ngthenutr
it
ional
andnon-
nut
ri
ti
onal
composi
ti
onsofanani
mal
feedwi
th
pr
oximateanal
ysi
s.

Mat
eri
als
 Feedsampl e
 Ov en
 Anal yti
calbal anceorwei ghi
ngscal
e
 Sulphur i
caci d(H2SO4)
 Cupr icsulphat e(CuSO4)
 Sodi um sul phate(Na2SO4)
 Sodi um hy droxide( NaOH)
 Boilinggranul es
 Hy drochloricaci d(HCl )
 Conwayi ndi cator
 Anhy dr
ousdi et
hy l
et her
 Pot assium hy droxide
 N-oct anol
 Anhy dr
ousacet one
 Kjeldahl f
lask
 Fatbeaker

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Moi
stur
e

 Accur at
elywei ghamoi st
uredishofappr
opriat
esi ze.
 Add10goft hecommi nutedsampleandreweigh.
 Placecont ainerinavacuum ovenat100°Candl esst han100mmHg,
for
appr oxi
mat ely5hrs.
 Re mov edishf r
om oven,cover
,cooli
ndessicatorandwei gh.
 Re peatthepr ocessunti
laconstantwei
ghtisachiev ed.

2.Ash

 Pl
acesamplei
ndryi
ngovenat100°Cfor24hour
s.
 Tr
ansf
ertocoolmuf
flef
urnaceandincr
easet
emperat
uret
o550°
Cfor8hr
s.
3.Cr
udepr
otei
n

 Wei ght hefeedsampl e.

 Add15gofNa2SO4, 1gofCuSO4, 1to2sel enizedboi l
i
nggr anulesand25ml
ofH2SO4t othef eedsampl e.
 Digestt il
lsol
utioniscol ourlessorl i
ghtgr een.
 Cool it(nosolidif
ication),
caut iouslyadd200ml wat erandaddaddi ti
onal boil
i
ng
granul es.
 Pipet t
e10ml NHCl intoa500ml Erl
enmey erf lask,add1ml Conwayi ndi cat
orand
pl
acef laskundercondenser .
 Til
tKj eldahlf
laskcont ai
ningt hedigestedsampl eandadd100ml of50%NaOH
solutionslowlysot hatitformsal ayerunder neatht hedigest
ionmi xture.
 Heatunt i
lall
ammoni ahaspassedov erint ot hest andardacid,collect
appr oximately150ml andr emov ei mmedi at ely( l
ossofammoni ai fov erboil
ed).
 Washt i
pofcondenserandt it
r at
eexcessHCl indistil
lat
ewi t
hNaOHst andard
solution.

4.Cr
udel
i
pid

 Add40ml ofdiethy let

hert
oeachf atbeaker
.
 Turnont heheat erandwat ercondenser
.
 Extractf
orami nimum of4hr s.
 Disti
lunti
lathinl ayerofet
herremainsinthebot
tom oft
hebeaker
.
 Placethebeaker si na102°Cgravit
yconvecti
onovenanddr
yfor1or2hr
s.
 Cool i
nadesi ccat or
.
 Weighandr ecor d.

5.Cr
udef
ibr
e

 Heatt hesampl einanovenat105°C.

 Take1gofgr indedsampleandadd1.25%sul phuri
cacidand3t o5dr
opsn-
octanol
.
 Boilfor30mi nutes.
 Drainsulphuricacidandwash3t i
meswi t
hde- ioni
zedwat er
.
 Afterdrai
ningadd150ml ofpr
eheatedpotassium hydr
oxide(KOH)and3to5drops
ofn-octanol.
 Boil30mi nutes,fi
lt
erandwashwith25ml acetone3t i
messt ir
ri
ngeacht
ime.
 Dryinanov enat105° Canddetermineconstantweight.

6.NFE

 NFE%=DM%-(
EE%+CP%+CF%+ash%)
.

Resul
ts
 Weightchangeofthefeedsampleduetolossofmoi
stur
e.
 Theashmusthav eawhi t
ecolouri
fnotr
eheated.
 Thesynthesi
sproducesammoni awhi
chremainsint
hefl
ask.
Exper
iment2:
 Neut
ral
det
ergentf
ibr
eanal
ysi
sinf
eeds.

Ai
m
 Det
ermi
ningt
her
esi
dueaf
terdi
gest
ingaf
eedsampl
einadet
ergentsol
uti
on.

Mat
eri
als
 Feedsampl e
 Analyti
cal balance
 Oven
 Digesti
oni nstrument
 Fi
lterbags
 Heatseal ers
 Desiccantpouch
 Solventresistantmarkerpen
 Neutraldet er
gentsol
ution(NDS)
 N-octanol (C8H18O)octil
ical
cohol
 Sodium sul phit
eanhydrous(Na2SO3)
 Acetone

Pr
ocedur
e
 Gri
ndt heairdriedsampl etopass1mm scr een.
 Wei gh1gofgr oundsampl einacr ucible.
 Add100ml ofNDSatr oom temper aturei ntoacr uciblewi t
h0. 5gofsodium
sul
phi teandsomedr opsofn- octanol .
 Heatt oboi l
ingpoi ntandr ef
lux60mi nutesf r
om onsetofboi l
ing.
 Fi
lterandwasht hreet i
meswi thboi li
ngwat er,thent wicewi thcoldacetone.
 Dryf oreighthour sat105° Candl etitcool inadesi ccat or.
 Wei ght heresidueaf terdryi
ng.
 Calcul at
eneut raldetergentfibreusi ngt hef ormul a,NDF%=( weightofcruci
ble+
weightofr esidue)–wei ghtofcr ucible/wei ghtofsampl e×100.
 Neut raldetergentsolublecanal sobecal cul
atedusi ngt hef ormula,NDS%=100-
NDF%.
 Ashi namuf fleat550° Ct wohour sandl etitcool downi nadesi ccat
or
 Wei ght heresidue.
 Calcul at
eashwhi chhasnotdi ssol vedi nneut raldetergentasf ol
lows:
o L ossonashi ng/weightofsampl e×100
Someexpect
edr
esul
ts
 Wei
ghtchangeoft
hef
eedsampl
eduet
olossofmoi
stur
e.

Exper
iment3:
 Aci
dfi
bredet
ergentanal
ysi
soff
eeds.

Ai
m
 Deter
miningther
esi
dueaf
terdi
gest
ingaf
eedsampl
ewi
thsul
phur
icaci
d(H2SO4)
andcety
ltri
methy
lammoni
um bromi
de(CTAB)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Feedsampl e
 Ovencapabl etomai nt
ainat
emper
atur
eof102±0.
5°C
 Analy ti
calbalance
 Fi
lterbags
 Heatseal er
 Digest i
oninstrument
 Desiccantpouch
 Mar kingpen
 Protect i
veclothi
ng
 Dustmask
 Aciddet ergentsoluti
on
 N-oct anol(octi
li
calcohol
)
 Acet one

Pr
ocedur
e
 Gri
ndt heairdr i
edsampl etopass1mm scr een.
 Wei ghi nacr uci
ble, 1gofthegr i
ndedsampl ewit
h1mgappr oxi
mation.
 Add100ml ofneut raldetergentsol uti
on( NDS)atroom temperatur
eandsome
dr
opsofn- oct anol.
 Heatt oboi l
ingpoi ntandr efluxfor60mi nutesfr
om onsetofboil
ing.
 Fi
lterandwasht hreet imeswi thboi l
i
ngwat erthentwicewithcoldacetone.
 Dryf oreighthour sat105° Candl etitcool i
nadesiccator.
 Wei ght heresidueaf t
erdrying.
 Calculateaci ddeter gentfi
br easf oll
ows:
o ADF %=( wei ghtofcr ucibl
e+wei ghtofresi
due)–wei ghtofcrucibl
e/wei
ght
ofsampl e×100
 Ashinamuf f
leat550° Cfortwohoursandleti
tcooli
nadesiccat
or.
 Weighweighttheresidue.
 Cal
culat
eashwhi chhasnotdi ssol
vedinaci
ddeter
gentasf
ollows:
o L ossonashi ng/weighofsample×100

Tabl
e.3.2.
1Nut
ri
ti
onal
composi
ti
onoft
hedi
ff
erentf
eeds
anal
ysed.

Commonuni
ts
Nut
ri
ent

Moi
stur
e %

Cr
udepr
otei
n %

Tot
aldi
gest
ibl
enut
ri
ent
s %

Neut
ral
det
ergentf
ibr
e %

Aci
ddet
ergentf
ibr
e %

Netener
gy Mcal
/lb

Cal
cium %

Phosphor
us %

Copper
,zi
nc Ppm

Vi
tami
ns I
U/l
b

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingf
eedqual
i
ty
 Foragequal i
tyi
st hel
evelordegr
eeatwhi
chaforageorfeedmeett henut
ri
ti
onal
requi
r ementsofananimal.
 Thef actor
sthatinfl
uencefeedqual
i
tyar
egenot
ype,maturit
y,season,
 management
,ant
i-
nut
ri
ti
vef
act
orsaswel
lashar
vest
ingandst
oragemet
hods.

1.Pl
antspeci
es
 Thequal it
yoff or ageorf eeddi f
fersf r
om onepl antspeci est oanother.
 Grassesl i
kealfal fahaveahi ghernut r
ientcomposi tionthant hekatambor aRhodes
grassbecausei thashi ghcr udepr oteinandt ot
al digestiblenutri
ents.
 Thepr otei
ncont entoflegumesi stypi
cal l
ymuchhi ghert hanthatofgrasses.
 Legumi nousplant sandcool seasongr asseshav esi milarnutrit
ivequali
ty.
 Legumeshav ehi ghl i
gnincont entandcool seasongr assesar elowi nf
ibreand
hi
ghi nnon- st
ruct uralcarbohy drates.
 Temper ategrasseshav eahi ghnut ri
ti
v ev aluet
hant ropicalgrasses.
 Legumef i
bretendst odigestf asterthangr assfibre.

2.Mat
uri
ty
 Thequalit
yofforaget endtodecr easeaspasturegrassesgrowbecauseaspl ant
s
growtheyaccumul ateli
gnin.
 Asp l
antsgrowthel eafnumberr educesandthest em quanti
tyincreases.
 Leaveshavehighpr otei
ncontentandst emsar efi
brous.
 Asp l
antsgrowtheyshat tert
heirleaves,t
her
ebyr educi
ngt heleafquantit
y.

3.Season,
env
ironmentandcl
i
mat
e
 Moisture,t
emper atureandamountofsunlightaffectforagequalit
y.
 Hightemper atur
esmayi ncreaseli
gni
naccumul ationanddecr easequali
ty,
but
droughtstressmayact uall
ybenefi
tquali
tybydelay i
ngmat uri
ty.
 Highrainf
allareas(above1000mm annual rai
nfall
)hav epasturesoflowquali
ty
becauseofhi ghplantre-gr
owthandlimit
edsunlightpenet r
ati
onduet ocanopy
cover.
 Badweat hercandel ayharvesti
ngandthi
swi l
lcausef oragecropstobecomemor e
mat ur
eandhencel owquality.

4.Management
 Managementi sdi vi
dedi ntothreeper iodswhi charepre-
harvest,post-
harvestand
grazedpastures.
 Nutri
ti
onallossesoccurespeci allyinhayandsi lageduetoleaching,oxidati
onand
sunburns.
 Thequalit
yoft hesef eedsi simpr ovedbycur ingthefeedtolesst han15%moi stur
e
anderecti
onofsheds.
 Growthofmoul dsandy eastsreducenut r
iti
vevalueandint
ake.
 Producti
onofmy cotoxinsnegat ivelyaffectsthehealt
hoftheani mals.
 Thegrazedpast uresmustmai ntainal eafycanopyandnotov ermat ur
e.
 Thereisneedt oferti
lisepast ur
esi fthereisashor t
ageofnitrogen.
5.Pr
esenceofant
i-
qual
i
tyf
act
ors
 Theseincludealkaloi
ds,tannins,noxi
ousweedsandi nsecti
nfest
ations.
 Theyreducet hedigesti
bil
it
yoff eedast heyhavetoxicsubst
ances.
 Prussi
caci dandnitrat
eaf f
ectbloodf l
owi nthecatt
le.
 Thereisneedf orprussi
caci dandni t
rat
et est
ingi
nf eedsbeforegi
vingitto
animals.
 Ergotalkal
oidscanbeav oidedbymai nt
aininga4to5weekscut ti
nginter
valoft
he
Bermudagr ass.
 Ergotalkal
oidscauset r
emor s.

6.Har
vestandst
oragemet
hods
 Thet imeofhar vesti
ngaf f
ectsthequal i
tyoffor
age.
 Plantsaccumul atestarchandsugar sdur i
ngthedayandexperi
enceheavylosses
atnight .
 Ha yhar vestedi nt hemi ddleafternoonisofhighqual
it
ythanthatcutear
lyi
nt he
mor ning.
 Ra i
nfalli
ncr easesf i
brequant i
tyandi ncreasesl
eachi
ngwhichpromptstoless
di
gest ibl
ef eedespeci allyinalf
alfa.
 Po orstoragef acil
iti
esespeci al
lywher etherear
enoshedsallowhighlev
elsof
weat heri
ngt husl oweringt heforagequal i
ty.

Ant
i-
nut
ri
ti
onal
fact
orsi
nfeeds
 Thesear ecompoundsormat eri
alsi
npl antsorfeedsthatreducenut r
ient
uti
lizat
ionorf eedqual i
tyandintakebyani mals.
 Th esecomponent shav eanegat i
veeffectont heint
akeandabsor pti
onofnut ri
ent
s.
 Th eyareclassifi
edaccor dingtochemical composi t
ionandbi ol
ogical ef
fect
sor
theirabil
i
tytowi thstandheat .
 Th eseanti-
nutrit
ionalfactorsi
ncludeproteaseort ry
psininhibit
ors,glucosi
nolat
es,
cyanogens, saponins,tannins,est
rogenicfactors,
gossypol andmy cotoxi
ns.

1.Pr
otease/
try
psi
ninhi
bit
ors
 Thesear epr
oteinbasedmol ecul
es.
 Therearetwot ypesoftrypsininhi
bit
orsespecial
lyinsoyabeanmeal .
 Heatlabil
eKunitzinhibi
torsblocktr
ypsinandBowmanBi rkblocktr
ypsi
nor
chemot r
ypsi
n.
 Theyalsoinhi
bitproteolyt
icenzymesi nanimalgastro-
int
esti
ne.
 Theycausegr owthinhibit
ionandpancr eashyper
trophy.
 Heattreatmentat121° Cfor15t o30mi nutescandestroythesesubst
ances.
2.Gl
ucosi
nol
ates
 Thesear egl ycosidescont ai
ningJ- D-t
hiogl
ucose.
 Theyar epr oductsofsecondar ymet aboli
sm, therefor
etheyarenotdirectl
ytoxic.
 Whent heyar ehydr olysedbyt heenzy memy rosinase,t
heyreleasepotentanti
-
thyroidagent .
 Thet hyroi
dgl andi sinhi bi
tedt obi ndwi t
hiodinebygoi tr
inwhichisanant i
-t
hyroid.
 Compensat ionwit hiodinesuppl ement ati
onisf uti
le.
 I
ncr easedt hyroi
dact i
v i
tyi
sshownbyt hepresenceofhy per
plasiaandfoll
i
cular
hypertrophy( goit
re) .
 Theyar efoundmai nlyinrapeandmust ardoilseed.
 Glucosinolatesinf eedsar et reat edbyappl y
ingheatt othefeed,though
glucosinatesar emor eheatr esi stant
.

3.Cy
anogens
 Thesear ecal l
edcy anogensorcy anogenet i
cJ- glycosi
des.
 Thesear enotdi rectlytoxicbutwhenhy drol
y sedwi thanext r
acell
ularenzyme,
hydrogency anidei sliberatedorr eleased.
 Thehy drol
ysisbyanext racellul
arenzy meal sol eadstot heli
berat
ionofcar bonyl
compoundst hatsuppr essr espir
at i
on.
 Thiocy anatewhi chi sadet oxifi
cationproductofcy ani
deact sasanant i-
thyroi
d
agent .
 Iti
sf oundi ncer eals,roott ubers,legumesandoi lseeds.
 Iti
str eatedbydest roy i
ngt heassoci atedenzy mesbyheatsi ncethecy anogensare
heatst ableexceptt heenzy mes.
 Treatmenti sbysoaki ngt hefeedf or3day st hensundr yfor2days, t
hendry i
ng
at60° Candi ncubat i
ngat30° Cf or18hour s.

4.Saponi
ns
 Saponinsarenon- volatil
esecondar ycompounds.
 Theyarewi delydistri
but edinnat ure.
 Theycandi sturbnut r
ientt r
anspor tbydamagingi ntesti
nalmucosaast heycanact
asadet er
gent .
 Saponinscanr educepr oteindigestibi
l
itybybi
ndi ngtoprotei
ns,for
mingpr otei
n
complexes.
 Theyreducet hepal atabili
tyofaf eedbecauset heyar ebit
ter
.
 Theyarepoi sonoust of ishast heydamaget her espirat
oryepi
theli
um ofgil
ls.
 Theycanber emov edf rom af eedbysoaki ngthef eedinanaqueoussol ut
ion.

5.Tanni
ns
 Tanni
nsarebit
terpol
yphenol
icpl
antcompoundswhi
chbi
ndorpr
eci
pit
atepr
otei
ns
andotheror
ganiccompounds.
 Theyareheatst able.
 Theydecr easepr otei
ndi gesti
bil
itybymaki ngpr ot
einpart
iall
yunavai
labl
e,i
nhi
bit
ing
di
gesti
v eenzy mesandi ncreasingfaecal ni
trogen.
 Tanni
nsi nhibittry
psin,chemot rypsin,amy l
aseandl i
pase.
 Theyalsoi nt
er f
erewi t
hdi etar
yi r
onabsor pti
on.
 Tanni
nsar efoundi ncereals,l
egumesandoi lseeds.
 Treat
mentoft anninsisdonebyde- hull
i
ngandsubj ecti
ngt hefeedtoheat.

6.Est
rogeni
cfact
ors
 Estr
ogenicfactor
sareisofl
av onesthatoccurinthefor
m ofglycosi
des.
 Theyoccurinsoyabeans.
 Genist
einisthemostpopul arisof
lavoneanditisheatstable.
 Theybindtooestrogenreceptorsandcani nducevit
ell
ogenesis.
 Estr
ogenicfactor
sarefoundi ncereals,
legumesandoi lseeds.

7.Gossy
pol
 Gossypoli
sapol yphenol
iccompound.
 I
tcausesimpairedprotei
ndigesti
bil
it
ybybi ndingwithl
ysi
neduri
ngheat
pr
ocessing.
 Gossypoli
sfoundi nthepigmentglandsofpl ant
sthatbel
ongtothegenus
Gossypi
um, f
orexampl e,
cottonseed.
 I
tcanbecont r
olledbytheuseofcot tonseedv ari
eti
esfr
eeofpi
gmentglands.

8.My
cot
oxi
ns
 Mycotoxi
nsaresecondar ymet aboli
tesoff ungi.
 Themostcommonf ungithatproducemy cotoxi
nsareFusar i
um, Aspergil
l
usand
Peni
cil
li
um.
 Theycauseli
verdiseaseandhav ecarcinogenicandteratogeniceffect
s.
 Theycausedigest
ivedisorders,atr
ophyofov ari
esandt esti
clesaswell as
abor
ti
ons.
 Theymostlyoccurinoilseeds,cerealsandcompl et
efeeds.
 Mycotoxi
nscanbepr eventedbystoringfeedi ncooldr
ypl aces.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Carryoutaninv
entor
yaty ouragr
icul
tur
alstoreroom anddeter
minethet
ypesof
feedthatareavai
l
able,cl
earl
ystati
ngtheirqual
i
t ybyvi
sualanal
ysi
s.
2.Carryoutafeedanalysi
sofaselectedfeedsampl eusi
ngtheproxi
mateanal
ysi
s.
Di
gest
ibi
l
ity
 Digesti
bil
i
tyistheper centageofaf eedstuffconsumedbyanor ganism takenint
o
thedigesti
vetractandassi mil
atedintotheani malbody.
 I
tisthediffer
encebet weenwhatanani mal eatsandwhati texcr
etes.
 Theimpor t
anceofdi gesti
bili
tyi
sthatitinfl
uencest heuti
l
izati
onofnut r
ientsthat
areessenti
alforanimal growthandpr oduction.
 Thet wotypesofdigest i
bil
it
yaretrueandappar entdi
gesti
bil
it
y.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weent
rueandappar
entdi
gest
ibi
l
ity
Tabl
e.3.
3.1Tr
ueandappar
entdi
gest
ibi
l
ity
.

Tr
uedi
gest
ibi
li
ty Appar
entdi
gest
ibi
li
ty

 Iti
sesti
matedbycorr
ecti
ngfort he  I
tisesti
mat edbysubtract
ing
endogenousandmicr
obialamountof nutr
ient
scontainedinthefaeces
anutri
entact
ual
lyl
ostinthefaeces. fr
om nutri
entscontai
nedinthe
di
etaryi
ntake.

 Ittakesintoaccountendogenous  Itdoesnotconsi
derendogenous
excr et
ions(mucus,enzymes,epi
thel
ial secret
ions.
tissues,amines,ur
eaanddeadcel l
s).

 Truedigest
ibi
li
tyf
orprotei
ns,
ami
no  Measur
ementofpr
otei
ns,
ami
no
acidsandfatsi
shigher. aci
dsandf
atsisl
ower.

 Thecalculati
onsaremorecomplex  Iti
ssimpleasi tpri
maril
ydeal
s
becauseitincl
udesendogenous wit
hnut r
ientcontentof
excret
ions. consumedf eedandt heexcr
eta
nutr
ientcontent.

 I
tssuit
abi
li
tyf
ortherequi
rementsof  Appar entdigest
ibil
i
tyismor
e
l
i
vestockdi
agnosti
cli
vestocksy
stems suitablefortherequir
ement
sof
r
esearchi
sminimalorlow. diagnosticli
vest
ocksy st
ems
 r
esear
ch.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingdi
gest
ibi
l
ity
 Di
gest
ibi
l
ityi
saff
ect
edbyav ari
etyoffact
ors.
 Di
gest
ibi
l
ityofaf
eedisaf
fectedbyplantandani
mal
fact
ors.

1.Ani
mal
fact
ors
 Animal fact orsar eofl ittl
esi gnificancei ndi gestibil
i
tybutani mal speciescanaffect
thedigest i
bi l
ityofaf eed.
 Feedswi t hhi ghf i
brecont enthav eahi ghdigest ibil
i
tyi nr umi nantsthannon-
ruminant s.
 Thisisduet othepr e-gast ri
cf erment at iondi gestiont hatoccur sinrumi nant
s.
 Thei mpor tanceofpr e- gast ri
cdi gest ioni sthat ,
itimpr ov esdi gesti
onand
absorpt i
onofnut r
ientsi nsmal li
nt estinesofsmal lrumi nants.
 Post-gast r
icf erment at i
ondi gestionoccur sinnon- r
umi nant swhi chhelpinthe
digestionofcr udef i
br e.
 Rumi nant sar egooddi gest ersofhi ghf ibreandl owpr ot einf eedsbutnon-
ruminant sar egooddi gest ersofl owf ibr eandhi ghpr ot ei nfeeds.
 Thusani mal speci esinf luencesdi gest ibili
ty.
 Theageofanani mal al soaf fectdi gest ibil
it
y .
 Youngani mal scannotdi gestt hef eedsasef fi
cientasadul tani malsduet ol
ess
enzymesecr etion.
 Youngr umi nant scannoteatordi gestr oughageunt i
l thei rdigesti
vetracts,
especi al
lyt hei rrumensar edev eloped.
 Whenf eedcomposi tioni schangedsuddenl y,digestibilitydecr easesespecial
lyin
thecaseofr umi nants.
 Lightwor kt endt oi mpr ov edi gest ibil
i
t yoff eedsbutheav ywor kdeceases
digestibilit
y .
 Digestibilityisal soaf fect edbyt hel ev eloff eeding.
 Gener all
ywhenanani mal consumesmor efeed, therat eofpassageoft hedigesta
i
nt heal iment arycanal isf aster.
 Thisdecr easest hedi gest ibil
ityofaf eedduet ol esserr et entiontime.

2.Feedcomposi
ti
on
 Thehomogenei tyoff eedcomposi t
iondeter
mi nesi
tsdigest
ibi
li
ty.
 Fi
br econtentinf eedsaf f
ectsthedigest
ibi
li
tyofafeed.
 Feedsf rom plant shar v
estedatay oungagehav ealowerstem-leafrat
io,t
huslow
crudefibrecont ent .
 Th i
sresultsinhi ghdi gesti
bil
it
yrat
e.
 Co nser
v edandf r eshher bagesvar
ymor eindigesti
bil
i
tybecauset hei
rchemical
 composi
ti
oni
ssomewhathet
erogeneous.

3.Rat
ioncomposi
ti
on
 Digest i
bil
it
yofaf eedisal soinfl
uencedbyot herfeedthatiti
scombi nedwith.
 Combi ni
ngt wof eedsleadst oassoci ati
v eeffects.
 Posi ti
veassoci at i
veef f
ectiswhent hedi gestibi
li
tyofonef eedisenhancedbyt he
addi ti
onofanot herfeed, forexampl e,enhanci ngstrawwi t
hapr otei
nsupplement.
 Prot ei
nsuppl ement sencour agemi crobialact i
vi
tywhichincreasesthedigesti
bil
it
y
ofhi ghcrudef i
brecont entinst r
aw.
 Ne gativeassoci ativeeffectiswhent heef f
ect sofacer t
ainfeedisreducedby
anot herfeedi tiscombi nedwi t
h,forexampl e,supplementationofaforagewitha
readycar bohy drat efeed.
 Ra pidferment ationoff attyacidstost archlower srumenpHt osi
xorless,t
hereby
i
nhi bit
ingcelluloseandf ibredigesti
bili
ty.

4.Feedpr
ocessi
ng
 I
ti sdonet oincr easeoropt imizef eeddigest i
bili
ty.
 Feedcanbechopped, chaffed,crushedandgr inded.
 Grindingandcr ushingofgr ainsisdonesot hattheycanbeeasi lydigested.
 Grindingofcer eal sforcattl
econsumpt i
onisdonet oreducetheri
skofaci dosi
s.
 Grindingoff oragesr educest hedi gesti
bili
tyofcr udef i
brebecausethef i
br ewill
not
becompl etel
yf erment edsincet hedigest awi l
lpassf astintheali
ment arycanal.
 Ch emical t
reatment susi ngsodi um andammoni um hy droxi
desimprov e
digestibi
l
ityofdr ymat terofcereal st
raws.
 He ati
ngsl i
ghtl
yi ncreasest hedi gesti
bili
tyofcer eals.
 He ati
nginact i
vat esdigestiveenzy mei nhibi
torst herebyincr
easingdigestibil
it
yof
thefeed.

Feedconv
ersi
onef
fi
ciency(
FCE)andf
eedconv
ersi
onr
ati
o
(FCR)
.
 I
nani mal product i
onfeedi ntakeandl ivewei ghtgai
nareinterdependent.
 Weighti ncreaseisinfl
uencedbyf eedi ntakeandt hepri
mar yreasonforfeeding
ani
mal si stoi ncr
easet heirli
vewei ght .
 Feedconv ersioneffi
ciencyist her at eatwhi chananimal feedisconvertedinto
ani
mal proteins.
 Feedconv ersionrateistheef fi
ci encyatwhi chanimalsconv ertf
eedtothedesi r
ed
output.
 FCEi stheamountofout put(eithermi l
k,carcassoreggs)pr oducedperkgdr y
mat t
erconsumed.
 Theabi l
ityofanani mal toconv ertf eedf orproducti
onratherthanmai nt
enance
onlydetermi nesadecr easeori ncr easei nbodywei ght
.
 Thef actorst hati
nfl
uenceFCEar ef oraget ype,ageoftheanimal,animal comfort
,
 feedaddi
ti
vesandthequal
it
yofthef eed.
 Th el
owertheFCEorFCRthehighertheweightgai
n.
 FCE=animal wei
ght÷drymatt
erintake.

Exampl
e1
 Cal
cul
atet
heFCEi
facowpr
oduces20kgofmi
l
kaf
terbei
ngf
ed18kgdr
ymat
ter
.

Answer
 FCE=Mil
kyi
eldDr
ymat
teri
ntake
 FCE=2018=1.11

 Feedconv
ersi
onef
fi
ciencyhasnouni
tofmeasur
ement
.

I
n-v
ivoandi
n-v
itr
omet
hods
 I
n-vi
vomet hodisanexper i
ment al
techni quethatisdonei nsidealivi
ngor gani
sm.
 I
tprovidesmorepr eci
seandconcl usiver esul
tsthanin-vit
romet hod.
 I
tisexpensive,
timeconsumi ngandhasmanyr estr
ict
ions.
 I
n-vi
tromethodisanexper i
ment altechniquedoneout si
deal ivi
ngorganism.
 I
tinvolvest
hesimul at
ionofanenv ir
onmentt hatissimilartotheenvir
onmentof
t
heani mal.
 I
tischeap,widelyusedandpr oducesr esultsquickerthanin-vi
vomet hod.
 I
tproducesresultsthatar
elessaccur ate.

I
n-v
ivomet
hod
 I
n-v
ivomet
hodhast
hreeexampl
eswhi
char
etot
alcol
l
ect
ion,
mar
kermet
hodand
i
nSaccoori
nsi
tumethod.

Tot
alcol
l
ect
ion
 Iti
salsocall
eddirectorcompletecoll
ecti
onmet hod.
 Iti
saquant i
tat
iveresear
chmet hodwher eananimal iskeptinacollecti
onpenor
cage.
 Cagesaredesignedf ort
hecoll
ecti
onoff aecalmat t
er.
 Acertai
npercentageofthefaecalmat t
erisanalysed.
 Animalsarethenfedat90%oft heirnormalfeedquant i
tytopr ev
entfoodlef
tover
s.
 Materi
alscall
edharnessesareusedt ocoll
ectthefaecal matter.
 Total
collect
ionmet hodcanbeusedf orthestudyofonef eed.

Parametersthatshoul
dbeconsi
der
edwhenchoosi
ngani
mal
s
fortot
alcoll
ecti
on
 Animalsshouldbeofthesamesi zeandage.
 Feedgiveneachdayshouldbeidenticall
ypr ocessed.
 Theamountoff eedtakenshoul
dber ecorded.
 Faecesandur i
neshouldbecoll
ectedatt hesamei nt
erval
andwi
thout
contaminati
ngthesamples.
 Considertheeff
ectoffat
sandproteinst odigesti
bili
ty.
 Useofaccur at
eandidenti
calmethodsofanal ysi
ng.

Mar
kermet
hod
 Thismethodisdonewhentot
alcoll
ecti
onisnotpossi
ble.
 I
tinvolv
estheuseofamarkersubstancei
nthefeedthenanal
yset
heamounti
n
faeces.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofamar
ker
 Thesubstanceusedmustbesaf etot heani mal .
 Thesubstancemustt ravel atthesamespeedast hef eedinthedi
gest i
vetract
.
 Themar kermusthav enoi mpactondi gestibil
it
y,eitherincr
easeorinhibiti
t.
 I
tmustmi xwellwit
hthef eed.
 I
tmustbedet ect
ableandmeasur abl
eev eni nsmal lamount s.
 I
tcanbeei therli
qui
dorsol idandcanbeaddedi nf eedsort hei
nsolublepartsi
n
feeds,
forexampl e,
insolubleash.
 Examplesofmar kersincludet i
tanium oxi de( Ti
O2) ,chromium oxi
de( Cr2O3),
ytt
erbi
um acetate,l
it
hium, stronti
um, cobal tETDAandchr omium-mor dantedstr
aw.

Saccomet
hod
 I
tisalsocal l
edt heny l
onbagori nsitumet hod.
 Smallnylonbagsar efil
l
edwi t
ht estfeedandi nsertedintotherumen.
 I
tissealedi napor ousbagandsuspendedt ot her umenofaf istulat
edanimal.
 I
tisreli
ableinmeasur i
ngt hesolubil
i
tyofcer tainf eeds.
 Thebagsar eti
ghtlysealedsot hatnof eedescapesandnopar ticl
esent er
.
 Onlytherumenmi crobesar ecapableofi nfluenci ngt hefeedint hebag.
 Aft
erthebaghasbeenr emov edf rom theani mal ,itiswashedwi thcleanwaterand
dri
ed.
 We i
ghtcont entsareanal ysedtost udyt hef eedsol ubil
i
ty.
 Determiningsolubil
ityoft hetestedfeedi st hroughcompar i
ngt hecomposi ti
onand
weightoft hefeedsampl esbefor eandaf tert heSaccot est.

I
n-v
itr
omet
hod
 I
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo,
rumenf
lui
d-pepsi
nin-
vit
roandcel
lfr
eeenzy
mei
n-v
itr
o.
1.Rumenf
lui
d-pepsi
nin-
vit
romet
hod
 Rumenf l
uid-pepsi nin-vi
tromet hodwaspr oposedbyTi lleyandTerry.
 Iti
sf urt
hersub- dividedintot wostages.
 Thef ir
ststageinv olv esthemeasur i
ngofappar entdigest i
bil
it
yinrumenf lui
dby
subjecti
ngf oragei nabuf f
ersolutionfor48hour s.
 Thesecondst agei nv olv
est hefeedbei ngfur t
hersubj ectedt odi
gesti
onwi t
h
pepsininaci dsol utionfor48hour s.
 Iti
simpor tanttonot ethatthef eedcanal sobef urt
herdi gestedbyincubat i
ngi
tfor
48hour sinneut ral detergentsoluti
ont oest i
mat edrymat terdi
gesti
bil
ity
.
 Thepr oblem ofr umenf l
uid-pepsinisthat,therearev ariati
onsininoculum
composi ti
onandact ivi
tyduet oprocessing, animalspeci es,coll
ecti
ngtimeand
hostani maldiet.

2.Cel
l
-fr
eeenzy
mei
n-v
itr
o
 Exampl esofcell
-f
reeenzymein-v
itr
opr ocedur
esar ecell
ulase,neutr
aldeter
gent-
cell
ulose,neut
raldeter
gent
-cel
l
ulase+gammanaseandpepsi ncellul
ose.
 Th eproblemsofthismethodarethattheequationsarespecies-specif
ic,
they
representtheeff
ectsofafewenzy mesandt heyhav evari
abili
tyinenzymeactiv
ity
.

Fi
g.3.
3.1 Acannul
atedst
eerwi
thr
umenf
lui
d.

Di
gest
ibi
l
itycal
cul
ati
ons
 I
nor dertodet erminetheimportanceofaf eedinani malnutri
ti
on,i
tsrat
eordegree
ofdigestibil
i
tymustbecal cul
ated.
 Digesti
bili
tycanbeexpr essedasaper cent
ageorasi ng/ kg.
 Thecal culat
ionsinvol
vedindeterminingdigesti
bil
ityincl
udedigest
ibi
li
ty,
drymatter
di
gest i
bil
ity,or
ganicmat t
erdigesti
bil
i
tyanddi gest
ibil
ityi
ndices.
 Me thodslikediff
erent
ial
,regr
essionandmar kertr
ialsarealsousedinesti
mati
ng
di
gest i
bil
ity.

 Di
gest
ibi
l
ity(
g/kg)=Nut
ri
enti
nfeed–Nut
ri
enti
nfaecesNut
ri
enti
nfeed × 1000

 Drymatterdi
gest
ibi
l
ity(
g/kg)=Dr
ymat
teri
nfeed–Dr
ymat
teri
nfaecesDr
ymat
ter
infeed×1000
 Or
gani
cmat
terdi
gest
ibi
l
ity(
OMDg/
kg)=OM i
nfeed–OM i
nfaecesOM i
nfeed×10
00

 Di
gest
ibi
l
itycanbeexpr
essedi
nper
cent
ages(
mul
ti
plyby100)ori
ng/
kg(
mul
ti
ply
by1000)
.

Di
gest
ibi
l
ityi
ndi
ces(
est
imat
ingener
gyv
alues)
 Digest
ibl
eor
gani
cmat
tercont
ent(
DOMDg/
kgDM)i
scal
cul
atedusi
ngt
hef
ormul
a
below.

OM i
nfeed-OM i
nfaecesDM i
nfeed×1000

 Tot
aldi
gesti
blenutri
ents=DCP+DCF+DNFE+DEE(
2.25)
.
 DCP=digesti
blecrudeprotein.
 DCF=digest
ibl
ecrudef i
bre.
 DNFE=digesti
blenit
rogenf r
eeext
ract
s.
 DEE=digest
ibl
eetherextracts.

Di
ff
erent
ial
met
hod
 I
tal l
owscalcul
ati
onsf ort
wofeedsfedsi
mul t
aneousl
y.
 Whenusi ngthi
smet hoditi
sassumedthattherei
snointeract
ionbetween
digesti
bil
i
tyoft
hef eedsandthedi
gesti
bil
i
tyandfaecaldrymatteroutputofbase
feedisknown.

Testf
eeddr
ymatt
erdigesti
bil
i
ty=Testf
eedDMI–(
Faecal
DM
O–BasefeedDMO)TestfeedDMI
Mar
kert
ri
als
 Anindigest
ibl
emar kersuchasy t
ter
bium acetat
eisaddedint
othefeed.
 Markerconcent r
ati
oninfeedandfaecesismeasured.
 Thedisappearanceofmar kerf
rom guti
sest i
mated.
 I
faf eedcontains1%tit
anium oxi
deandinf aecesrecor
ds2%itmeansdigest
ibi
l
ity
was50%.

Per
centagenut
ri
entdi
gesti
bil
i
ty=100-
100×%i ndi
cat
orf
eed%indi
catorf
aeces×%nut
ri
ent
faeces%nut
ri
ent
feed

Exampl
e
Hol st
eindair
ycowsarefedalf
alf
ahaywhi chiscont
aini
ng18%
crudepr ot
einand1%chromium-mordantedstrawandthei
r
faecescontain14%crudeprot
einand2%chr omium-mordant
ed
straw.Calculat
ecr
udeprotei
ndigest
ibi
l
ity?

Per
centagenut
ri
entdi
gesti
bil
i
ty=100-
100×%i ndi
cat
orf
eed%indi
catorf
aeces×%nut
ri
ent
faeces%nut
ri
ent
feed

Per
cent
agenut
ri
entdi
gest
ibi
l
ity
=100-
100×12×1418

=100100×142×18

=100–38.
89
=61.
11%

Summar
y
 Digestibil
it
yisclassif
iedintotrueandapparentdigest
ibi
li
ty.
 Thef actorsthataffectdigesti
bil
it
yaredivi
dedintoanimalandfeedf
actors.
 Feedi ntakeinfl
uencet herateofanimalproducti
on.
 Twomet hodsusedt oest i
matedigesti
bil
i
tyarein-v
ivoandin-v
itr
omethods.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Visitar esearchst at
ionandobser v
et hemet hodscur r
entl
yusedtoest i
mat e
digestibili
tyinli
vestockespeciallyincattl
eandpi gs.
2.Desi gnt hein-v
ivoexperimentst ati
ngt hemat eri
alsrequi
redandtheexpect ed
results.
3.Al ambwasgi venacer t
ainfeedmi xedwithtitani
um oxide(TiO2)
.Thef eedhad
10%cr udepr otei
n.Thef eedwasmi xedwith2%t it
anium oxi
de.After12hours
faeceswer ecol l
ectedandanal ysed.Faecescont ained3%Ti O2and6%CP.
Cal cul
atet hedigestibi
li
typercentageofcr udepr otei
n?

Feedf
ormul
ati
on
 Feedf ormulat
ionisapr ocessofquant i
fyingamount soffeedi ngredientsthat
shouldbecombi nedtoform auniformf eed.
 Iti
nvolvestheuseofmanydi ffer
entingredient
st oform asinglepr operl
ymi xed
feed.
 Primaryreasonf orfeedformulat
ionistof ormulateafeedt hatsuppl i
esadequate
nutri
entstoanani mal i
naneconomi cal
lyeffi
cientway.
 Feedcont ri
butesabout50%t o75%oft heoper ati
onalcosts;thereforefeed
formulati
onmustbewi thinarangethatdoesnotnegat i
velyaf f
ectpr ofi
ts.
 Therear eseveralfact
orsthatshouldbeconsi deredwhenf ormul atingaf eed.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenf
ormul
ati
ngf
eed.
 Thefact
orst
oconsi
derinfeedf
ormulat
ionar
epr
iceorcost
,rawmat
eri
al
avai
l
abil
it
yandnut
ri
ti
onalcomposi
ti
on.
1.Costofr
awmat
eri
als
 Thecostofr awmat erial
sr equiredi nfeedformulati
onr equirescaref
ul
consider
ati
on.
 Thisisbecausei tdetermineswhet heritisgoingtobepr ofi
tabletoformul
atethe
feedornot.
 Expensiverawmat eri
alsleadt ol ossesi nproducti
on,therebyaf f
ecti
ngthe
economicv iabi l
it
yoft hefor mulat i
on.
 Thereisneedt ocompar er awmat er i
alsinordertouset heleastexpensi
veraw
material
swhi chhav ethehi ghestpr oducti
onr at
e.
 Theremustnotbeacompr omi seint ermsoft heexpectedf eedqualit
yduetothe
useofanal ter nateingredientinpl aceoft heexpensiveone.
 Therefor
erawmat eri
alsshoul dbecheapt omaximisepr oductionandprofi
ts.

2.Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
awmat
eri
als
 Locall
yav ail
ableingredi
entsarepref er
redastheav ai
labi
li
tyoff eedi
ngredi
ent
shas
aninter-
relat
ionshipwi t
hitscost.
 Locall
yav ail
ableingredi
entsarecheapert hanthatthosethatarenotlocall
y
avail
able.
 Therear eseasonal r
awmat er
ial
sandsomear ef oundallyearround.
 Themosti mportantingredi
enttousei stheoneav ail
ablethroughoutthe
productionseason.
 Seasonal i
ngredientstendtobeaf fectedwithti
mesoi ti
smuchbet t
ertouseraw
material
sav ail
ablethroughoutthey ear.

3.Nut
ri
ti
onal
fact
ors
 Nutri
tionalcomposi ti
onsoft herawmat eri
alstobeuseddet ermi
net hequal i
tyof
thefeed.
 Theageatwhi chthegr assorcr opsar ecutdeterminethecr udeproteincont ent.
 I
fthei ngredientinusehashi ghmoi sturecontent,i
tencour agesoxi
dat i
on.
 Thisleadst omoul df ormationandr esultinanimalpoisoning.
 Nutri
tionalfactorsareal soinfl
uencedbyani malspecies,aget owhicht hefeedi s
tar
getedf orandt her easonoff ormulatingthefeed( maintenanceandpr oduction).
 I
facer t
ainingredientcompr omi sesanimal healt
hitmustber epl
aced.
 Therepl acementi ngredientmustnotnegat i
velyaff
ectthenut ri
ti
onal composi tion
ofthef ormulation.

Pear
sonsquar
emet
hod
 Thi
smet
hodi
sal
socal
l
edt
heboxmet
hod.
 Iti
susedi nt hebal anci ngofsi mplef eedr ations.
 Iti
sat ool usedi nthecal culationofpor t i
onsr equiredinaf eedt omeetpr otei
nand
energyr equirement sofani mal s.
 Pearsonsquar emet hodi susedf ort hef or mul ati
onoft wof eeds.
 Thef i
rstst epi swr iti
ngt henut ri
entrequi rement .
 Onef eedmusthav eav aluehi ghert hant hedesi redv al
ueandonemusthav ea
valuelowert hant hedesi r edv alue.
 Thisintermedi atev alueist heonet hatt heani mal requir
esitmi ghtbecrudepr ot
ein,
totaldi
gest iblenut rients,ami noaci dsandv i
tami ns.
 Thesecondst epist owr itetwov aluesoft henut ri
entcomposi ti
onsoft hetwo
feedsont hel eftsideoft hesquar e.
 Thenut rientr equirementv al
uemustbeani ntermedi at
eoft het wonut r
ient
composi t
ionf igures.
 Thet hi
rdst epi stosubt r
actt henut rientv aluef r
om thenut r
itionalrequi
rementon
thediagonal andar ri
v eatanumer icalval ueent i
tl
edpar ts.
 Thef ourthst epi stoaddt het wopor ti
onf i
gur est ogivethet otalandcalculateeach
feedasaper cent age.
 Thef i
fthst epi stodi vi
deeachpar tbyt hesum oft hetwopar t
sandmul ti
plyby100.

Exampl
e
Acer t
ainanimalspeci
esisonaf eedthatrequi
resarati
on
containi
ng15%CP.TheCPoft hetwof eedsbeingused,maize
andsoy abeanmeal ar
e10%and45%, r
especti
vel
y.Deter
mine
theamount soffeednecessar
ytof or
m a200kgr at
ionthat
meet stherequi
rementsoftheanimal.

Answer
St
ep1
 Drawi
ngasquar
eandi
nser
ti
ngt
hedesi
redcr
udepr
otei
n(15%)i
nthemi
ddl
eoft
he
squar
e.

St
ep2
 Placi
ngthetwofeedsandt
hei
rrespect
ivecr
udepr
otei
ncont
ent
sont
hel
efthand
corner
softhesquare.

Fi
g.3.
4.1
St
ep3
 Subtr
actthemiddlevalueandthev al
ueont hebottom andtopl
efthandcorner
sof
thesquareandplacetheresul
tdiagonallyopposi
te.
 45–15=20( Val
uei nthebott
om rightcornerofthesquare)
.
 10–15=5( Val
uei nthetopri
ghtcor nerofthesquar
e).
 Thefigur
esgotaftersubtr
acti
ngwi ll
representt
hepartsofthet
wof eedsneeded.

Fi
g.3.
4.2

St
ep4
 Sum upthetwonumber stoget
hert ogett
het ot
al par
tsf
ort
hefeedrati
on(20+5=
25)
.
 Thepartsofeachf
eedcanbeexpr essedasaper centsi
mpl
ybydivi
dingthe
i
ndiv
idualpar
tsbythetotalpar
tsandmul ti
ply
ingby100.
 Per
centageofsoyabeanr equi
red=525×100=20%.
 Per
centageofsoyabeanr equi
red=2025×100=80%.

St
ep5
 Calculat
etheamount( kg)ofeachf eedneededbymul t
ipl
yi
ngtheper
cent
ageoft
he
feedbyt heamountoff eedneeded.
 Totalamountofsoy abeanneededf ort
herati
on=Percentageofsoy
abean
requir
edxamountofr at i
onrequir
ed.
 Totalamountofmai zeneededf ortherati
on=Percentageofmaizer
equi
redx
amountofr at
ionrequi
red.
 Totalamountofsoy abeanneededf ort
herati
on=0.
2×200kg=40kg.
 Totalamountofmai zeneededf ortherati
on=0.
8×200kg=160kg.

Feedf
ormul
ati
onsof
twar
e
 Computersoft
wareshav
ebeenint
roducedtohel
pinfeedfor
mulat
ions.
 Feedfor
mulati
onsoft
waresr
educeti
met akeni
ncompleti
ngfeedfor
mul at
ion.
 Thefeedfor
mulat
ionsoft
war
esincl
udeFeedLIVE,
FeedMU, WinFeed,BestMix,
Opti
MixandEco-Mix.

1.FeedLI
VE
 FeedLIVEismeantf orleastcostf eedf or
mulati
on.
 I
tisbili
ngual(ThaiandEngl ish).
 I
tusesl i
nearprogrammi ngandMS- windowsapplicati
on.
 Nutri
entcomponent sofingr edientsareexpl
ici
tl
yshownont heprogram.
 FeedLIVEfuncti
onsincludedet ermini
ngnutri
entrequirements,ingr
edient
sand
l
imitat
ions.
 I
tanalysesexisti
ngformul as( backwardoperati
on) .
 I
tcanbeusedf orformulatingf eedofanyanimal,speci f
yingift
heanimal i
sa
ruminantornon-ruminant.

2.FeedMU
 FeedMUi sbasedonat ri
alander rormet hodandsi mpleli
nearpr
ogrammi ng.
 Itenhancestheviewpointtr
ansferrequi r
ementfordat a.
 Itsavesandpresentsthedat ai
nPDFf ormat .
 FeedMUmanagesani mal r
equi
rement ,i
ngredi
entdetail
sandingredi
ent
composi t
ion.
 Iti
sdesignedforfeedmanuf acturers,formulat
ors,nutri
ti
oni
stsandveter
inari
ans.
 Itcanbeusedt oformulatesimplef eedsforfarm animalsandevencompl exfeeds.

3.Eco-
Mix
 Eco-Mi xi sawi ndowsbasedsof twarethatcanbeusedt ofor
mul at
efeedsfor
poultry,hor ses,f
ish,pets,ruminantsandnon-ruminant
s.
 I
tpr epar esanyki ndofbal ancedfeedwi t
hleastcostbasi
ngoni ngr
edientgr
oup
andt ypeoff eed.
 Standar dr ati
onsar esetasdef ault
stherebyenabli
ngcompar i
sonsbetween
formulas.
 I
tpr ovidesbestsubst i
tuteingredi
ents.
 I
tmoni torschangesofi ngredi
entratesandprofitl
osspertonne.

4.BestMi
x
 BestMi xisanadv ancedl eastcostf eedformulati
onsof tware.
 I
tsmai nf uncti
onsar emul t
i-bl
ending,ingredi
entallocati
on,advancelabell
ingand
bul
kbl ending.
 I
tisanSQLdat abaseandMi crosoftwindows.
 Thesy stem ismul ti
-l
ingual andithandl esmulti
-companyandmul ti
-plant
operat
ionsasone.
 I
tsfunctionsar eintegratedandcanbeeasi lynavigated.
 I
tisalsof ull
yintegratedint heMi crosoftenvir
onmentandsal essuppor tf
uncti
ons.

5.Opt
iMi
xandWi
nFeed
 Opt
iMi
xcr
eat
esandmanagesf
eedf
ormul
asf
orsmal
ltol
argef
eedpr
oducer
s.
 Iti
sal soembeddedwi thmul ti
-cl
ient,multi
-plant,mul t
i-
productandmulti
-user
capabi l
it
ies.
 Itthenpr ovidesat oolfordataintegrati
onbet weent hemai noff
icecomputerand
remot eof f
li
nesy stems.
 Wi nFeedi ssimpleandst r
aightforwardsof twar e.
 Itpreparesl eastcostformul adietsforrumi nant sandnon- r
uminantsbyusing
l
inearandst ochasticprogrammi ngmet hods.
 TheWi nFeedsof twarehascont r
olsthataresel f -
explanator
y.
 Itall
owssav ingofani malnutri
entr equir
ement sinonef il
eandt hef
eedstorein
anot herfil
e.
 Nut r
ientrequi r
ement s,pri
ceandnut r
ientcomposi ti
onar eenter
edmanual l
y.

Si
l
age
 Sil
agei sanimal f
eedproducedthroughcont roll
edf erment ati
onbyr educi
ngpH
l
ev elofplant
st oalevelwherebacteri
algrowt hisinhibited.
 Ce real
sandgr assessuchasmai ze,corn,alf
alfa,clovers,vetches,
oat s,
ryeand
grassescanbeusedf orsi
lageproduction.
 Sil
agei sproducedusingmachinerylikeforagehar vester,transpor
twagons,
tr
act or
s,sil
ageblowerorpackingtractor.
 I
tcanbest oredinupri
ghtsil
os,bagsi l
os,bunkersi losorr oundbale.

Si
l
agemaki
ng
 Inmaki ngsi l
aget hegr assorcr opsar ecut,macer atedandblownusi ngaf orage
harvester.
 Thecr opmustnotbecuti mmedi at
elyafterrain.
 Thecr opshoul dbeal l
owedt owiltbecausewetgr assreducecarbohy drate
concent r
at i
on.
 Thegr assi stransportedf orstorageassi l
ageandheaped.
 Ifnecessar yanaddi ti
vecanbeaddeddur ingst or
ageorathar v
esti
ng.
 Mat t
edl umpsoft hegr assorcr opar eremov edandt hesur
facelevell
edt oremov e
airpocket s.
 Thegr assi sroll
edt oremov etrappedairint hegrass.
 Whenr ol
lingisfinishedt wolayersofpol ythenepaperi susedtocov erifiti
sapi t
sil
o.
 Thepol ythenepapermustbet i
ght l
ysealedandf urt
hercoveredwithei t
hertyresor
groundl i
mest one.

Bi
ochemi
cal
processes
 Al
otofbi
ochemicalprocessesoccurduri
ngensi
l
age.
 Whengr
assiscutrespir
ati
oncontinuessucht
hatcar
bondi
oxi
deandwat
eri
s
 produced.
 Thismeanst hatal ltheoxy genwi l
lbeusedandt hisresultinanaerobicrespir
ati
on.
 Ferment ati
oni stheconv ersi
onofcar bohy drat
estoor ganicaci dsbybacteri
al
activ
ity.
 Ferment ati
onl ower st hepHt oast atethatinhibi
tsbacterialgrowthandt hi
sstate
i
scal ledpi ckl
edorpr eservedstate.
 Highcar bohydr atecont entpromot esthepr oducti
onofl acti
caci dinthesil
ageby
Lactobaci ll
iandSt r
ept ococcusbact eri
a.
 Lacticaci dsilagei spal at
able,highlynutri
ti
ousandcanbest or
edforlongerperi
ods
(years).
 Lowl ev elsofcar bohy dratesencour agethepr oducti
onofbut yri
cacidby
Clostridium bact eri
a.
 Butyricaci dsilageisunpal at
abletost ock,lessnutr
it
iousandcanl astforafew
mont hs.
 Theref oregoodqual itysilageistheonewi thhighcarbohy dratecontent
.

Si
l
ageef
fl
uent
 Sil
ageef fl
uenti saby -productoft heferment ati
onpr ocess.
 Iti
saci dic,ri
chi nnut ri
ent sandappear saf t
ertwot othr
eeweeksaf terensil
age.
 Ithashi ghbiol ogicaloxy gendemand( BOD)whi chmakesi tasev er
epollutant
.
 Therefor e,i
tmustbecol lectedandstor edinpi t
sbef oreitisdi l
uted.
 Itshouldbedi sposedofsaf el
y.
 Iti
shighl yinfluencedbymoi stur
econt entpresenti nthepl antsused.
 Whencr opsar ecutaf terrain,ef
fl
uentdi schargewi ll
behi ghbutwhencr opsare
cutafterwi lt
ing, eff
luentdi schar
gewi llbelow.
 Th er
efor e,wil
tingoft hepl antsreducesnut ri
entl ossbyef fluentlosses.

Si
l
ageaddi
ti
ves
 Addi t
ivesar eusedtoeitherincr
easeorr educet
heamountofcarbohydr
ates.
 Ther ear etwot y
pesofaddi t
ivesinsi
lageswhicharesti
mulant
sandinhi
bitors.
 Stimul antsaresourcesofsugar swhichpr omot
elact
icaci
dproduct
ion,
for
exampl e,molasses.
 Inhibit
or sareacidswhichaccelerat
esthel ower
ingofpHlevel
thani
tsnaturalr
ate,
forex ampl e,sul
phuri
cacid.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofgoodsi
l
age
 ThepHshouldbear ound4.0.
 Drymatt
erpercentageshouldbearound20%.
 Drymatt
erdigest
ibil
it
yshouldbebetween70%and75%.
 Crudepr
otei
ncont entmustbebetween14%to16%.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingofqual
i
tysi
l
age
 St
ageofplantgrowthatcutt
ing.
 Moist
urecontentofplant
satcutt
ing.
 Pr
ocedureatensil
ing.
 Ty
peofadditi
v esused.

Summar
y
 Feedf ormulati
oni sapr ocessofquant ifyi
ngamount soff eedingredi
entsthatneed
tobecombi nedt oform auni f
ormf eed.
 Thef actorstoconsi derinfeedformulationarepri
ceorcost ,
rawmat erial
avail
abili
tyandnut ri
tionalcomposition.
 Pearsonsquar emet hodisat oolusedi nthecal
culati
onofpor t
ionsrequir
edina
feedt omeetpr oteinandener gyrequirementsofanimal s.
 Thef eedformul ati
onsof twareincl
udeFeedLI VE,FeedMU, WinFeed, BestMix,
Opt i
MixandEco- Mix.
 Sil
agei sanimal feedwhi chisproducedbycont roll
edf ermentati
onbyr educi
ngpH
l
ev elofplantstoal evelwher ebacteri
algrowthisinhibit
ed.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Withthegui
dancef
rom y
ourfaci
li
tat
or,
downl
oadfeedf
ormul
ati
onsof
twar
eof
yourchoi
ceandfor
mulat
edif
ferentt
ypesoff
eeds.

Nut
ri
ent
s
 Thesear echemi cal subst ancesobt ai
nedf rom feedrequi r
edf orthebodyto
provi
deener gy,promot egr owt h,repairofbody '
st i
ssuesandi mpr ovethe
product i
v i
tyofani mal s.
 Therear etwocl assesofnut r
ients,andt hesearemacr o-nutr
ientsandmi cr
o-
nutri
ent s.
 Macr o-nutrientsar enut r
ientsr equiredbyt hebodyi nlargeamount s,f
orexample,
carbohy drat e,
prot einandf ats.
 Micro-nut r
ientsar enut ri
ent srequiredbyt hebodyi nsmal lamount s,
forexampl
e,
vi
tami nsandmi ner als.
 Thechemi calcomposi ti
onoft hesenut ri
entsdiffer.
 Somecont aincar bonandsomedonotcont aincarbon.
 Nutri
ent st hatcont aincar bonar ecal l
edor gani
cnut ri
entswhi lethosethatdonot
containcar bonar ecal ledi norganicnut r
ients.

Car
bohy
drat
es
 Car
bohy
drat
esar
eneut
ral
chemi
cal
compoundst
hatcont
aincar
bon,
hydr
ogenand
 oxygen.
 Ther at
ioofhy drogentooxygeni susually2:
1.
 Thegener alformulafort
hecar bohydratesisCx(H2O) y
.
 Theyar ethemostabundantcl assofbi o-molecules.
 Carbohy dr
atesar esour
cesofener gy.
 Carbohy dr
atesar ecl
assi
fi
edint omonosacchar ides,di
sacchar
idesand
pol
y sacchari
des.

Monosacchar
ides
 Monosacchar idesar ewat ersolubl esugar sthatconsi stofasi nglesugarmol ecul
e.
 Theyhav easweett ast eandt heyf or m cr ystals.
 Thegener alformul af ormonosacchar idesi s( CH2O) n.
 Monosacchar idesar ecl assifi
edaccor dingt ocar bony lgr ouppl acement,numberof
carbonat omsi tcont ainsandchi r al handedness.
 Exampl esofmonosacchar i
desbasedont henumberofcar bonat omsi nthe
mol eculear etri
oses( 3C) ,pentoses( 5C)andhexoses( 6C).
 Glucose, fructoseandgal actosear ehexoseexampl esofmonosacchar i
des.
 Fructosei sthesweet estsugar ,sweet ert hanor dinarysugaruseddomest i
call
y
(sucrose).
 Monosacchar idescannotbehy droly sedi nt osmal lersugar s.
 Monosacchar idest ruct ureappear si nanumberofi somer i
cforms.
 Ani somerhast woormor ecompoundswi t
ht hesamef ormulabutdi ff
erent
arrangementofat omsi nt hemol ecul eanddi fferentpr oper t
ies.
 Monosacchar idescanbeal dehy desorket oneswi t
ht woormor ehy dr
oxylgroups
forex ampl eglucosei sanal dehydeandf ruct oseaket one.
 Theyoccuri nt womi rrorimages, st ereoisomer icfor msD- (
dextr o)andL-(l
aevo),
accor di
ngt ot heor i
ent at i
onoft heOHgr oupatcar bonat om five.
 Thechemi cal struct
ur esofgl ucoseandf r uctosear eshownbel ow.

Fi
g.3.
5.1 Chemi
cal
for
mul
asofgl
ucoseandf
ruct
ose

 Thest r
uctur
alf
ormulaofthehexosesugarcanbedrawnt
oshowthear
rangement
ofatoms.
 Glucoseformsapyranoseri
ng,bythereacti
onoft
hehydr
oxy
lgr
ouponcarbon5
(C-5)ofasugarwit
hthealdehydeatcarbon1.

Fi
g.3.
5.2 Py
ranoser
ingst
ruct
ureofβ-
glucose

 The-OHgr
ouponcar
bonat
om number1canbebel
oworabov
ethepl
aneoft
he
ri
ng.
 When-OHgr oupisbel
owt heri
ng,i
tcal
ledα-gl
ucosebutwheni
tisabov
ether
ing,
i
tiscall
edβ-gl
ucose.
 Theα-gl
ucoseandβ-glucosest
ruct
uresareshownbelow.

Fi
g.3.
5.3 I
somer
sofgl
ucose

Pent
oses
 Themosti mpor t
antpent osesareL-arabi
nose,D-xylose,
D-ri
bose,ket
oseD-
xylul
oseandD- ri
bulose.
 L-Arabinoseoccur saspent osansinarabi
nans,whichisacomponentof
hemi cell
ulose.
 D-Xyloseoccur saspent osansinxy l
ans.
 Ap hosphat ederi
vativeofD-x yl
uloseandD-ri
buloseoccursasint
ermediat
esi
nthe
pentosephosphat emet abol i
cpathway.

Fi
g.3.
5.4 Chemi
cal
for
mul
asofar
abi
nose,
xyl
oseandr
ibose.

Hexoses
 Themosti mport
antandnatur
all
yoccurri
nghexosesar eglucoseandf r
uctose.
 Howev ermannoseandgalact
oseoccurinpl ant
sinapol y
mer i
sedform.
 D-Glucose(gr
apeordextr
osugar),exi
stsinbothfreeandcombi nedstates.
 Theyarefoundinpl
ants,
honey,fr
uits,
bloodandcer ebral
spinalf
lui
d.
 Theyarethemajorcomponentofmanyol igosacchari
des,pol
ysacchari
desand
gl
ucosides.
 D-f
ructosei
sfoundinpol
ymer i
sedform.

Hept
oses
 D-Sedoheptul
osescont
ains7carbonatomsandoccursasaphosphat
ewhi
chact
s
asaninter
mediatei
nthepentosephosphat
emetabol
icpathway
.

Fi
g.3.
5.5 Chemi
cal
for
mul
aofsedohept
ulose.

Funct
ionsofmonosacchar
ide
 Theyar
esour
cesofenergyi
nrespir
ati
onbecausetheyhav
elar
genumberofC-
H
bondswhi
chcanbebrokent
oreleasealotofener
gy.
 Theyar
ebui
l
dingbl
ocksofl
argermol
ecul
esl
i
keRNA,
DNAandATP.

Di
sacchar
ides
 Disacchari
desareformedbyj oini
ngtoget heroft womonosacchar i
desdur i
nga
processknownascondensat i
on.
 Duringcondensati
on,two–OHgr oups, l
ineupal ongsideeachot herandoneof
them combinewi t
hahy drogenatom from t heot hert of orm water.
 Thebondf ormeddur i
ngcondensat i
oni scal l
edgl ycosi dicbond.
 Disacchari
desarealsoknownasdoubl esugar s.
 Themosti mportantdisacchar
idesaremal tose( glucose+gl ucose),sucr
ose
(gl
ucose+f ruct
ose)andl act
ose( gl
ucose+gal actose) .
 Whendi sacchar
idesarehy dr
olysedtheyy ieldtwomol eculesofhexoses.
 Thisusuall
yoccursdur i
ngdigesti
onpr ocessofcar bohy drat
es.

Sucr
ose
 Sucr
oseisfor
medf rom onemolecul
eofα-D-gl
ucose(α=alpha)andonemol
ecul
e
ofβ-
D-f
ruct
ose(β=bet a)joi
nedthr
oughanoxy genbri
dge.
 I
tismostl
yubiqui
tous(present
)andabundanti
npl ant
s.

Fi
g.3.
5.6 Chemi
cal
str
uct
uref
orsucr
ose

Lact
ose(
mil
ksugar
)
 Lactoseisaproductofthemammar ygland.
 I
tisf ormedbyonemol ecul
eofβ-D-
glucoseli
nkedtoonemolecul
eofβ-
D-
galactosei
naβ-(1:4)-
li
nkageandhasoner educi
nggroup.

Fi
g.3.
5.7 Chemi
cal
for
mul
aforl
act
ose.

Mal
tose
 Mal t
oseisproducedduringthehydrol
ysisofstarchandglycogenbydil
uteaci
dsor
enzymes.
 Itconsist
softwoα- D-
glucoseresi
dueslinkedinα-1, 4posit
ionandhasoneacti
ve
reducinggroup.
 Itcanbef oundinmalt
edandf ermentedgr ai
ns.
 Wh enitishydrol
ysedi
ty i
eldst
wogl ucosemol ecul
es.

Fi
g.3.
5.8 Chemi
cal
str
uct
uref
ormal
tose.
Pol
ysacchar
ides
 Thesear ecar bohy dratesf ormedf rom t hecombi nat ionofsev eral
monosacchar idest hrought hepr ocessofcondensat i
on.
 Thepol ysacchar i
dechai ncanbebr anchedorunbr anched.
 Thechai nscanbef olded, maki ngt hem compactandi dealforstorage.
 Polysacchar idear ei nsolubleduet ot heirlongchai nsandt hismakest hem easyto
store.
 Howev er ,pol ysacchar i
descanbehy dr olysedtogi vet heirconstituentmonomer s,
whichcant henbeuseddur ingt hepr ocessofr espir ation.
 Exampl esofst oragepol ysacchar i
desar estarchandgl y
cogen.
 Starchi sar eser v
ef oodf ormedf rom anyexcessgl ucosepr oduceddur i
ng
phot osy nthesi s.
 Twosubst anceswhi chmakeupst ar char eamy l
oseandamy l
opect in.
 Amy l
osehasbondsbet weencar bon1ofonemonomerandcar bon4ofi ts
neighbour ,maki ngi tunbr anched.
 Ont heot herhand, amy l
opect inmai nl yconsistsofgl ucosemol eculesjoinedby1-4
bondsj ustl ikei ntheamy losebuti tisbr anched.
 Amy l
osemakesupabout20%t o30%oft hest ar
chcomponentwhi l
eamy l
opect
in
makesabout70%t o80%oft hest ar chcomponent
 Cellulosei sal soapol ysacchar idewhi chi simpor tanti ngi vi
ngst ructuralsuppor
t
andst r
engt ht ocel lwal l
s.

Pr
otei
ns
 Thesearelargebi ologi
calmol eculeswhichhav eoneormorel
ongchainsofami
no
acidresi
dues.
 Theycontaincar bon,hydrogenandoxy genjustli
kecar
bohy
drates.
 Howev er
,proteinshav eanaddedni t
rogen.
 Protei
nsarefoundi nal l
li
v i
ngcel l
sandeachspeci eshasaspecif
icpr
otei
n.
 Asingleorganism hasdi f
ferentpr ot
einsinit
scell.
 Ami noaci
dsar et hebuil
dingbl ocksofproteins.
 Protei
nstruct
ur edependsoni tsami noacidsequence.

St
ruct
ureofami
noaci
ds
 Aminoaci
dshaveanami nogroup(-NH2)andacar
boxyl
group(
-COOH)
.
 Fi
g.3.
5.9showsthegeneral
struct
ureofanaminoaci
d.

Fi
g.3.
5.9 Chemi
cal
str
uct
ureofanami
noaci
d

 TheRgr
oupdet
ermi
nest
het
ypeoft
heami
noaci
d,f
orexampl
e,t
heRgr
oupof
 glycineisahy dr ogenat om whi letheRgr oupofcy steineisCH2SH.
 Althought her ear eov er100nat urall
yoccur r
ingami noaci ds,only20ar eusedinthe
biosy nt
hesisofpr oteins.
 Ther earetwogr oupsofami noaci dsandt hesear eessent i
alandnon- essenti
al
ami noacids.
 Essent i
alami noaci dsar ethoset hatcannotsy nthesisedbyt hebodyandt hey
shoul dbeav ailableint hedi et.
 Non- essential ami noaci dsar ethoset hatcanbesy nthesisedbyt hebody .
 Ami noacidscanbej oinedt hrought hepr ocessofcondensat iontoform apeptide
bond.
 Whent woami noaci dsar ecombi ned, adipeptideisf ormed.
 Whent hereact ionpr oceeds, l
ongchai nsofami noaci dsareformed.
 Thesear ecal l
edpol ypept i
des.
 Condensat ionpr ocessbet weent wogl ycinemol eculesisshownbel ow.

Fi
g.3.
5.10 Condensat
ionpr
ocessbet
weent
wogl
yci
nemol
ecul
es.

 Apept
idebondcanbebr
okenbyhy
drol
ysi
s(t
headdi
ti
onofwat
er)
.

Fourl
evel
sofpr
otei
nst
ruct
ure
 Protei
nstruct
ureisdi
videdi
ntofourbasi
cunit
s,whi
charepr
imar
y,secondar
y,
ter
ti
aryandquat er
nar
y.
 Thediffer
entlev
elsofprot
einst
ructur
esareshownbel
ow.

Fi
g.3.
5.11 Di
ff
erentl
evel
sofpr
otei
nst
ruct
ures.

1.Pr
imar
ypr
otei
nst
ruct
ure
 Pr
imaryst
ruct
urei
sthesequenceofaminoaci
dsal
ongt
hepolypepti
dechai
nofa
pr
otei
n.
 I
tishel
dtoget
herbypept
idebondsfor
medduringt
hepr
ocessofprotei
n
bi
osynt
hesi
s.

2.Secondar
ypr
otei
nst
ruct
ure
 Secondar
ystruct
ureistheconf
ormati
onofami noaci
dchainresult
ingfrom t
he
for
mationofhydrogenbondsbetweentheaminoandcarbony
l groupsofadjacent
aminoacids.
 I
talsoref
erstothewayt heami
noacidchainsfol
dortur
nuponi tselfasaresul
tof
 hydrogenbondi
ng.
 Thet womainty
pesofsecondar
yst
ruct
uresar
etheα-
hel
i
xandt
heβ-
str
andorβ-
sheets.

3.Ter
ti
arypr
otei
nst
ruct
ure
 Terti
arystructuredescr
ibeshowt hechainsofthesecondarystr
uct
uref
urt
her
i
nteractthrought heRgroupsoftheami noacidresi
dues.
 Thisinter
actioncausesf ol
dingorbendi
ngoft hepolypept
idechai
n.
 Thef ol
dinggiv eseachprotei
nit
sspecifi
cbiol
ogicalacti
vi
ty.

4.Quat
ernar
ypr
otei
nst
ruct
ure
 Quaternarystageisthefi
nalstage.
 Iti
sr eachedwhenpr ot
einscontainmor et
hanonepolypept
idechai
n.
 Theaggr egatesofquaternar
ystructur
earest
abil
isedbyhydrogenbondsandsal
t
orelectrost
aticbonds.
 Thesebondsar efor
medbet weenr esi
duesonthesurf
acesofthepolypept
ide
chains.

Li
pids
 Lipidsarenatural
lyoccurr
inghydrophobicmol ecul
es.
 Lipidsi
ncludefats,oi
ls,waxesandphosphol i
pids.
 Lipidscanbef atsoroil
s.
 Oilsareli
quidatroom temperaturewhilefat
sar esoli
datroom t
emperat
ure.
 Fatsandoi l
sar eknownast ri
gly
ceridesbecauset heyar
eformedbycondensat
ion
reacti
onsbetweent hreefatt
yacids( monocarboxyli
caci
ds)andgly
cer
ol(an
alcohol)
.

Gl
ycer
ol
 Gl
ycer
ol i
sasmall
mol ecul
ewiththegener
alfor
mula,
C3H8O3.
 Fi
g.3.
5.12showsthegeneral
struct
ureofgl
ycer
ol.

Fi
g.3.
5.12 Gener
alst
ruct
ureofgl
ycer
ol

Fat
tyaci
ds
 Theyhav
elonghy
drocar
bonchai
nsofabout18car
bonat
oms.
 Thehydrophobicnatureoff
att
yacidsi
sduetothehydr
ocarbont
ail
s.
 Thefuncti
onalgroupoffatt
yacidsi
sthecar
bonylgr
oup(-
COOH)whi chcani
oni
se
sl
ight
lytogiveH+i ons.

Tr
igl
ycer
ides
 At r
igl
yceri
deisanest erderi
vedfrom gly
cerolandthreefatt
yacids.
 Thecar bonyl
functi
onal gr
oupsoft hr
eeor gani
cacidsreactwit
ht hr
eehydr
oxy
l
groupsofglycerol
t oformthetri
glycer
ide.
 Alcoholshaveahy droxyl(
HO-)group,andeachf at
tyacidhasacar boxy
lgr
oup(-
COOH) .
 Thet y
peofbondf or medisanesterbond.

Fi
g.3.
5.13 For
mat
ionofat
ri
gly
cer
ide.

Phosphol
i
pids
 Phosphol
ipi
dshav et wofatt
yacids,agl
yceroluni
t,andaphosphat egroup,
 Theyhaveanamphi pat
hiccharact
eri
sti
cwhi chmakest hem for
ml i
pidbi-
lay
ers.
 Phosphol
ipi
dstructureconsist
softwohy dr
ophobict ail
sandahy drophi
li
chead
andaphosphategr oup.
 Thesetwocomponent sarejoi
nedtoget
herbyagl ycerolmolecule.
 Thephosphategroupscanbemodi fi
edwithsimpleor gani
cmol eculesforexample
chol
ineandseri
ne.

Funct
ionsofl
i
pids
 Fatsprovi
det wiceasmuchener gyoncombust ionascompar edtocarbohydrates
fr
om thesamemassbecauset heycont ai
nlessoxygenandsoi tsoxi
dationtakes
l
onger,butitalsogivesoffmoreenergy.
 Animalsusuallycarr
ymor efatthancarbohydratesbecauseagivenmassoff ats
stor
esmor eener gythanthesamemassofcar bohydr
ates.
 Theyareheati nsul
atorssotheyhelptokeepani malswarm undercoldconditions.
 Theyformthepl asmamembr ane,intheform phospholi
pids.
 Theyprovi
deshockabsor pt
ion.

Vi
tami
ns
 Vi
taminsplayanimpor
tantr
olei
nli
vi
ngor
gani
smst
hought
heyar
erequi
redi
n
smal
lerquanti
ti
es.
 Animalscannotsy nthesisev i
tamins, t
her efor etheyar egi venfeedt hathasthe
essentialvitami ns.
 Vitaminsar edi videdi ntof atsol ubl eandwat ersol ublev it
ami ns.
 Exampl esoff atsol ublev i
tami nsar ev i
tami nA, D, EandK.
 Exampl esofwat ersol ublev it
ami nsar eB- compl exv i
t ami nsandv i
taminC.
 VitaminC( ascor bicaci d)isr esponsi blef orcol lagenf or
mat i
on, anti
body
production, hormonesy nthesi s,chol esterol format ionandsecr eti
on.
 VitaminBcompl ex( pentot heni caci d),releasesener gyf rom foodandt he
manuf actureofcoenzy meA.
 VitaminB6( py ri
doxi ne)isr esponsi blef ort hebr eakdownofami noacids,
prostaglandi npr oduct i
onandhai rmai ntenance.
 VitaminB2( riboflavin)isr esponsi blef ortissuer espirationaswel lascarbohydrat
e,
ami noacidandf atmet abol ism.
 VitaminAi si mpor tantinpr omot i
nggoodey esight,reproduct ion,growthand
mai nt
enanceofepi theli
alcel l
s.
 VitaminE( α- tocopher ol)pr ot ectscel lsf r
om t oxicsubst ancesandi suseful
for
reti
naldev elopment .
 VitaminKpl ay sani mpor tantr oleinbl oodcl ot t
ing.
 VitaminDpr omot escal cium absor ptioni nt heint estinesandi mpr ovesmuscleand
i
mmunef unct ioning.

Mi
ner
als
 Mineralsarei nor
gani
celementsrequir
edbyt hebody.
 Therearemacr o-
mineral
sandmi cr
o-mineral
s.
 Macr o-
mi neralsi
ncl
udesodium,potassium,calcium,phosphorus,
magnesi
um and
chl
orine.
 Micro-mineralsarecopper
,iodi
ne,i
ron,cobal
t,zincandselenium.

Tabl
e.3.
5.1Mi
ner
alf
unct
ionanddef
ici
encyofmacr
o-mi
ner
als.

Mi
ner
al Funct
ion

Calci
um and
 Mai
ntainsandincr
easeweightgai
ns.
phosphorus  I
mportantint
eethandboneformati
on.
 I
ncr
easei nmil
kproduct
ion.

Sodi
um and
 Support
sthener
vousandmuscul
arsy
stem.
chl
ori
ne  Regul
atebodypH.
 Retai
nwateri
nthebody.
Magnesi
um
 Pr
opernervousandenzy
mef uncti
on.
 Ef
fi
cientcar
bohydr
atemetabol
ism.

Pot
assi
um
 Maint
ainsaci
dbasebal
ance,osmot
icpr
essur
e
andwaterret
ent
ioni
nthebody.

Sul
phur
 I
tispartoft
heessenti
al ami
noaci
dssuchas
methi
onineandcyst
eine.
 Pr
omot erumenmicrobialgr
owt
h.

Table.3.5.
2Mi
ner
alf
unct
ionanddef
ici
encyofessent
ial
micr
o-
minerals.

Nut
ri
entFunct
ion/
use

Copper
 Boneandwool growth.
 Healt
hynerv
ef i
bresandwhit
ebl
oodcel
l
.
 Properf
unct
ioningofenzy
mes.

Zi
nc
 Pr
operfunct
ioni
ngoft
heimmunesystem.
 Pr
operfunct
ioni
ngoft
hemaler
eproducti
vesy
stem.
 Heal
thyski
nandhooves.

Sel
eni
um
 I
mpr ovedrepr
oducti
on.
 Enhancehighgrowthrat
e.
 Reducedratesofcompli
cat
ionsdur
ingpar
tur
it
ion.

Feedaddi
ti
ves
 Feedadditiv
esaremat eri
alsaddedtofeedrat
ionstoi mprovethequal
i
tyoffeed
andincreaseper
f or
manceandheal thofanimals.
 Feedadditiv
eshav eseveralf
uncti
ons.
 Theypreventdeteri
orati
onoffeed,forexampl
e, ant
ioxi
dants,moul
dinhi
bit
ors,
emulsif
iersandadjuster
s.
 Theysupplynutr
ientingredient
sandot hereff
ectiv
ei ngredient
softhefeed,f
or
example,
ami noacids,mi neral
sandv i
tamins.
 Theypromoteeffici
entuseoff eednutr
ienti
ngredients,
f orexampl
e,anti
biot
ics,
fl
avour
s,sweeteners,organicaci d,
enzymesandpr obi
otics.

Theef
fect
sofcl
i
mat
echangeonani
mal
nut
ri
entr
equi
rement
s
 Climat echanger eferst ot hechangei nweatherpat ter nsthatoccurdueani ncrease
i
nt heear th'saver aget emper ature.
 Climat echangeaf fectst hel engthofseasons, rainfal lpatt
er nsandt emper ature.
 Heatst ressr esultsinl ossofappet ite.
 Hencet hereisneedi ncr easet hemoi sturecont entoft hef eed.
 Whenanani mal isexposedt oheatst r
essitwi l
l per form wel l i
fopt imum nut r
iti
onal
requi r
ement sar emet .
 Hencecompr omisingt henut ri
ti
onal r
equirementwi llreducet hepr oduct i
on
potent i
aloft heani mal .
 Grazi nganimal sexposedt oext remehotenv ir
onment sar ev ul nerablet operiodsof
undernut ri
ti
onasar esul tofunav ailabil
ityoffeedandpoorpast urecondi ti
ons.
 Climat echangeal sol eadst ohi ghv ar i
abil
it
yinr ainf allwithf requentdr oughts.
 I
ncr easei ntemper aturel eadst oincr easedlignificationofpl ant sresul ti
ngin
decr easedf eeddi gest i
bilit
y.
 Animal ssuf fersev erenut r
it
ional stressdur i
ngdr ought sbecausenat ur alpastures
willbeofl ownut ri
tional valueandusual l
yscar ce.
 Duringdr oughtper i
odsani mal swast eal otofener gysi ncet heywal kl ong
distancesi nsear choff eedandwat er .
 Hencet hereisneedt osuppl ementt heseani mal sdur ingdr oughtper iods.
 Whent het emper aturesar ehigh, animal srequireal otwat erbecauset heywi llbe
dehy drated.
 Henceaf armershoul dmakesur et hatwat erisr eadi lyavailabl e.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Dr
awt
hebi
ochemi
cal
str
uct
uresofcar
bohy
drat
es,
prot
einsandl
i
pids.

Gl
ycol
ysi
s
 Glycolysisisthefi
rststageofrespir
ationwhi choccursi
nt hecy
toplasm, i
nbot
h
aerobesandanaer obes.
 Iti
nv olv
est hebreakingdownoft hesixcar bonsugar(gl
ucose)intotwo3carbon
sugar s(pyruvat
e).
 Itactsast hebaseofanaer obi
candaer obiccell
ularr
espir
ati
on.
 Du r
inggl ycol
ysi
sf r
eeenergyisreleasedf orminghighenergymolecules,
adeni
ne
 tr
iphosphate(ATP)andnicot
inami
deadeni
nedinucleoti
de(NADH).
 Glycol
ysiscanbedivi
dedintoener
gyr
equir
ingstagesandt heener
gyr
eleasi
ng
phases.
 I
toccursi naseri
esofstepsasshownbythediagram below.

Fi
g.3.
6.1 Gl
ycol
ysi
s

Fi
rstst
age
 Enzy
mehexoki
naseaddsaphosphat
egr
oupt
ogl
ucosei
nthecel
lcy
topl
asm.

Glucose(H6H12H6)+ATP →Hexoki naseGlucose6-

phosphate( C6H13O9P)+ADP
 Phosphorylationi
st headditi
onofaphosphat egroupt
oamolecul
e.
 Thephosphat egroupi sderi
vedfrom ATP.
 I
nt hi
sfir
stst agether eisconsumptionofasi ngl
emolecul
eofATP.
 Theresultoft hi
sr eacti
onisglucose6-phosphate.

Secondst
age
 Gl
ucose6-
phosphat
eisconv
ert
edt
oit
sisomerf
ruct
ose6-
phosphat
e.

Glucose6-
phosphate(
C6H13O9P)
→Phosphogl
ucoi
somer
aseFr
uct
ose6-
phosphate(
C6H13O9P)
 I
somershavethesamemol ecularf
ormulabutthearrangementofeachat
om i
s
di
ff
erenti
neachmol ecul
e.
 Theenzymeinvol
vedinthi
sreacti
onisphosphoglucoisomer
ase.

Thi
rdst
age
 Thisstageinvol
vestheaddi
ti
onofaphosphat
egr
oupt
ofr
uct
ose6-
phosphat
eto
producefruct
ose1.6bi-
phosphat
e.

Fructose6-
phosphate+ATP→Phosphof
ruct
oki
naseFr
uct
ose1.
6bi
sphospha
te(C6H14O12P2)
+ADP
 Theenzymeresponsi
blefort
hecat
aly
ticr
eact
ionsandt
headdi
ti
onofaphosphat
e
groupi
sphosphofr
uctoki
nase.
Four
thst
age
 Att
hisst
age,t
heenzy
mealdol
asespl
i
tsf
ruct
ose1.
6bi
-phosphat
eint
otwo3
car
bonsugar
scal
ledi
somers.

Fructose1.
6bi-
phosphate→Al dol
aseDihydroxy
acet
onephosphat
e(C3H7O6P)
+
Glyceral
dehydephosphate(C3H7O6P)
 Thesugar
sar
edi
hydr
oxy
acet
onephosphat
eandgl
ycer
aldehy
dephosphat
e.

Fi
ft
hst
age
 Theenzymetr
iphosphat
eisomeraseint
er-
conv
ertsmolecul
esofdi
hdr
oxy
acet
one
phosphat
e(DHAP)andglycer
aldehy
dephosphate(GAP).

Dihydr
oxy acet
onephosphat
e→Tr
iphosphat
eisomer
aseGl
ycer
ald
ehyde3-phosphat
e(C3H7O6P)
 GAPisremovedorusedinthenextstep.
 GAPistheonl
ymoleculethatconti
nuesinthegl
ycol
yti
cpat
hway.
 Two3-car
bonmoleculesareproducedbutnotyetf
ull
yconv
ert
edtogl
ucoseand
pyr
uvat
e.

Si
xthst
age
 Thi
sst
agei
nvol
vest
heoxi
dat
ionandphosphor
ylat
ionofGAP.

Gly
ceral
dehyde3-
phosphat
e+NAD++P→Gl ycer
aldehy
de-
3-
phosphat
edehydr
ogenase1.
3bi
-phosphogl
ycer
ate+NADH+H
 Theenz
ymei
nvol
vedatt
hisst
agei
sgl
ycer
aldehy
de-
3-phosphat
edehy
drogenase.

Sev
ent
hst
age
 Enzy
mephosphoglycer
ateki
nasetr
ansfer
saphosphat
egr
oupf
rom 1.
3
bi
phosphogl
ycer
atetoADPtoform ATP.

1.
3biphosphoglycer
ate+ADP→Phosphogl
ycer
ateki
nase3-
Phosphoglycer
ate+ATP
 Thi
shappensforeachmol ecul
eof1.3biphosphogl
cer
atemol
ecul
e.
 Thi
sproducestwo3-phosphoglycer
atemolecul
esandtwoATPmolecul
es.

Ei
ght
hst
age
 Iti
nvolv
esrel
ocat
ionorr
ear
rangementofthephosphategr
oupf
rom t
het
hir
d
carbontot
hesecondcar
bontoform 2-
phosphogl
ycerat
e.

3-phosphoglycer
ate→phosphogl
ycer
atemut
ase2-
phosphoglycerat
e.
 Theenz
ymer
esponsi
blei
sphosphogl
ycer
atemut
ase.

Ni
nthst
age
 Thi
sstageinvol
vestheremov
alofawat
ermol
ecul
e(HOH)f
ormi
ng
phosphoenol
pyr
uvicaci
d.

2-
phosphogl
ycer
ate→Enol
asephosphoenol
pyr
uvat
e
 Enzy
mei
nvol
vedi
senol
ase.

Tent
hst
age
 Enzy
mepyruv
ateki
nasetr
ansfer
saphosphat
egr
oupf
rom phosphoenol
pyr
uvat
eto
ADPfor
mingtwopyr
uvi
cacidsandt
woATP.

Phosphoenol
pyr
uvat
e+ADP+H→Py
ruv
ateki
nase2Py
ruv
ate+2AT
P

I
mpor
tanceofgl
ycol
ysi
stoani
mal
product
ion
1.Pr
oduct
ionofener
gyi
nani
mal
cel
l
s.
 Glycol
ysi
sisimportanti
ntheproduct
ionofener
gy(ATP)i
nani
malcel
ls.
 Mammal ianti
ssuessuchasrenalmedull
aandbrai
nmainl
ydependonglycol
ysi
s
formetaboli
cenergy.

2.Pr
oduct
ionofener
gyunderanaer
obi
ccondi
ti
ons
 Sever
al t
ypesofanaer
obi
cmicroor
gani
smsenti
rel
ydependongl
ycol
ysi
s.
 Gly
colysi
sfaci
li
tat
esthepr
ocessoffer
ment
ati
on.
3.Pr
oduct
ionofNADH
 Ni
cot
inami
deadeni
nedi
nucl
eot
idei
sasour
ceofener
gyi
nani
mal
s.

4.Pr
oduct
ionofpy
ruv
ate
 Pyr
uvateactsasatransportmol eculethatcarr
iescarbonintot
hemi
tochondr
iaf
or
complet
eoxidati
ontocar bondioxide.
 Pyr
uvatecontai
nsagr eatdealofpot enti
alchemicalener
gy .
 Pyr
uvateisconver
tedtoacet y
lcoenzy mei ntheli
nkreacti
on.

Li
nkr
eact
ionbet
weengl
ycol
ysi
sandKr
ebscy
cle
 Pyruvateisacti
velytranspor t
edfrom thecy toplasm i
ntothemitochondri
almatr
ix.
 Carbondi oxi
deisremov edfrom pyruvate.
 Thisprocessisknownasdecar boxylati
on.
 Ahy drogenatom isalsor emov edfrom py r
uv at
e.
 Thisisknownasdehy drogenati
on.
 Themol ecul
ethatisleftafterdecar
boxy lat
ionanddehy drogenati
oncombi neswit
h
coenzy meAt oform Acet ylcoenzymeA.
 Thisprocessiscalledoxi dati
vedecar boxyl
ation.
 AcetylcoenzymeAi sat wocar boncompoundt hatwil
lentert
heKr ebscycl
e.

Kr
ebscy
cle
 TheKr ebscy
clewasdi scoveredbyHansKr ebsin1937.
 I
tisalsocall
edcitri
cacidcy cl
eortri
caboxyl
icaci
dcycle(TCA).
 I
tistheconti
nuationofglycolysi
s.
 I
toccur si
nthemat ri
xofthemi t
ochondr
ioninbothplantandani
mal
cel
l
s.
 Thediagram bel
owi l
lust
ratesthestagesofKerbscycle.

Fi
g.3.
6.2 TheKr
ebscy
cleoccur
sthr
oughaser
iesofst
eps.

St
epone
 AcetylCoAfrom theli
nkreacti
oncombi neswithafourcarbonoxaloacet
ate(
4C)t
o
for
m asi xcarboncit
rat
e(6)throughtheprocessofcondensati
on.
 Oxaloacetat
ebindstotheenzymeci t
ratesynthasecausi
ngaconf ormati
onal
change.

Acet
ylCoA+oxal
oacet
ate+H2O→Ci
tr
atesy
nthaseCi
tr
ate+CoA+H
+

St
ept
wo
 Cit
rateisisomerisedbyaconi tasetoformisoci
tr
ate.
 Thisstageisresponsi bl
efortherelocat
ionofthehydr
oxylgr
oupontheci
tr
ate
moleculeforoxidativ
edecar boxylat
iontotakepl
ace.
 Cit
ratelosesonewat ermoleculeandgainsanotherwatermol
ecul
e.
 Thisresult
sinthef ormationofani soci
tr
ate.

Ci
tr
ate→Aconi
taseI
soci
tr
ate

St
ept
hree
 I
soci
tr
ateisoxidi
sedint
oaf i
vecar
bonmolecul
ecall
edαket
ogl
utar
ate.
 NADisreducedtoNADHandCO2i sgenerat
ed.
 Thi
sstepisregul
atedbynegati
vef
eedbackf
rom ATPandNADH.

I
soci
tr
ate+NAD+→I
soci
tr
atedehy
drogenaseαket
ogl
utar
ate+CO2
+NADH

St
epf
our
 α-Ket
ogl
utar
atei
sconv
ert
edbyα-
ket
oglut
arat
edehy
drogenaset
osucci
nyl
CoA.
 CO2ispr
oducedandNADisal
sor
educed.

αket
oglut
arate+NAD++CoA→ ket
ogl
utar
atedehy
drogenasecom
pl
exSucci
nylCoA+CO2+NADH

St
epf
ive
 Succinyl
CoA( 4C)isconvert
edtosucci nate.
 Phosphategr oupissubstit
utedforCoAf ormingahighener
gybond.
 Theenergyr eleasedisusedtosy nt
hesiseATPi npl
antsandguanosi
ne
tr
iphosphate( GTP)inanimals.
 GTPi sasour ceofenergyinmet aboli
cr eacti
ons.
 ATPr emainst hemainsourceofener gyi ncell
s.

Succi
nyl
CoA+Pi
+GDP+H2O→Succi
nyl
CoAsy
nthasesucci
nat
e+G
TP+CoA
St
epsi
x
 Thisisthestagewhereoxaloacetater egenerati
onbegins.
 I
tinvolvesdehydrat
ionprocessthatconv ertssuccinatetofumerate.
 Twoat omsofhy drogenaretransportedt oFAD( fl
avinadeninedi
nucleot
ide)
producingFADH2.
 FADH2t r
ansfer
selectr
onstot heelectrontransportchai
ndi r
ectl
y.

Succi
nat
e+FAD→Succi
nat
edehy
drogenaseFumer
ate+FADH2

St
epsev
en
 Thi
spr
ocessi
nvol
vest
headdi
ti
onofwat
ert
ofumer
atef
ormi
ngmal
ate.

Fumer
ate+H2O→Fumer
aseL-
mal
ate

St
epei
ght
 Mal
atei
soxi
disedt
heni
tpr
oducesorr
egener
atesoxal
oacet
ate.

L-
mal
ate+NAD+→Mal
atedehy
drogenaseOxal
oacet
ate+NAD+H+

I
mpor
tanceofKr
ebscy
clet
oani
mal
product
ion
 TheKr ebscy cl
eisani mpor tantpar tofthemetaboli
cpathwaybywhi challaerobic
organismsgener ateener gy
 Thepr oductsoft heKr ebscy clear eATP, NADHandCO2.
 Thesepr oductsoft heKr ebscy clefaci
li
tateavari
etyofacti
viti
esinanani mal body
thatensureshighani mal pr
oduct i
on.
 ATPi susedi nsignal tr
ansduct ionwher ebyphosphategroupsar eusedupby
kinasesinphosphat et ransferreact i
onswhi chacti
vat
eacascadeofpr oteinkinase
reacti
ons.
 TheKr ebscy cl
ehel psinmai ntainingthestruct
ureofthecel
l byhelpingthe
assembl yofthecy toskeletal el
ement s.
 Itsuppli
esener gytot hef l
agel l
aandchr omosomest omaintaintheirappropr
iate
functi
oning.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weengl
ycol
ysi
sandKr
ebscy
cle
Tabl
e3.
6.1Di
ff
erencesbet
weengl
ycol
ysi
sandKr
ebscy
cle

Gl
ycol
ysi
s Kr
ebscy
cle

 Oxygenisnotr
equi
redf
or  I
ttakesplaceonl
yinthepresenceofoxy
gen,
gl
ycoly
sis. usedasterminal
oxidant
.

 I
tisal
i
nearpat
hway
.  I
tisacy
cli
cpat
hway
.

 Itt
akesplacei
nthe  I
ttakespl
acei
nthemi
tochondr
ia
cyt
oplasm oft
hecel
l.

 Iti
sapat hwayf
orbotht
he  I
toccur
sint
heaer
obi
crespi
rat
iononl
y.
aerobi
candanaerobi
c
respi
rat
ion.

 Carbondi
oxi
dei
snot  Car
bondi
oxi
dei
sev
olv
eddur
ingt
hecy
cle.
evolv
ed.

 I
tist
hefir
stst
epi
nthe  I
tist
hesecondst
agei
nther
espi
rat
ion.
r
espi
rat
ion.

 Gl
ucosei
sthesubst
rat
e.  Acet
ylcoenzy
meAi
sthesubst
rat
e.

 2ATPmolecul
esareused  NoATPmol
ecul
esar
econsumed.
upi
nthi
sprocess.

 Pyruvi
cacidistheend  Oxaloacetat
eistheendpr
oductt
hatagai
n
productthatundergoes getscycledbycombingwi
thacet
ylCoAinthe
oxidat
ivedecarboxylat
ion nextcycle.
andenterstheKr ebscycl
e.

 Onemolecul
eglucose  Twopyruvat
emol
ecul
es
yi
elds2NADH+H+. yi
eld6NADH+H+andFADH2mol
ecul
es.
Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weengl
ycol
ysi
sandKr
ebscy
cle
 Theyar
ebothst
epsofcell
ularr
espi
rat
ion.
 Theyar
ebothdr
ivenbyenzymes.
 Theypr
oduceNADHandATP.

Oxi
dat
ivephosphor
ylat
ion
 Oxidativephosphor yl
ati
onist hefor mationofATPt hrought heoxidat i
onof
hydrogenat omsi ntheelectront r
anspor tchai n.
 Itoccursi nthei nnermitochondr i
almembr aneofeukar y
otes.
 Thisist hef i
nalstageofcel l
ularrespiration.
 Oxidativephosphor yl
ati
onhast wocomponent swhicharetheel ectr
ont ransport
chainandchemi osmosis.
 Intheel ectrontransportchain,electronsar epassedf rom onemol eculetoanother
andener gyreleasedintheseel ectront r
ansf ersisusedtof orm anel ectr
ochemi cal
gradient.
 Chemi osmosi siswhent heener gyst oredi nthegradientisusedt omakeATP.
 Whent herei sashor t
ageofoxy gen,theel ectrontr
ansportchai nwi l
lstoprunning
therebyaf fecti
ngt heproductionofATPt hroughchemi osmosi s.

Keyst
epsi
noxi
dat
ivephosphor
ylat
ion
Ther
ear
ekeyst
epsf
oll
oweddur
ingoxi
dat
ivephosphor
ylat
ion.

1.Del
i
ver
yofel
ect
ronsbyNADHandFADH2
 NADHandFADH2f rom ei t
herglycoly
si sorKr ebscycletransfert
hei
relectr
onsto
moleculesatt hebeginningoft hetranspor tchai n.
 AsNADHandFADH2l oset heirel
ectrons, theybecomeNAD+andFAD.
 El
ectronstravelfrom ahi gherenergylev eltoal owerenergylevel
.
 Energyisreleasedindownhi l
lelect
ront ransf ers.
 NADHhasel ectronswhi char eatahigherener gylevelbutFADH2hasel ectr
onsat
alowerener gylevel
.
 Thismakesel ectronsinNADHmov et hroughcompl exIwher easthose
i
nFADH2ar ef edthroughcompl exIIintot het ransportchain.

Fi
g.3.
6.3 El
ect
ront
ranspor
tchai
n
2.El
ect
ront
ransf
erandpumpi
ng
 Asel ectr
onsmov edownt hechaintheyrel
easeener gy.
 Someoft heener gyisusedtopumpH+i ons,mov i
ngt hem outofthematri
xint
o
theinnermembr anespace.
 Thispumpi ngcr eatesanelectr
ochemicalgradi
ent.
 AsH+i onsarepumpedacr ossthemembr anet heyareulti
matelydeli
ver
edtoa
mobi lecarr
iercalledCytochr
omeCandt hisiscompl exII
I.

3.Spl
i
tti
ngofoxy
gent
ofor
m wat
er
 CytochromeCcar r
iestheelectronstocompl exIVwherethef
inalbatch
ofH+i onsispumpedacr ossthemembr ane.
 Compl exIVpassest heelectr
onst ooxygen.
 Oxygenmol eculesplit
sintotwooxy genat omsaccepti
ngprotonsfrom t
hemat
ri
x
toform water.
 Fourelect
ronsar eusedt oreduceeachmol ecul
eofoxygenandtwowat er
moleculesareformedi nthepr ocess.

4.Chemi
osmosi
s
 Chemi osmosi si swhenener gyf rom apr otongr adientisusedt omakeATP.
 Redoxr eactionsi ncompl exIVcr eatesener gywhi chr esul
tinthepumpingof
twoH+i onsf rom themat ri
xintot hei nt
ermembr anespace.
 Ash ydrogeni onsf lowdownt heirgradientandbacki ntothemat r
ixtheypass
thr
oughanenzy mecal l
edATPsy nt
hase.
 ATPs ynt haset echnical
lywor kslikeat urbi
ne; i
tisturnedbyt hefl
ow
ofH+i onsmov ingdownt hei
rel ectrochemi calgradient.
 AsATPs ynthaset urns,
itcatalysest headdi t
ionofaphosphat egrouptoADP
capturi
ngf or m ATP.
TOPI
C4
GENETI
CSANDBREEDI
NG

PRI
NCI
PLESOFGENETI
CS1
Byt
heendoft
hissub-
topi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Describethestructur
eofachr omosome.
2.Describethestructur
eofDNA.
3.Explai
nDNAr epl i
cati
on.
4.Describetheprocessofmi tosi
s.
5.Explai
nt hesi
gnifi
canceofmi tosisi
nanimal
producti
on.
6.Describetheprocessofmei osis.
7.Explai
nt hesi
gnifi
canceofmei osisinani
mal
producti
on.
8.Compar eandcont rastmi
tosisandmei osi
s.
9.Outli
neMendel i
anl awsofinherit
ance.

Chr
omosome
 Achr omosomei sathint
hreadli
kestr
ucturecont
aini
nggenet
ici
nformat
ion.
 Thisgeneti
cinformat
ioniscarr
iedfr
om parentstooff
spr
ing.
 Inmammal seachbodycellhasonepairofchromosomeswhicharecal
l
edsex
chromosomes.
 Sexchr omosomesinmammal saredenotedbyXandYmechani sm,wherebyXX
representf
emaleandXYmal e.
 Chromosomescont ainmanygenesunrelat
edtosexdeter minati
oncal
led
autosome.TheXchr omosomei slar
gerandlongert
hant heYchr omosomei n
mammal s.
 Organismswi t
htwocompl eteset
sofchromosomesar eknownasdi ploi
d(2n),
whilstthosewit
hhalfthenumberofchromosomesar ereferr
edtoashaploid(n)
.
 Ma mmal shavedif
ferentchr
omosomenumber sasshowni ntabl
eTable4.1.
1.

Tabl
e4.
1.1Chr
omosomenumberofsomemammal
s.

Chromosome Sex Aut

osomes
Name
(2n) chr
omosomes

Cat
tl
e 60 2 58

Sheep 54 2 52

Goat 60 2 58

Pi
g 38 2 36

Chr
omosomeabnor
mal
i
ties
 Therear
etwotypesofchr
omosomeabnormali
ti
es,
numericalandstr
uct
ural
.
 Bothnumeri
cal
andstruct
ural
abnor
mal
it
iescanoccursi
multaneousl
y.

1.Numer
ical
abnor
mal
i
ty
 Numer icalabnormalit
yinvol
vest helossorgainofoneormor echromosomes.
 I
tincludesbot hsexchr omosomesandaut osomes.
 Cellswhichhav egainedachr omosomear etr
isomyf ort
hatchromosome.
 Thoset hathavelostanext r
achr omosomear emonosomyf orthechr
omosome
i
nv olv
ed.
 Mo stoft heautosomal monosomi esdiejustaft
erconcepti
onandonlyaf ew
tr
isomi essurvi
ve.
 Do wnsy ndromei sthemostcommonaut osomal numeri
calabnormal
it
y,wherean
organism hasat ri
somycondi ti
onalthoughitoccursinhumansandnoti nanimal
s.

2.St
ruct
ural
abnor
mal
i
ty
 St
ruct
ural
abnor
mal
i
tyi
scausedbyt
hechangesi
nst
ruct
ureofoneormor
e
 chromosomes.
 Structuralabnormaliti
escanbedel et
ions,i
nv ersionsortranslocat
ions.
 Deletionabnor malit
yresultf
rom thelossofmat eri
alfrom asinglechromosome.
 Ift
her eisal ossofgeneticmat er
iali
nachr omosomet heeffectsaretypi
cal
ly
severe.
 Inversionabnormal i
tyoccurswhent herearet wobr eakswi t
hinasingle
chromosome.
 Asar esul
tt hebrokensegmenti nver
tsandr eattachest oform achromosomet hat
i
sst ructur
allyoutofsequence.
 Translocationsinvolveexchangeofmat eri
albet weent woormor echromosomes.

St
ruct
ureofachr
omosome
 Thestructur
eofachromosomei sonlyseenonami croscopeduringcelldi
vi
sion.
 Chromosomesar ecomposedoft wochromat i
dscontai
ningDNA, prot
einsand
RNA.
 Thesechromatidshaveaconstr
icti
onpointcall
edcentr
omer e.
 Thecentromeresepar
atesthechromosomei ntotwosectionsor“ar
ms” .
 Thelongar misnamed“qarm”andt heshortarmisknownas“ parm”.

Fi
g4.
1.1 Thest
ruct
ureofachr
omosome.

 Chromosomesarecl
assi
fi
edi
ntodi
ff
erentt
ypes,
basi
ngont
heposi
ti
onoft
he
centr
omereasi
nFig4.1.
2.

Fi
g4.
1.2 St
ruct
uresofchr
omosomesbasedoncent
romer
eposi
ti
on.

 Tel
ocentri
cchromosome-thecentr
omereisattheendortip.
 Acrocentr
icchromosome-t
hecentr
omereisclosetotheend.
 Sub-metacentr
icchr
omosome-cent
romereisbetweenthemiddl
eandt
heend.
 Metacentri
cchromosome-thecent
romer
eisatt hemiddl
e.

Deoxy
ribonucl
eicaci
d(DNA)st
ruct
ure
 DNAi samol
ecul
ethatcarr
iesgeneti
cinf
ormati
onfrom par
entst
ooffspr
ing.
 Itcodesf
ort
heproduct
ionofprot
einsanditi
sfoundinthenucl
eusoftheani
mal
cell
.
 DNAconsi stoftwol ongchai nstwi stedt ogethertoform adoublehel ixstructure.
 Eachhel ixismadeupofnucl eotideshel dt ogetherbyphosphodiest erbonds.
 Nucleotidesar emadeupoft hreepar tswhi char ephosphategroup, deoxyr i
bose
sugargr oupandni trogenbase.
 Nucleotidesar eli
nkedi ntochainswi t hthesugarandt hephosphat egroups,
alt
ernatingt oform aDNAst rand.
 Therear ef ourty
pesofni t
rogenbasesf oundinnucl eoti
desandt hesear eadeni ne
(A),t
hy mine( T),
guani ne(G)andcy tosine( C).
 Theseni trogenbasesar eclassif
iedi ntotwogr oupsbasedont heirchemi cal
str
ucture.
 Thef i
rstgr oupiscalledpur i
neswhi char enitr
ogenbaseswi thtwochemi cal rings
andthesear eadenineandguani ne.

Fi
g4.
1.3 Chemi
cal
str
uct
ureofni
tr
ogenbases.

 Thesecondgr oupisthepy rimidineswhichar enitrogenbaseswi t

honechemi cal
ri
ngandt hesear ecytosineandt hymine.
 Theyar eref err
edtoasni t
rogenbasesbecauset heycont ainnitrogenthathast he
samechemi calpropert
ieswi ththebase.
 Thear rangementoft henitrogenbasesdet er
mi nest hebiologicalinstr
ucti
on
containedi ntheDNAst rand.
 Thesei nstructi
onsar eneededf orthedevelopment ,
survivalandr eproducti
onof
organisms.
 Thedoubl ehel ixstr
ucturegi vestheDNAt hepowert opassbi ologicalinst
ructi
ons
withaccur acy.
 Thet woDNAhel i
casesr uni nopposi t
edirecti
onsandt heyar ejoinedtogetherby
twoni tr
ogenbases.
 Thet woni trogenbasesar epai redtogetherbyhy drogenbonds.
 Thymi nepai rswithadenineandguani nepai r
swi thcy t
osine,(T=A; G=C) .
 Thedoubl ehel ixstr
uctureisst abil
isedbyhy drogenbondsoncompl i
mentarybase
pair
s.

(
a)DNAdoubl
ehel
i
xst
ruct
ure

(
b)DNAchemi
cal
str
uct
ure

Fi
g4.
3.4 DNAst
ruct
ure

DNAr
epl
i
cat
ion
 DNAr epli
cat
ionisabi ologicalprocesswheretwoidenti
caldupl
i
catesofDNAar
e
formedfrom oneor i
ginal DNAmol ecul
eduri
ngcelldi
vi
sion.
 Th er
earethr
eest epsinv olvedinDNAr epl
icat
ionandthesearei
nit
iat
ion,
elongat
ionandterminat i
on.

1.I
nit
iat
ion
 Ini
tiati
oni st
hepointatwhi chr epl
icationbegins.
 Enzy mehel i
caseseparatesthest randl eadi
ngt otheformati
onofr epl
icat
ionf
ork.
 Theenz ymebreaksthehy drogenbondbet weenthebasepai r
st oseparat
ethe
strands.
 Single-str
andbindi
ngpr otei
nst opst hest r
andsf r
om bindi
ngagai n.
 DNAp r
imasecatal
ysest hesy nthesisofshor tri
bonuclei
cacid(RNA)pr i
merswhich
arer equir
edtobindattheor iginalstrandtoal l
owDNAsy nt
hesis.

Fi
g4.
1.5 Semi
-conser
vat
iveDNAr
epl
i
cat
ion.

2.El
ongat
ion
 Duri
ngel ongationenzy meDNApol y
mer aseI I
Imakesnewst r
andsthroughreading
nucl
eot idesont heor iginalst randandaddi ngspecificnucleoti
deaftert
heother.
 Thymi nei saddedi ftheenzy mer eadsAdeni neont heor igi
nalstr
and.
 EnzymeDNApol y
mer aseI IIproducenewst r
andsi nt hedir
ecti
onof5’ t
o3’.
 I
talsocar ri
esoutpr oofr eadi ngandt herepairi
ngofnewst rands.
 Thel eadingst randi st heonet hatissy nthesisedint hesamedi r
ecti
onast he
repl
icationf or
k.
 Thet empl atefort hel eadingst r
andr unsi nthedirectionof3’to5’.
 Thest randt hatisbei ngsy nthesisedi ntheot herdirecti
onisnamedl aggingstr
and
anditr unsint hedi rect i
on5’ t o3’.
 Theenz ymepol ymer asehast osy nthesi
sef ragment sofDNAwhi chareknownas
Okaz akifragment s.

3.Ter
minat
ion
 DNAsy nthesi
siscomplet
ewhenalltheRNApr i
mersareremovedbyenzymeDNA
pol
ymer aseIandli
gasehasf
il
ledtheremai
ninggaps.
 Twoidentical
setsofDNAareproducedaft
ertheprocessofDNArepl
icat
ion.

Mi
tosi
s
 Mitosi
sisatypeofcelldi
vi
sioninwhichacel ldivi
destoproducetwoidenti
cal
cel
l
s.
 I
tresul
tsintwodaughtercel
lswhicharegenet ical
lyi
dent
icaltoeachother.
 Mitosi
sisusedforgrowthandasexualreproduct i
on.
 Mitosi
sconsist
soffourbasicphases:prophase, met
aphase,anaphase,and
t
elophase.

Phase1:
Prophase
 Prophaseisthefirststageinmi tot
iccell
div i
sion.
 Thecompl exofDNAandpr oteinscontai
nedi nthenucl easknownaschr omati
n,
condenses.
 Thecondensedchr omat i
ncoilsandbecomeshi ghl
ycompact ,whi
chresult
stothe
formati
onofv isi
blechromosomes.
 Thev i
sibl
echromosomesar efreedfrom thenucl easforwholecell
divi
siontot
ake
place.
 Thecent r
osomessepar ateandmov etotheopposi t
eendoft hecel
l.
 Thespindlestart
st oform, gr
owi ngoutoft hecent r
osomest owardsthe
chromosomes.

Fi
g4.
1.6 ThePr
ophasest
age.

Phase2:
Met
aphase
 Met aphaseist hesecondphaseofmi tosis.
 Thisisashor trest
ingper i
odwher echr omosomesar eli
nedupont heequat
orof
thecel l
.
 Ch romat i
dsat t
acht ospindlefiber
sv i
acent romer
esandalignattheequat
ori
al
plate.
 Th ecent r
osomesar enowatopposi teendsandt hespi
ndlefi
bersarenow
attachedt othecent romeres.
 Ever y
thingisalignedf ort
her estofthediv i
si
onprocesstooccur.

Fi
g4.
1.7 TheMet
aphasest
age.

Phase3:
Anaphase
 Duri
nganaphasestagethecentromeresdivi
de.
 Eachindi
vi
dualchr
omosomegoesf rom,onechromosomewitht
wochromati
dst
o
twochromosomeswi thonechromatideach.
 Thechromosomesar epull
edtooppositepolest
owardst
hecent
rosomes,
when
 t
hespi
ndl
efi
ber
scont
ract
.

Fi
g4.
1.8 TheAnaphasest
age.

Phase4:
Tel
ophase
 Thisisthef i
nalphaseofmi tosi
s.
 Thechromosomesappearaschr omatinandareatt
hepol esofthespindl
e.
 Thespindl edi
sintegratesanddisper se
 Thenucl earenvelopere-formsar oundthetwosetsofchromosomesf ormingtwo
nuclei
.
 AftermitosisCytokinesisoccurs,wherecytopl
asm i
sdividedint
otwosepar at
e
cel
ls.
 Inanimal cel
lsar i
ngoff il
ament sform ar
oundtheequatorofthecell
andt hen
ti
ghtentospl i
tthecel l
intwo.

Fi
g4.
1.9 TheTel
ophasest
age.

Si
gni
fi
canceofmi
tosi
sinani
mal
product
ion
 Mitosi
shel psingr owthanddev elopmentofanimal sbypopulat
ingananimalbody
wit
hcel l
s.
 Mitosi
si sessenti
al i
nt heregenerati
onoflostbodycel l
s,r
epl
acingofol
dandwor n-
outcell
swi thnewonest hr
oughoutanorganism’sl i
fe.
 Maintai
nsnucl eo-cytoplasmicrati
obetweenpar entanddaughtercel
l
s.
 Mitosi
smai nt
ainsqual i
tati
veandquantit
ativeratiosofgenet
icmater
ial
between
parentanddaught ercel l
.
 I
tmai ntainsthehaploidanddi ploi
dnatur
eofcel ls.

Mei
osi
s
 Mei osisref
erstotheprocessofnucleardiv
isi
onwhi choccursduringthefi
nal
stageofgamet ef
or mat
ion.
 Iti
sal soreferr
edasaspeci al
i
zedprocessbywhi chger m cel
lsdivi
detofor
m
gamet es.
 Itconsistsoftwosuccessivecel
ldiv
isionswhichresulti
nt heproduct
ionoffour
daught ercell
s.
 On ecelldivi
destwicetoformfourdaughtercell
s.
 Thesefourdaught
ercel
lswill
havehalfthenumberofchromosomesoftheparent
cel
landthesecell
sarecal
ledhapl
oidcells.
 Me i
osi
sproducesthesexcell
sineukaryoti
cor
ganisms(eggsinfemal
esand
sperminmales).
 Thetwosuccessivecel
ldi
visi
onsthatoccurar
ecalledmeiosi
sIandmeiosi
sII
.

Mei
osi
sI
 MeiosisIi
sthefi
rstti
met hecel
ldi
vides.
 I
tisrefer
redtoasthereducti
onphasebecausethechr
omosomenumberis
reducedfr
om 2nton( di
ploi
dtohaploi
d).
 I
tconsistoffi
vestagesnamelyi
nter
phase,ProphaseI
,Met
aphaseI
,AnaphaseI
andTelophaseI.

I
nter
face
 Oninter
phaseDNAi nthecelli
scopiedresult
ingintwoidentical
set
sof
chr
omosomes.
 Outsi
det henucleasther
earetwocent r
osomes, eachcentrosomecont
aini
ngapai
r
ofcentr
ioles.
 Thesestructur
esarei mpor
tantincel
ldivi
sion.

Pr
ophaseI
 Atpr ophaseI,thecopi edchromosomescondensei nt
oX- shapedst ruct
urest hat
arev i
sibleunderami croscope.
 Eachpai rofchr omat idsmat chupwi t
hthei
rhomol ogouspai r(si
sterchromat ids)
andf astentoget her(sy napsi
s)inagroupoffour,
cal l
edat etrad.
 Thechr omosomespai rupsucht hatbot
hcopiesofchr omosomeIar etogether.
 Thisleadst otheexchangeofDNAsegment sbetweent hepai rsandi ti
sreferredto
asrecombi nationorcr ossingover.
 Attheendofpr ophaseI ,
themembr anesurr
oundingt henucleasdissolvesal l
owing
thereleaseofchr omosomes.
 Themei oti
cspindl ewhi chconsistsofmicr
otubl
esandpr ot ei
nsext endsacrosst he
cellbetweencent ri
oles.

Met
aphaseI
 Thenuclearmembr anedisappearsandthechromosomesbecomeal
i
gnedonthe
equat
orialpl
aneofthecel l
.
 Thecentri
olesar
enowat tachedatopposi
tepolesoft
hecel
lwit
hmei
oti
cspi
ndles
ext
endingthem.
 Themei ot
icspi
ndleattachedt oonechr
omosomeofeachpair.
AnaphaseI
 Thepai rofchromosomesarethenpull
edapartbythemei ot
icspindl
ewhichpul
ls
onechr omosomet oonepoleofthecel
landtheotherchromosomet ot
heopposit
e
pole.
 Sisterchr omatidsremai
natt
achedandmov easauni ttowar
dst hesamepole.
 Co ntrastsmitosisasthechr
omosomesappearasi ndiv
idual
sinsteadofpai
rs
(mei osis).

Tel
ophaseIandCy
toki
nesi
s
 Thisistheendoft hefi
rstmeioti
ccell
division.
 Ateachpol eoft hecellaful
lsetofchromosomesgat hertogether.
 Thenucl ei
divi
des, for
mi ngt
wonewdaught ercell
s.
 Eachoft henewl yformedcellshashalfthenumberoft heparentcell
'
s
chromosomes, buteachchromosomei salreadyrepl
icatedreadyforthesecond
meioticcelldi
vi
si on.
 Cytoki
nesisoccur satthesamet imewi t
ht elophaseItoform 2daughtercell
s.

Mei
osi
sII
 Nofurt
herrepl
icati
onofgenet
icmater
ial
occur spr
iort
othestar
tofsecond
di
vi
sionofmeiosis.
 I
tconsist
soffourstages:
ProphaseI
I,
Met aphaseI
I,AnaphaseI
IandTelophaseI
I.

Pr
ophaseI
I
 Eachoft
hedaught
ercel
lsf
ormsaspi
ndl
e,andt
hedoubl
est
randedchr
omosomes
movetowar
dtheequat
or.

Met
aphaseI
I
 Thechr
omosomesar
eposi
ti
onedont
hemet
aphasepl
atei
nami
tosi
s-l
i
kef
ashi
on.

AnaphaseI
I
 Thecentr
omer esofsi
sterchr
omati
dsf
inall
yseparat
e.
 Thesist
erchromati
dsofeachpairmov
et owardopposi
tepol
esandar
enow
i
ndiv
idualchr
omosomes.

Tel
ophaseI
IandCy
toki
nesi
s
 Nuclei
for
m atopposi
tepol
esofthecel
landcyt
okinesisoccurs.
 Aft
ercomplet
ionofcyt
oki
nesi
stherear
efourdaughterhaploi
d(n)cel
l
s.
Si
gni
fi
canceofmei
osi
sinani
mal
repr
oduct
ion
 Meiosi
sresult
singeneticvari
ati
onofoffspr
ing.
 Newdaughtercell
sfrom meiosisdonotresembl ethei
rparent
scl osel
y.
 Meiosi
senablestheproducti
onofgamet eswhi chareessenti
alforthe
devel
opmentofnewor ganisms.
 Meiosi
senablesli
vi
ngor gani
smst omaintai
nt henumberofchr omosomesin
somati
ccells.
 Meiosi
sisresponsi
bleforreduci
ngthechromosomenumberi nthegametebyhal
f.

Compar
isonbet
weenmi
tosi
sandmei
osi
s
Si
mil
ari
ti
es
 Bot
hpr ocessofcelldi
visi
onbeginwi t
honedi pl
oidpar entcel
l
.
 Mit
osisandmei osi
sbot hconsistofmult
iplestagessuchasi nterphase,
prophase,
metaphase,anaphase,t
elophaseandcy t
okinesis.
 Bot
hst agesresul
tinDNAr epli
cati
on.
 DNAiscondensedi ntochromosomesi nbot hprocesses.
 Thechromosomesar epull
edapartbycentrosomesi nbot hprocesses.
 Mit
osisandmei osi
sbot hrequi
rethenuclearmembr anetoseparate.
 Bot
hpr ocessofcelldi
visi
onendwi thcyt
okinesis.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenmi
tosi
sandmei
osi
s
 Whil
ethepr
ocessesofmeiosi
sandmitosi
shaveanumberofsi
mil
ari
ties,
theyal
so
di
ff
erinmanyways.Thei
rdif
fer
encesaresummar
isedi
nTable4.
1.2.

Tabl
e4.
1.2Di
ff
erencesbet
weenmi
tosi
sandmei
osi
s.

Mi
tosi
s Mei
osi
s

 Onecelldi
vi
sion,
result
ingi
ntwo  Twocel ldi
vi
sions,
resul
ti
ngin
genet
ical
lyi
denti
caldaught
ercel
l
s. fourgeneti
call
ynon-i
dent
ical
daughtercel
ls.
  Result
sintwodaughtercell
s,each  Result
sinfourdaught
ercel
ls,
dipl
oid(2n)andgenet
ical
l
yidentical
to eachhaploi
d(n)andgeneti
cal
ly
theparent. non-i
dent
icalt
otheparent
.

 Chr
omosomenumberpernucl
eus  Chromosomenumberper
mai
ntai
ned. nucleusi
shal
ved.

 Normall
yther
eisnopai
ri
ngof  Fullsy
napsi
sofhomol
ogousat
homologous. prophaseI
.

 Ther
eisnocr
ossov
ers  Atl
eastonecrossov
erper
homologouspai
r.

 Producescellsforgr
owthandt i
ssue  Producesgametes,
reduci
ng
repai
r,enabl
ingmui l
ti
cel
l
ularadul
tsto chromosomenumber sbyhal
f
ri
sefrom zygote. andintr
oducegenet
icvari
abi
l
iti
es
amonggamet es.

 Cent
romer
esdi
vi
deatanaphaseI
.  Centr
omeresdonotdi vi
deat
anaphaseIbutanaphaseII

 Mi
tosi
sisusedi
nasexual
repr
oduct
ion.  Mei
osi
sisusedi
nsexual
r
epr
oduct
ion.

 I
ttakespl
acei
nal
ll
iv
ingor
gani
sms.  Takeplaceonl
yinpl
ant
s,ani
mal
s
andfungi

Mendel
i
anl
awsofi
nher
it
ance
 GregorMendel isrecognizedast hefat
herofinheri
tance.
 Hedev elopedthreetheoriesi
nt he1860s,eventhoughhewasnotsci ent
if
ical
l
y
tr
ained.
 Hes penthisti
mecr ossingpeapl antsandafteralotofcrosseshenoti
cedsome
patter
nst otheinheri
tanceoftraitsf
rom onesetofpeapl antstot
henext.
 Me ndelproposedthreetheori
est odescri
beinheri
tance.
 Inheri
tanceist hetransf erofgenet i
cmat er
ialfrom onegenerati
ont ot
heot her.
 Mendel ianprincipl
esofi nheri
tancedealswitht herel
ati
onshipbetweengenot ype
andphenot y
peofanor ganism.
 Genoty peisthegenet iccomposi ti
onofani ndividual
wher easphenoty
pei sthe
outwar dappear anceofanor gani
sm.
 Inanimal breeding,offspr i
ngshav eagenot ypet hatt
heyinheri
tfr
om theirparent
s.
 Thisani malgenot ypecanbemani pulat
edthr oughselect
ivebreedingandgenet i
c
engineer i
ng.
 Mendel iantheoriesorpr i
nciplesarenamedaf t
erMendel astheMendel i
anlawsof
i
nher i
tanceandt hesear e:
1.Lawofdomi nance.
2.Lawofsegr egat i
on.
3.Lawofi ndependentassor tment.

1.LawofDomi
nance
 Mendel ’spr i
ncipleofdomi nancest atet hat , i
nahet erozy gote,oneal l
elemay
conceal t
hepr esenceofanot her.
 Inacr ossofpar entsthatar epur ebr eedsf ort hecont rasti
ngt r
aits,onlyoneform
ofthet raitwillappeari nthenextgener ation.
 Offspringst hatarehy bridsf orat raitwi llhav eonl ythedomi nantt r
ait
sinthe
phenot ype.
 Animal tr
aitsarecodedbypai redgeneswhi char enoti dentical.
 Thesegenescanhav edifferentf ormsknowasal l
eles.
 Inli
vest ockpr oduction,ani mal scanbepol ledandhor nedandi tiscodedbyone
gene.
 Capital l
etter(P)canbeusedt odenot et hedomi nantgenewher eassmal ll
ett
er(p)
i
susedt odenot erecessi vegene.
 Forexampl e,acowcanbepol ledorhor ned.I nthisexampl ethepol l
edgenei s
domi nant( P)andt hehor nedr ecessi ve( p) .
 Wecanhav ethreecombi nat i
onsoft woal l
elesdenot edbyPP, Pporpp.
 Whenat rai
tisdenot edbybot hcapi tal l
et ters(PP)orsmal ll
etters(pp),t
heanimals
i
sr eferredt oasbei nghomozy gous.
 Animal swi th(pp)genot ypear erefer redt oashomozy gousr ecessiveand( PP)is
ref
erredt oashomozy gousdomi nant .
 Ifagenepai risdenot edbydomi nantandr ecessi veallel
e( Pp)itisreferr
edtoasa
heterozy gousgene.
 Accor dingt otheexampl e, anyani mal i
spol ledwheni tdenot edby( PP)andhor ned
wheni ti sdenot edby( pp) .
 Ifapol l
ed( PP)bul lismat edt oahor ned( pp)cowt hef oll
owi ngresultareobtai
ned.

Tabl
e4.
1.3Cr
ossbet
weenpol
l
edandhor
nedcat
tl
e(PPXpp)
 P P

P Pp(
pol
l
ed) Pp(
pol
l
ed)

P Pp(
pol
l
ed) Pp(
pol
l
ed)

 TheexampleinTabl
e4. 1.
3resultedinal
loffspr
ingbeinghet er
ozygote.
 Heter
ozygot
e(Pp)isphenotypicall
ypoll
edbutgenotypicall
yithasbothtrai
ts.
 Accordi
ngtoMendel'
spr i
nci
pleofdomi nance,i
nahet erozygote,
oneallel
emasks
thepr
esenceoftheother.
 Basedontheaboveexampl ethepol l
edall
elemasksthehor nedallel
eandis
ref
err
edtoasthedomi nantal
lele.

2.LawofSegr
egat
ions
 Lawofsegr egat i
onst atest hat,duringt hef ormat ionofgamet es,twodifferent
all
elessegr egat ef rom eachot her.
 Accor dingt othepr incipleofsegr egat ion,thepai rofal l
elesforanypar t
iculartrait
ofeachpar enti ssepar atedandonl yoneal l
elepassesf rom eachpar entt oan
offspring.
 Insegr egat ion,oneal lelef r
om eachpar enti schosenatr andom andpassedi nthe
gamet eont ot heof fspring.
 Dur i
ngr eproduct ionani malspasshal foft heirgenet i
cmat erialtotheiroffspr i
ng
becausegamet eshav eonl yonechr omosomef rom eachpai r.
 Asar esul ttheof f springwi llreceiv
eoneoft hepai redal l
elesf r
om eachpar ent .
 Mendel ianpr incipleofsegr egat i
onexpl ai
nst hedi ff
er encesthatar eobser vedi n
successi vegener at i
on.
 Thet heor ycanbeusedt opr edictthepr obabi lit
yofdi ff
erental l
elecombi nations
occurr i
ngi nof f
spr i
ng.
 Usingt hesameexampl eofpol ledincat t
le,ifwecr osst wopol l
edanimal st hatare
heterozy gous( PpXPp)t heexpect edphenot ypi
cr atiois3pol l
edt o1hor ned.
 Genot y picallyther ear etwohomozy gousof fspring, onedomi nantpol led(PP)and
theot herr ecessi v ehor ned( pp) .
 Theot hert woof fspr i
ngwi l
l beheter ozygouspol led( Pp)asshowni nthef ollowing
table.
 Thehor nedof fspr ingwi llnothav et hegenesf orpol ledtrai
ts,ev enthoughbot h
parent swer epol led.

Tabl
e4.1.4Cr
ossbet
weenhet
eroz
ygouspol
l
ed(
PpXPp)
ani
mals.
 P P

P PP(
Pol
l
ed-
pur
e)Pp(
pol
l
ed-
impur
e)

P Pp(
Poll
ed- pp(
hor
ned-
pur
e)
i
mpure)

3.LawofI
ndependentAssor
tment
 All
elesf ordi ff
erenttrait
sar esepar at
edanddi st
ributedtogamet esindependentof
oneanot her.
 Whenmat i
ngani mals, t
herear emul t
ipletrai
tsthatneedt obeconsi der
ed.
 Whenconsi deringthesemul t
ipletrai
ts,Mendel assumedt hattherewasno
rel
ationshi pbet weenhowt heywer edistr
ibutedtot henextgenerati
on.
 Consi dercat tl
et hatcanbehor nedorpol l
ed, whiteorredfacedwi thredcolourand
hornsbei ngr ecessi v
et rai
ts.
 I
ftwohet erozygouscat tlearemat ed,theexpect edphenotypicalrati
owillbenine
poll
edwhi t
ef aced,threepolledr edfaced, t
hreehor nedwhitefacedandonehor ned
redfacedof f
spr i
ng.

Tabl
e4.1.
5Cr
ossbet
weenhet
erozy
gousani
mal
sformul
ti
ple
tr
ait
s.

PW Pw Pw Pw

PW PPWW PPWw PpWW PpWw

Pol
l
ed Pol
l
ed Pol
led Pol
led
Whi
tef
aceWhi
tef
aceWhitef
aceWhitef
ace

Pw PPWw PPww PpWw Ppww

Pol
l
ed Pol
led Pol
led Pol
led
Whi
tef
aceRedface Whitef
aceRedface

pW PpWW PpWw ppWW ppWw

Pol
led Pol
led Horned Hor ned
White Whitef
aceWhitef
aceWhitef
ace
 f
aced

Pw PpWw Ppww ppWw Ppww

Polled Pol
led Horned Hor ned
Whi te Redface Whitef
aceRedface
faced

Act
ivi
ty
1.Const
ructamodel
ofachr
omosomeusi
ngl
ocal
l
yav
ail
abl
emat
eri
als.

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Cont
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o Form6

 Topi
cs

 Act
ivi
ti
es

1:
BACKGROUNDTOANI MALSCIENCE
2:
ANATOMYANDPHYSI OLOGY
3:
NUTRITI
ON
4:
GENETICSANDBREEDING
PRI
NCI
PLESOFGENETI
CS2
Byt
heendoft
hissub-
topi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Describeprotei
nsynt
hesisst
art
ingfr
om DNA.
2.Outli
netypesofgeneexpressi
on.
3.Describeeffect
sofenvi
ronmentongene
expressi
on.
4.Determinegenotypeandphenotyper
atios.
5.Describetheimport
anceofgeneexpression.
6.Describetypesofmutat
ion.

Pr
otei
nsy
nthesi
s
 Protei
nsy nt hesisr eferst ot hepr ocessinwhi chi ndivi
dual cell
spr oducet heir
specifi
cpr oteins.
 Theor derofpr oteinsy nt hesi sev entsiscall
edcent raldogmaofmol ecularbi ol
ogy.
 Thecent raldogmai st heuni dir
ect ionalf
lowofgenet i
ci nformat i
onf rom DNAt o
protei
nst hroughRNA( ribonucl ei cacid).
 ThesequenceofbasesonDNA, codesf orthesequenceofami noaci dsinpr ot
eins.
 Therear e20di ff
er entami noaci dsand4di ffer entbases, t
hesebasesar er eadin
groupsof3andar ecal ledt het ripletcode.
 Thet r
ipl
etcodegi ves64possi blecombi nationswhi char emor ethanenought o
codef orthe20ami noaci ds.
 Agr oupoft hr eebasescodi ngf oranami noaci di scall
edacodonandt hemeani ng
ofeachoft he64codonsi scal ledt hegeneticcode.
 Eachcodonconsi stsoft hr eebasesandal lar ewr it
tenint he5' to3' dir
ect i
on.
 61codonscodef orami noaci dsandt heothert hree(UAA, UGA, UAG)ar est op
codonst hatt ermi nat etr ansl ati
on.
 Thereisonest artcodon( initiati
oncodon) ,
AUG, codingf ormet hionine(pr otein
synthesisbegi nswi thmet hioninei neukar y
ot es) .
 Thecodei sunambi guous, eachcodonspeci fiesnomor et hanoneami noaci d.
 Thecodei sdegener ate, mor ethanonecodoncanspeci fyasi ngleami noaci d,
exceptmet hionineandt r y
pt ophan.
 Thef i
rsttwobasesi nt hecodonar eusuall
yt hesamef orami noaci ds,hav ingmor e
thanonecodon.

Fi
g4.
2.1 Genet
iccode

 DNAdoesnotcodef orprot ei
ndir
ectlybutt
hroughamedi at
ormoleculecall
edRNA.
 RNAst r
uct ureissimilaralthoughnotidenti
calt
ot hatofDNA.
 Thediff
er encebet weent het woisthatRNAismadeupofr i
bosesugarratherthan
deoxyri
bosesugar .
 RNAi salsosi nglest
randedr at
herthandoublestrandedandcontainsuracilbase
i
nsteadoft hymi ne.
 Prot
einsy nthesisoccursi nt wostepsnamelytranscri
pti
onandtranslat
ion.
Tr
anscr
ipt
ion
 Tr anscr iptioni st hepr oductionofasi nglestrandedRNAmol eculeknownasmRNA
from DNAmol ecul e.
 Thegenet icinf ormat i
onencodedi nDNAi scopi edpr ecisel yintoRNA.
 Ther ear et hreet y pesofRNAt hatar einvol
vedi npr oteinsy nthesisandt heyplay
differentr oles.
1.MessengerRNA( mRNA)-car ri
esgenet ici nf
ormat ionf rom DNAt oRNAand
i
susedasat empl ateforpr ot einsynthesis.
2.Ri bosomal RNA( rRNA)-amaj orconstit
uentoft hecel l
ularpar t
iclescalled
r
ibosomesonwhi chpr oteinsy nthesi
sact uall
yt akepl ace.
3.Tr ansf erRNA( tRNA)-car riesami noacidst oribosomes, wher et heyar e
l
inkedi nt opr oteins.
 Anenzy mecal ledRNApol ymer aser eadsthet empl atest r
andi n3’ t
o5’ directi
on
 Itsy nthesi sesRNAf rom 5’ to3’ directiondur i
ngt ranscr ipti
on.
 Tost artt ranscr i
ption,RNApol ymer aseunwi ndst heDNAsegment .
 Thenucl eot idesal i
gnwi t
hitscompl ementarybaseont hecodi ngst randofDNA
wi ththehel poft hepol ymer ase.
 Thesugar -phosphat ebackbonei sassembl edt ocompl et et heRNAst rand, andit
separ at esf r
om t heDNAst r
and.
 Oneoft het hreespeci fictri
plets( UAA, UAGorUGA)codesast opsi gnal whenthe
pol ymer asehasr eachedt heendoft hegene.
 Thi strigger stheenzy mest ot ermi nat etranscriptionandr eleaset hemRNA
transcr ipt .
 Inani mal s, t
ranscr i
pti
onoccur sint henucl euswher ethecel l’
sDNAi sf oundas
showni nt hef oll
owi ngdi agram.

Fi
g4.
2.2 Tr
anscr
ipt
ionandt
ransl
ati
on

 TheRNAmol ecul epr oducedi sknownast hepr imar ytr

anscri
pt(pre-
mRNA) .
 Pri
mar yt r
anscr i
ptmustunder gopost -
transcriptionalmodifi
cati
onbeforei
tis
mov edt othecy toplasm f ortranslationt oproteins.
 Thet r
anscr ibedpr e-mRNAconsi stsoflongr egi onsthatdonotcodef oramino
acidsandt hesear ecallednon- codi ngregions.
 Thenon- codi ngr egionsar er emov edfrom thepr e-mRNAtranscri
ptbytheprocess
call
edspl i
cing.
 Spliceosome( snRNP)mol eculesr emov ethenon- codi
ngregionsfrom t
hepre-
mRNAt of or m mRNA.
 Thepar tswhi chr emai nafterspl i
cingar ecalledexonswher easthepart
swhi chare
remov edar ei ntrons.
 Proteinst hatar edi f
ferentinst ructureandf unct ionsareproducedwhendifferent
codi ngregi onsofmRNAar esplicedout .
 Whent r
anscr iptionisov er
, t
hemRNAt ranscriptmov esoutofthenucleusintothe
cytoplasm f ort r
anslat i
on.
Tr
ansl
ati
on
 Tr anslationi st hepr ocesswher ebyamat uremRNAmol eculeisusedasat emplate
forsy nthesi singapr ot ein.
 Itiscar ri
edoutbyt her ibosomewhi chi sal argemacr omol ecul
arcompl exof
sev eralrRNAandpr oteinmol ecul es.
 TheseRi bosomesar er esponsi bl
ef ordecodi ngt hegenet iccodeont hemRNAand
translatingi tint otheami noaci dsequenceofpr otei
ns.
 Ar i
bosomemol ecul ei sat tachedt othemRNAt r
anscr i
ptatani nit
iat
ioncodon.
 Themet -tRNAdi ffusest ot her ibosomeandat tachest ot headjacentmRNA
i
ni ti
ationcodonbycompl ement arybasepai r
ing.
 Thef oll
owi ngami noaci d-tRNAat tachest ot headj acentmRNAcodon.
 Thebondbet weenami noaci dandt RNAbr eaksal l
owi ngf ormat i
onofpept i
debond
bet weent het woami noaci ds.
 Thenewami noaci d- tRNAat t
achest oonecodonast her ibosomemov esalong.
 Thef reet RNAmol ecul esl eav et ocollectanot herami noaci dandt hecy cl
erepeats.
 Pol ypept i
dechai nel ongat esoneami noaci datat i
meandmov esawayf r
om the
ribosome, f
oldi ngupi ntopr oteinsasi tgoes.
 Thi soccur sal otf orami noaci dsunt i
l ast opcodoni sr eached, whent her i
bosome
fallsapar t,releasi ngt hef inishedpr ot
eins.
 Manypr oteinscanbemadef rom onemRNAandt hesepr otei
nsneedt obeedi t
ed
bef oretheybecomef ul l
yf unct ional.
 Pr oteinmodi ficationi ncludeschai ncutting, addingphosphat e,
lipi
dsorsugar
gr oup.

Ty
pesofgeneexpr
essi
on
 Geneexpr essioniswherebyinformati
onfrom ageneisusedi nthesynthesisofa
functi
onalgenepr oductl
ikeprotei
ns.
 Therearesev eralt
ypesofgeneexpr essi
oningeneticsandthesearedomi nance,
co-dominance, par
ti
aldominance, ov
erdominance,gene-env
ironmentinteract
ion
andepistasis.

1.Domi
nance
 Domi nanceoccur swhenoneal l
elecompl et
elymaskst heeffectoftheotheral
l
ele
ont hesamegenel ocus.
 I
nt hiscase,theheterozygot
ehast hesamephenot ypeast hedomi nant
homozy gote.
 Accor di
ngtoMendel 'spri
nci
pleofdomi nance,i
nahet erozygote,oneal
lelemasks
thepresenceoft heother.
 Thef oll
owingexampl eisofdominance.
 Crossingahomozy gouspoll
edbul l(
PP)andhomozy goushor nedcow( pp)i
nthe
fi
rstgenerati
on.
Tabl
e4.
2.1Cr
ossbet
weenpol
l
edandhor
nedcat
tl
e.

P(
P×p) P(
P×p)

P Pp(
pol
l
ed) Pp(
pol
l
ed)

P Pp(
pol
l
ed) Pp(
pol
l
ed)

 Theresul
tofcrossi
ngtwocattl
ewit hhomozygousdominantpol
ledall
elesand
homozygousrecessi
vehornedall
elesproducesahet
erozygouspoll
edcalf.
 Theheter
ozygoteoff
spri
ngisphenot y
pical
l
ypoll
edbutgeneti
cal
lyithasbothtr
ait
s.

2.Co-
domi
nance
 Co-domi nancet akesplacewhenahet erozygoteexhibit
st rai
tsf
oundi nboth
rel
atedhomozy gotes.
 I
nt hiscase, bothgenesofanal l
elomor phicpairexpresst hemselvesful
lyin
heterozygoteoft hefir
stgener ation( F1).
 Ani l
lust
rationofco-domi nanceist hecoatcol ourofroani ncatt
le.
 I
tisobt ainedaftercrossinghomozy gousr edcattlewithhomozy gouswhi t
ecattle.
 I
nt hesecondi ti
ons,neitheralleleisdomi nantorrecessive,asaresulteachall
eleis
representedbyacapi t
al l
etter.
 Thef oll
owingexampl eil
lustratesco- domi nance.
 Determiningt hecoatcol ourwhencr ossingahomozy gousdomi nantred(RR)anda
homozy gousdomi nantwhi te(WW) .

Tabl
e4.
2.2Cr
ossi
ngr
edandwhi
tecat
tl
e.

R(
R×W) R(
R×W)

W RW (
roan) RW (
roan)

W RW (
roan) RW (
roan)

 Theresul
tofcrossi
ngahomozygousr
ed(
RR)andhomozy
gouswhi
te(
WW)i
san
off
spri
ngthathasaroancol
our
.
 I
tisami xt
ureofwhi t
eandr ed, becausethereisnomaskingofanotherall
eleon
thesamegenel ocus.
 Thereforeiftwodomi nanthomozy gousall
elesarecr
ossedtheresul
tisan
offspr
ingwhi chisheterozy
gousbutwi thdominantal
lel
es
 Thisisunliketoparti
aldomi nancebecausewhenobser vedclosel
yar oananimal
hasbot hredandwhi tehairsratherthanpinkhair
s.

3.Par
ti
aldomi
nance
 Parti
aldomi nanceoccur
swhenahet erozygotehasaphenot y
pewhichisdi
ff
erent
fr
om eitheritshomozygouscounterparts.
 I
nt hi
scase, oneall
eledoesnotcompl etel
ymaskt heef f
ectoftheot
her.
 Thehet er
ozy got
eexhibi
tsaphenotypewhi chisin-bet
weenthet wohomozy
gous
genotypes.
 Thefollowingexampledemonstratespar t
ialdominance.

 Deter
mini
ngt
heey ecolourwhencrossi
ngahomozy gousbr
owney
ed(
BB)sheep
andahomozygousrecessiv
egreeneyed(bb)sheep.

Tabl
e4.
2.3Cr
ossi
ngabr
owney
edandgr
eeney
edsheep(
BBX
bb)

B(
B×b) B(
B×b)

B Bb(
blueey
e) Bb(
blueey
e)

B Bb(
blueey
e) Bb(
blueey
e)

 Thecrossingofpur ebrown-eyed(BB)sheepandapur egreen-eyed(bb)sheep,

producesabl ueeyed(Bb)offspri
ng.
 Theresultisallof
fspri
ngbeingheterozygot
e.
 I
nt hi
stypeofcr ossbreedingtheoff
spri
ngpr oducesahet
er ozygot
ephenot y
pe
whichisdiffer
entfrom ei
theri
tshomozy gouscounter
part
s

4.Ov
erdomi
nance
 Overdominancereferstoaphenotypi
crelati
oninwhichthephenot
ypi
cexpressi
on
ofthehet
erozygoteisgreat
erthanthatofthehomozy gote.
 I
nthiscase,t
het woallel
esinthesamegenepai ri
nteracttoout
per
for
m phenoty
pic
measurementscarri
edbybot hparent
alall
eles.
  Usuallycrossingofinbr
edlinesproducesprogenyfarsuperi
ort otheinbredparent
s.
 Acrossbet weenhomozy gousgenot y
pes(AAandaa)wi llr
esultinheterozygote
(Aa)whi chexhibi
tsaphenot ypi
cmeasurementorout per
formst het woparental
characters.
 Aa > AAo raa
 Over-domi nanceisoneofthecausesofhet er
osisofhybri
dv igour.
 Iti
sther eforeval
uablei
nmanybr eedi
ngprogramsinanimal breeding.

5.Gene-
env
ironmenti
nter
act
ion
 Geneexpr essioni nanor gani sm canbei nf l
uencedbyext ernalori nternal
envir
onment .
 Externalenv ir
onment al effect sar ethoset hatseem t obecorrelatedt oobser vable
changesout sideanyor gani sm.
 Exampl esi ncludechemi cal s,dr ugs,temper at
ur e,li
ght,moist
ureandnut rit
ion.
 Temper atur eandl ightar emaj orext ernal env ironment alf
actorst hatinfluencegene
expressioni ncer tainani mal s.
 Exampl eist emper aturet hatr egulatest heCgenef orcolourdev elopmenti n
Himal ayanr abbits.
 TheCgenei smor eact ivebet ween15° Cand25° Candnotabov e35° C.
 Inwar m condi ti
onst heCgenei sin-activet her eforenopigment sar epr oduced
causingt hef urcol ourt obewhi te.
 Wher ethet emper atur ei sl owert han35° C, theCgeneact i
vel
ypr oducespi gment ,
makingt heear s,noseandf eetoft her abbi tblack.
 Int
ernal env i
ronment al ef fect sar ethosel eadi ngt ophenotypicchangest hatappear
tobecor r
elatedt ochangeswi t
hintheor gani sm.
 Inthi
scaseexampl esi ncl udeage, sexorgender ,hormonesandot hersubst rates.
 Thesef actor sinfl
uencet hewayanor gani sm dev el
opsandf unct i
ons.
 Onegoodexampl eoft hei nf luenceofi nter nal envir
onmentonor gani smsi st he
eff
ectofsexonmi lkpr oduct i
on.
 Alt
hought hegenesf ormi lkpr oduct ionar ecar ri
edbybot hmal esandf emal es,only
l
actatingani mal sexpr esst hegenes.

6.Epi
stasi
s
 Epist
asi
si stheinteracti
onbet weennon- al
l
elicgenesinwhi chonegenepai rmasks
thephenotypicmani festati
onofanothergenepai r
.
 Ag eneatonel ocusi nfl
uencestheexpressionofageneatsecondl oci.
 Ag enethatsuppressest heexpressi
onofanot hergenei scall
edepi st
ati
cfactor
whereastheonewhi chi spreventedfr
om expr essi
ngitselfi
shy postat
ic.
 Epist
asi
scanbecl assifiedint
ot womai ntypesandt heseare,domi nantepi
stasi
s
andrecessiveepistasis.

Domi
nantepi
stasi
s

 I
ndomi
nantepi
stasi
s,t
hesi
ngl
edomi
nantal
l
eleofonegenesuppr
essest
he
 activ
ityoftheotheral l
eli
cpai r
.
 Thesuppr essorall
eleist hedomi nantal l
eleoftheepist
aticgene,asar esul
t
suppressionoccursi ndomi nanthomozy gosit
yorhet er
ozy gosi
ty.
 Anexampl eofdomi nantepi st
ati
ciswhi t
ecoatcolourindogs.
 Itdevelopsduetot heact ionofepistaticgeneswhi chpreventtheformationof
pigmentwhi chwi l
lbepr oducedbyhy postati
cgenes.
 Whent hehypostati
cgenepr oducesbl ackcoat,it
sallel
ewi ll
producebrowncoat,
onlywhent hegenei sr ecessive.
 Thepr ogenyofdomi nantgenedoesnotal l
owthem tof uncti
onandr esulti
nwhit
e
colour.

Recessi
veepi
stasi
s

 Inrecessi v eepist
asis,t
her ecessivegenesuppr essestheactivit
yoft hedomi nant
geneont hegenel ocus.
 Thesuppr essorall
eleisther ecessiveallel
eoftheepistat
icgene, asar esul
t
suppr essionoccur sonl yi
nr ecessivehomozy gosity
.
 Albinocoatcol ourinmi ceisoneoft heexampl eofrecessi
veepi stasis.
 Inmi cet hecoatcol ourisgr eyi
shbutt heagouticol
ourisduet opr esenceoftwo
pigment si nt hefur.
 Albinocoatcol ourisduet ot heabsenceofapi gmentandi srecessi v
e
homozy gous.
 Thebl ackcol ourisalsoproducedduet otheabsenceofay ell
owpi gmentfrom
agout ipat ter
n.
 Whenal binomi cearecrossedwi t hblackthefi
rstgenerati
onwi l
lbeal lagoutiand
whent heseF1ar ecrossedwi t
ht hesecondgener ati
onwi l
lhaveagout i
,al
binoand
blackmi ce.

Mut
ati
on
 Mut at
ionreferst oaper manentandher i
tablechangei nthenucl eot i
desequenceof
DNAt hatmakesupagene.
 TheDNAsequencewi l
ldifferfrom whatisf oundinmostor ganisms.
 DNAunder goesf requentchemi calchangeswheni tisbeingdupl icatedandt he
changesar equi cklyr epaired,butthechangest hatarenotr epairedr esultin
mut at
ion.
 Mut at
ionsv aryinsizeandcanaf fectasingleDNAbl ockoral argechr omosome
segmentt hati ncl
udesmul tipl
egenes.
 Changesi nt hecodi ngpor ti
onsofDNAmayal teraminoaci dsequencesofpr ot
eins
result
inginmut ati
ons.
 Changesi nnon- codi ngr egionsofDNAhav ethepot enti
alforchangi ngt he
expressionofgenesf orexampl ealteri
ngthest rengthofapr omot er
.
 Mut at
ionscancausegenet icdiseases,changesi nenzymeact i
vity,antibiot
ic
susceptibi
li
ty ,
mor phol ogical changes,antigenici
ty,andaffectsmanyot her
properti
esofcel l
s.
 Mut at
ionsar eclassif i
edi nt womaj orgroupsandt heseareher editaryandacqui r
ed
 mut
ati
ons.

1.Her
edi
tar
ymut
ati
ons
 Heredi
tar
ymut at
ionsarepassedonf rom parentt
oof fspr
ingandarepresent
thr
oughoutanorganism’slif
einvir
tuall
yeverycel
linthebody .
 Theyarealsor
eferredtoasgerm- l
i
nemut ati
onssimpl ybecausetheyarepresenti
n
thegametesoftheparents.
 Wh enf
erti
li
sat
ionoccurs,thezygoterecei
vesDNAf r
om bothparentsandifthe
DNAhasamut at
iontheoffspri
ngwi l
lhavethemut ati
onineachoft hecel
ls.

2.Acqui
redmut
ati
on
 Acquir
edmutati
onsoccuri
fami st
akeismadedur i
ngDNAr epl
icati
on.
 Theyareal
socausedbyenvir
onmentalfact
orssuchasult
ravi
oletradi
ati
onf
rom
thesun.
 Thesemutati
onsarepr
esentincer
tai
ncellsbutnoti
neverycel
l i
nthebody.

Genemut
ati
on
 Genemutati
onsoccurduet
oerr
orsinDNAr epli
cati
onandnormall
yaf
fectonl
yone
gene.
 Theyarecl
assi
fi
edassubst
it
uti
on,i
nver
sion,addit
ionanddel
eti
on.

1.Subst
it
uti
on
 Substit
uti
onmut ati
onoccur swhenasi nglebaseisreplacedbyanother.
 Anucleotidesubsti
tuti
onatapoi ntiscall
edat r
ansi
tion.
 Thisiswhenapur i
neisreplacedbyanotherpurineorpy r
imidi
neissubsti
tutedby
anotherpyri
midine.
 I
tiscalledatrans-ver
sionifapurineissubsti
tut
edforapy ri
midineorvi
cev ersa.

Fi
g4.
2.3 Subst
it
uti
on

2.I
nver
sion
 Aport
ionoft
henucleot
idesequencei
sreversedwi
thi
ntheDNAmol
ecul
e.
 I
nver
sionmutat
ions,
onlyaf
fectasmallpar
tofthegene.

Fi
g4.
2.4 I
nver
sionmut
ati
on

3.Addi
ti
on
 Addi
ti
onmutati
oni
swher
ebyoneormor
eaddi
ti
onal
basesar
einser
tedi
ntot
he
DNAmolecul
es.

Fi
g4.
2.5 Addi
ti
onmut
ati
on

4.Del
eti
on
 Del
eti
onmut
ati
oni
swher
ebyoneormor
ebasesar
elostf
rom t
heDNAmol
ecul
e.

Fi
g4.
2.6 Del
eti
onmut
ati
on

Chr
omosomemut
ati
on
 Chr
omosomemut at
ionref
erstoanychangeorer rorthatoccur
swithi
na
chr
omosome.
 Mutat
ionmaybetheresul
tofchangeinthestructur
eornumberofchr omosomes
i
nanor gani
sm.
 Chr
omosomemut at
ionsarecl
assif
iedastranslocat
ion,i
nversi
on,
duplicat
ionand
del
eti
on.

1.Tr
ansl
ocat
ion
 Thistypeofmutat
ioninv
olv
est hetransferofacert
ainport
ionofachromosome
between2chromosomes.
 I
nhumant r
ansl
ocati
onmaycausecancerwhent hefusedchromosomebecomes
oncogeneandproducesunregulat
edpr otei
nswhichstimul
ateuncont
rol
ledcel
l
growth.

2.I
nver
sion
 Inversi
onmut ationoccurswhenapar tofachromosomei srever
sed.
 Italsooccurswhent wobreaksoccuri nachromosomeandt heport
ionis
rei
nserted.
 Th erearetwot ypesofinversi
onmut ati
onnamel yper
icent
ri
candpar acentr
ic.
 Pe ri
centri
cinversi
oni nv
olvestheuseofacent romerewhereasparacentr
icinvol
ves
eit
hershor torlongar ms.
 Th emut ati
onmayr esul
tinamniocentesisduri
ngpregnancy.

3.Dupl
i
cat
ion
 Thi
sty
peofmut
ati
onoccur
swhenasect
ionofachr
omosomer
epl
i
cat
essot
hata
 setofgenesisr epeated.
 Theduplicat
edpar tcaneitherbel
ocat
edinit
snormall
ocat
ioni
nthechromosome
orinotherpartofthechromosomeoranotherchr
omosome.
 Dupli
cati
oncausesv ari
ousabnormal
it
iesi
nthephenot
ypebutt
hei
reff
ectsar
eless
del
eteri
ous.

4.Del
eti
on
 Deleti
onsinvolvelossofmat eri
alfrom asingl
echromosomeandr esultsinlossof
othergenes.
 Th eeff
ectsar et
y pi
cal
l
ysever esincethereisalossofgeneticmateri
al .
 Wh enahet erozygousi
ndi
vidual l
osest hedominantall
eleduetodeletion,t
he
recessi
veal l
eleontheundeletedhomol ogueexpressesitsel
fphenotypical
ly
.

Ef
fect
sofmut
ati
on
 Ther
earefi
vecommonef fectsofmutationsinl
iv
ingorgani
sm andt
hesear
e
morphol
ogi
cal
,l
ethal
,bi
ological
,regul
atoryandcondi
ti
onal.

a.Mor
phol
ogi
cal
eff
ect
 Mutati
onsaffectt
hef
orm ofor
gani
sm.
 I
tresul
tsinchangest
hataff
ectt
heshape,
col
ourandsi
zeofanor
gani
sm.

b.Let
hal
eff
ect
 Let
halmutat
ionki
ll
sthecarr
ieror
gani
sm.
 Normal
lyi
tisfor
medf r
om homozygousr
ecessi
veal
l
elest
her
efor
ear
enot
common.

c.Bi
ologi
cal
eff
ect
 Biologi
calef
fecti
scausedbyadefectinbiochemicalpat
hwaysandr
esul
tsi
n
vari
ousdisorder
s.
 On egoodexampleislackofpheny
lal
aninehydroxyl
aseinhumanswhi
chcauses
pheny l
ket
onuri
a.

d.Regul
ator
yef
fect
 Regulat
oryef
fectoccursingeneswhichcont
rolt
heacti
vi
ti
esofothergene.
 Mostgeneshav eregul
atoryel
ementswhichcont
rol
thei
roperat
ionsandtheydo
notcodeforanyenzyme.
 Forexampleoverproducti
onofenzymesresul
tinagenebehavi
ngabnormally
.
e.Condi
ti
onal
eff
ect
 Somemut ati
onshav eeffectsontheorgani
sm dependi
ngoncertai
ncondit
ions.
 I
nHi malayanrabbitsthecoatcolouriswhit
eexceptfort
heextr
emiti
eswhich
i
ncludet henose,ears,t
ailandfeetwhicharebl
ack.
 Developmentofbl ackfurisduetoat emperat
uresensi
ti
veenzy
mewhi chwor ks
onl
ybel owacer t
aincrit
icaltemperat
ure.
 Theext r
emiti
esoft hebodyar eexposedtocoolert
emperat
ureandther
efore
devel
opbl ackfur
.

Cr
ossbr
eedi
ngofdi
ff
erentbr
eeds
 Anumberofst epsareinv
olvedincar
ryi
ngoutcrossbreeding.
 Thesestepsincludeident
ifi
cat
ionofbreedi
ngobject
ives,al
locat
ionof
responsi
bil
i
ties,inf
ormati
ongatheri
ngonbreedi
ngpr acti
sesandSWOTanal
ysi
s.

1.I
dent
if
icat
ionoft
hebr
eedi
ngobj
ect
ives(
goal
s)
 Breedingobj ecti
vesar easetofgoal smadebyanani mal breedersoast omeett he
needsoft heenduserbyi mprovi
ngt hequali
tyofanimal s.
 Identi
ficati
onofbr eedingobjecti
vesisessentialbecausei tall
owsgenet i
cv ar
iati
on
amongbr eeds.
 Thebr eedingobjectivesmeett hestandardsoft heenduser s.
 Thecr ossingoft wobr eedsisdeterminedbyf actor
slikemi lkyiel
d,eggsize,milk
composi t
ionandcar cassquant i
ty,
whichar ethebreedingobj ecti
ves.
 Ifthepr ogenyistohav ehighmi l
kquant i
ty,
itmeanst hepr imarygoal when
breedingi smilkquant i
tyandcarcassquant i
tybecomest hesecondar yobject
ive.

2.Al
l
ocat
ionofr
esponsi
bil
i
ties
 Thesecondst epist heal l
ocati
onofr esponsi bil
i
ties.
 Theser esponsibi
lit
ieswi l
lhel
pindesi gning,planningoperati
onsandmanaging
breedingschemes
 Inani malbreedi
ngt hemosti mpor t
antf actoristhebr eedi
ngtechnol
ogyused.
 E i
therarti
fi
ciali
nsemi nati
on,embryot ransferand/nat uralmati
ngisdet
erminedon
thisstep.
 Ifthebreedingmet hodi sarti
fi
cial
insemi nati
on( AI)orembr y
ot r
ansf
erthe
collecti
onandcr yopr eservati
onofsemenandembr yosiscarr
iedout
.

3.I
nfor
mat
iongat
her
ing
 Thethi
rdst
epistheinf
ormat
iongather
ing.
 Theinf
ormati
ongather
eddet
erminesthemethodofcr
ossbr
eedi
ngt
obecar
ri
ed
out
.
 I
fthebr eedingmet hodt obeusedi snat uralmat i
nginformati
onlikebreed, age,
milkquant i
ty,milkcompositi
on, carcassquant i
ty,test
icul
arsi
zeandsi zeoft he
animal i
stobegat hered.
 Bull
st hathav emat edorcowst hathav et r
aceableof f
spri
ngarebestsui tedforuse
i
nbr eedingbecauset hei
rpr
oduct iv
ehi storyisknown.
 I
nusi ngot hertechnologi
esli
keAIand( multi
pleov ul
ati
onembr yotransfer)MOET,
i
nformat i
ont obegat heredi
ncludesst ructuresforAIorMOET, semenandembr yo
avail
abili
ty,geneti
cistsandcostofcr ossbr eeding.

4.SWOTanal
yses
 SWOTanal ysesisthel
astst
ept
akenbef
orebr
eedi
ng.
 I
tisanabbrev i
ati
on.
 S-Str
engths
 W -Weaknesses
 O-Opportuniti
es
 T–Threats

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1:
BACKGROUNDTOANI
MALSCIENCE
2:
ANATOMYANDPHYSI
OLOGY
3:
NUTRITI
ON
4:
GENETICSANDBREEDI
NG
ANI
MALBREEDI
NG1
Byt
heendoft
hissub-
topi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scusst heobjecti
veofanimalsbreedi
ng.
2.Outl
inethebreedingapproachesinanimal
pr
oduction.
3.Descri
bet heselect
ionsy
stemsi nanimalbr
eeding.
4.Di
scussmer i
tsanddemer i
tsofanimalsel
ecti
on.

Ani
mal
breedi
ng
 Animal breedingisthecont rol
ledpr opagat i
onofeit herdomest i
corwil
danimalsi
n
ordertoi mprovedesirablequal i
ties.
 I
tisalsoapr ocessofsel ecti
ngmat i
ngani malswithdesi r
ablegenet
ict
rai
ts,soas
tomaint ainorenhancet heset raitsi
nf uturegenerat i
ons.
 I
namor escienti
fi
cwayani mal breedingr efer
stot hepr oducti
onofbet
terbr
eeds
byimprov inggenotypet hroughsel ecti
v emat i
ng,i
nani mals.
 Breedi
ngi sdonetoachi evecer taingoalsandt hesear eknownasbr eedi
ng
object
ives.

Br
eedi
ngobj
ect
ives
 Themai
nobj
ect
ivesofani
mal
sbr
eedi
ngar
eto:

1.I
ncr
easepr
oduct
ionofani
mal
product
s.
 Whenbreedi
ngani
mals,breeder
sai
m atmaxi
misi
ngthepr
oducti
onofanimal
pr
oduct
ssuchasmi l
k,eggsandmeat.
 Thehi
gherthey
iel
dthegreatert
hef
oodsuppl
yandthemoretheprof
itt
othe
br
eeder
.

2.I
mpr
ovequal
i
tyofani
mal
product
s.
 Ani
malbr
eedi
ngisalsodonetoimpr ov
ethequal
it
yofani
mal product
ssuchas
wool
,mohai
r,but
ter
fatcont
ent
,leannessi
nporkandyol
ksizeinpoult
ry.

3.I
mpr
ovegr
owt
hrat
eofani
mal
s.
 I
nani
mal
breedi
ng,
breeder
star
gett
opr
oduceani
mal
sthatwi
l
lgr
owf
ast
er.
 Thisisbecausetheywantt
oreducethecostofpr
oduct
ionbyr
educi
ngt
he
product
ioncycleandhavequi
ckret
urns.

4.I
mpr
ovepr
oduct
ivel
i
feofani
mal
s.
 Breeder smayai mt omodi fyt
hepr oducti
veli
feofananimal thr
oughanimal
breeding.
 Th r
oughsel ecti
v ebreedingheal
thpr obl
emscanber educedbymat inganimals
withhighdi seaseresistancegenes,ther
ebyextendi
ngthepr oduct
iveli
fespanof
theher d.
 Select
iv ebreedingresultinbr
eedcompl ementari
lyandheterosist
hrough
crossbr eedi
ngwhi chresultsi
nanimal swhicharemoreresistantt
odiseases.

5.I
mpr
over
ateofr
epr
oduct
ion.
 Throughsel
ect
ivebr
eedi
ngbreeder
scanproduceani
mal
sthatar
ehi
ghl
yfer
ti
le,
thusimpr
ovi
ngtherepr
oduct
ionrat
eoftheanimal
s

Br
eedi
ngappr
oaches
 Breedi
ngapproachesar
emet hodsusedt
oimproveani
malpr
oducti
on.
 Improvementi
nanimalproduct
ioncanbeachi
evedthr
oughi
ntr
oduct
ionand
select
ion.

1.I
ntr
oduct
ionmet
hod
 Thisiswhenani malsar ephysicallyintroducedi ntoanot hercount r
yf rom their
countryofor igin.
 Theseani mal swi l
lber efer
redt oasexot icbreedst ot hecount rywher etheyar e
beingintr oduced.
 Animalsbei ngi ntr
oducedt oacer taincount r
ymustbequar antinedf oracer t
ain
period.
 Thequar ant ineper ioddependsont hei ncubationper iodoft hedi seasesunder
consider ation.
 Intr
oduct ioni susedt oupgradet heper formanceofl ocal (i
ndigenous)br eedsi n
thatcount ry.
 Thisbreedi ngappr oachi squit
ei mpor t
antinani mal pr oduct i
oni nt hesenset hat
:
o Ne wl yi ntr
oducedani mal swi l
l producemor et hant hel ocal breeds.
o I tr esul tsinbr eeds(crossbr ed)ofhi ghqual i
t y
.
o Di seasesandpar asi
tescanbecont r
olledsincet heani mal sar equar anti
ned.
 Howev er ,int r
oduct ionapproachhasi tsownshor tfall
sandt hesear e:
o E xot icani mal smaynotbeabl et oadaptt ot hel ocal environment .
o I nt roducedani malsmayal sobesuscept i
bletocer tai
nl ocal diseasesand
 par
asit
es.
o I
tisexpensi
vet
ocar
ryout
.

2.Sel
ect
ionmet
hods
 Sel
ecti
onist hechoosingofani malsthatwi l
lbepar entsforthenextgenerat
ion.
 Animalswithhigherperf
ormancesar eselectedfrom acer t
aingroupforthei
r
geneti
candphenot ypi
ctraits.
 Sel
ecti
oninfluenceschangei ngenef requencies.
 Themai nobjecti
veofselectionistoimpr oveeffi
ciencyandpr of
itabi
l
ity
.
 Therearetwot ypesofselection,
naturalandar ti
fi
cialsel
ecti
on.

Nat
ural
sel
ect
ion

 Theef f
ectofenv i
ronmentonthesurviv
alandreproducti
onofanimal s(survi
val
of
thefit
test)
.
 I
fy ouplacetwor amsinacampwi thewesonst andingheat,
thestrongr amswi l
l
bull
yweakeronesandmat etheewes.
 Thismeanst hattheweakeroneshav ebeennaturall
yfor
cedoutoft hesy st
em.
 Animalsinagi venenvi
ronmentar
enotequal l
yfittocompeteforsurviv
al and
reproducti
onandt hi
sformsthebasisofnatur
alselecti
on.
 Fit
nessi stheabil
it
yofanimal
stosur vi
veandreproduceinagivenenv i
ronment.

Ar
ti
fi
cial
sel
ect
ion

 I
tist heeffectofhumansont hepr obabil
it
ythatananimal cansur v
iveand
reproduce.
 Onegoodexampl ei swhenapr oducersetsami nimalstandardoftwinperdoerin
goatpr oduction.
 Thoset hatfailtogivetwinstheyar eautomat i
call
ycull
edr egar
dlessoftheirabi
l
ity
toreproduce.
 Themai nobjectiv
ewhenpr acti
singar t
ifi
cial
selecti
onistoincreaseproducti
onand
reproducti
v eeffi
ciency.
 Averageper formanceoft hepr ogenyf oraparti
culartr
aiti
swhatbr eedersconsi
der
whensel ectingpar ent
sfornextgener ation.

Sel
ect
ionsy
stemsi
nani
mal
breedi
ng
 Whenselecti
nganimalsforbr
eedi
ngtherei
sneedtoconsi
derselect
ionf
orasi
ngl
e
tr
aitormult
ipl
etrai
ts.
 Youshouldalsoconsi
derthemostappropr
iat
epr
oceduref
orselecti
on.

Si
ngl
etr
aitsel
ect
ion
 Ther
earetwomet
hodsusedwhensel
ect
ingani
mal
sforasi
ngl
etr
aitandt
hesear
e
i
ndiv
idual
andf
amil
ysel
ecti
on.

I
ndi
vi
dual
sel
ect
ion
 I
tisbasedont heper formanceofanindi
vi
dual,i
rr
especti
veofthef amil
y.
 I
ndi vi
dualsel
ecti
onist hesimpl
estmethodbutiti
salsorefer
redtoasper for
mance
testi
ng.
 Se l
ecti
onofreplacementcowsi ncat
tlepr
oducti
onisdoneaf t
erobser v
ingthe
mot heri
ngabil
it
yofthey oungcowsforthreeconsecuti
vecal
vingperiods.
 Th i
shelpsindeterminingthatt
hecowhasgoodmot heri
ngabil
it
ies.

Adv
ant
ages

 Easytocarryout .
 I
ncreasedcer t
aintyontheprogenyperfor
mancebecauseoft
heani
mal
sel
ect
edf
or
acertai
ntrai
t.
 Addit
ivegeneticvari
ati
oninapopul at
ionisconsi
der
ed.
 Non eedforinformati
ononrelati
ves.
 All
owsev al
uationofanimalsatyoungage.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Requi
resalotoftimesincether
eisneedtowai
tfori
ndi
vi
dual
recor
ds
accumulat
ion.
 I
trequi
resskil
ledpersonnelf
orproperr
ecor
dkeepi
ng.
 Notappli
cablefort
rait
soflowherit
abil
i
ty

Fami
l
ysel
ect
ion
 Breeder sselectt hebestfami l
i
esasawhol eandr ejectt
heot herfamil
ies.
 Selectionisbasedont heaverageper f
ormanceoft hewhol ef amilyonacer tai
n
tr
ait.
 Forexampl eift herearefourdif
ferentfamil
iesofdai r
ygoat s,eachf amil
y
produci ngdifferentamount sofmi l
k,theaveragemi lkyi
eldperf ami l
yiscalcul
ated
andt hef amilywi ththehighestaveragewill
besel ectedforbr eeding.
 Witht hismet hodt hewhol efamilyiseit
herselect
edorr ejected,thereareno
separat econsi derati
onsofindivi
dualswhocanper form betterinaf amil
y.

Adv
ant
ages

 Weaknessofindi
vi
dualani
malsinafamil
yismaskedbyt
hesuper
iorones.
 Sel
ecti
onisnotaff
ectedbyl
owr esembl
anceamongfami
lymembersinagiven
env
ironment
.
 Canbeusedinsexlimit
edtr
ait
s.
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Sel
ectionofonef ami l
ytobetheparentsfort henextgener
ati
onmayresul
tin
i
ncreasedinbreeding.
 Thereisareducednumberoff amil
iesrepresentedamongpar ent
soft
henext
generati
onsinceonl yfewfamil
iesareselected.

Mul
ti
plet
rai
tsel
ect
ion
 I
tcombinesi
nfor
mationonphenot
ypes,
pedi
greeandeconomicwei
ght
sint
oone
i
ndexval
ue.
 Thei
ndexval
ueisthebestest
imat
eoftheaggregat
egenot
ype.

Tandem sel
ect
ion
 Tandem sel ecti
oni stheselect
ionofonet rai
tatat i
meunt il
t hedesir
ablel
eveli
s
achieved.
 I
tinv ol
vesor deringofanimal t
rai
tsaccordingtotheirimportance.
 Thisisfollowedbysel ecti
onoft hemosti mportanttrai
ts.
 Forexampl eapi gbreederwantstoincreasegrowthr ate,
decr easebackfatand
i
ncreasel itt
ersize.
 I
nt hef i
rstgeneration,sel
ecti
onwoul dbeforfastestgrowingani mals.
 Secondlyl eanestpigswoul dbeselecti
onandt helastgenerat i
onwillcomefrom
thelargestlit
tersize.

Adv
ant
ages

 Easyt ocarr
youtsi ncet
hereismeasurementofonetrai
tatat
ime.
 Mor eaccuracysinceselect
ioni
scentredononetrai
tatati
me.
 Requirestheleastamountofdetail
edinfor
mati
on.
 Predicti
onofselectionr
esponseissimple.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Thereisat endencyforthel
asttraittobelostasthenexti
sbeingsel
ected.
 Requir
esski l
ledpersonnelt
orankt rai
tsaccordi
ngtoeconomicimport
ance.
 Thereisneedt omoni t
orchangesint hetrai
ts.
 Requir
esv erylongtime,asaresultbreedersmaybediscouragedandstopor
changegoal s.

I
ndependentcul
l
ingl
evel
(ICL)
 I
ndependentcull
ingl ev
el i
samethodwhereminimum standar
dsofperf
ormance
ar
esetforeacht rai
t.
 Ani
malsthatfall
bel owt hemi
nimum st
andardforanyofthetr
ait
sarecul
led.
 I
CListhefrequentlyusedmethodofimprovement.
 I
ftheperformanceoft heanimalstobesel ect
edissub-st
andar
dforanyt r
ait
s,they
arenotselect
edforbreedingregardlessofthebet
terperf
ormanceforothertr
aits.
 Forexampl ei
nacer t
aindair
yf ar
m, select
ionl
evel
swer esetonmil
ky i
eld/l
actati
on
,concepti
onr at
e andweani ngweight /
calf

Table4.3.1Perfor
manceofdi
ff
erentdai
rycowst
obe
consideredforsel
ect
ion.

Cow Mil
kyi
eld Concept
ion Weani
ng
(
3500kgs/l
act
ati
on) rate wei
ght
(75%) (
35kg/
cal
f)

CowA 3500 70 35

CowB 4000 90 40

CowC 2000 85 36

CowD 1000 80 35

CowE 5000 90 40

 Basedonthetabl
eaboveyoucanonlysel
ectCowBandEusingi
ndependent
cul
li
nglev
el.
 CowA, CandDwi l
lber
eject
edbecausetheyf
all
bel
owthesetst
andar
ds.

Adv
ant
ages

 I
tisnott
imeconsumingcomparedtot
andem sel
ecti
on.
 Ther
eisnoneedtorankthet
rai
tsinor
derofi
mportance.
 I
tdoesnotinv
olv
ecompli
cat
edcal
cul
ati
ons.
 Sel
ect
ioncanbedoneasdat
aaccumul
ateforexampl
emi
l
kyi
eld.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Animal superi
orinonet rai
tcannotcompensat
ef ort
heweaknessi nanothert
rait
.
 Sinceselecti
onisf oroveral
lnetmeri
t,I
CLcannotgivespeci
ficgoalsf
oreacht r
ait
.
 Iti
sdiffi
cultt
oest abli
shculli
nglevel
sthatt
rul
yrefl
ecttheeconomicvalueand
expectedselecti
onr esponse.

Sel
ect
ioni
ndex
 Inthismet hodsev er
altrai
tsaresel ectedatt hesamet ime.
 Eacht raitt
hatisgoi ngt obeselectedi sgivenawei ghtfactor.
 Forexampl ewhensel ect i
ngforbot hgr owthr at
eandl eannessinpor
k.
 Ifgrowt hrateisthemor eimportantoft hetwoi tcoul dbegi venmoreweightsay
30%t hanl eannesssay10%.
 Thewei ghi
ngv al
ueorf actori
st henmul t
ipl
iedbyt heobser vedval
uei neach
animal .
 Thescor eforeachoft het rai
tissummedf oreachani mal .
 Thei ndexscor eresultscanbeusedt ocompar ethewor t
hofeachor gani
sm bei
ng
selected.
 Onlyt hosewi t
hhi ghestindexscor esar eselectedforbr eeding.

Adv
ant
ages

 Youcansel
ectfort
rai
tssimult
aneouslyratherthansequenti
all
y.
 Therei
snousefult
rai
tbeingexcl
udedf r
om t heselecti
onatanygiv
ent i
me.
 Notrai
twi
ll
stagnat
ewhi l
ethebreederconcent r
atesoni mpr
ovingothert
rai
ts.
 Takesl
essti
mecompar edtotandem selecti
onmet hod.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Itr
equi
ressomeelement
softr
ial
anderr
orbefor
eassi
gni
ngoptimal
wei
ghtf
or
eachtr
ait
.
 Iti
shardtocal
cul
atepr
eci
sel
yweight
sassi
gnedtoeacht
rai
ts.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofani
mal
sel
ect
ion
 Animal
sel
ecti
onisusedtogeneti
cal
lypromotespecif
ict
rai
tsinanimals.
 Animal
swit
hcert
aintr
ait
swillbesel
ectedforbr
eedingsothatthei
rdesir
edt
rai
ts
coul
dbepassedontothenextgener
ati
on.

Adv
ant
ages

 I
ncr
easedpr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Animalsel
ecti
onall
owspromot i
onoftrai
tsthataremoref
av our
abletot
hebreeder
.
 Forexampleifwebreedabullandcowf r
om highermil
kyi
eldmot her
s,t
hehi
gh
mil
ky i
eldgenewil
lbepassedont otheoff
spring.
 Thepromotionoft
hisfav
ourablegenewilli
ncreaset
heeconomicv al
ueoft
he
ani
mal.

 El
iminat i
onofdiseases
 Pr
e-scr eeningandident
ifi
cat
ionofcert
aingeneti
cdiseasesi
ngenet
icstudyi
snow
apre-requisit
e.
 Asar esultbreedi
ngofani malswit
houtgenet
icdiseaseswil
laut
omati
call
y
er
adicat egeneti
cdiseasesfrom f
utur
egenerati
ons.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Animal discomfor
t.
 Breedersmayuni ntenti
onall
yreproducet r
aitswhicharedetr
iment
altotheani
mal
’
s
healt
h,whenseeki ngt oencouragedesirabletr
ait
s.
 Consider i
ngeconomi cbenefit
s,breedersmaybr eedcowswi t
hlar
geuddersto
i
ncreasemi l
kyi
eld.
 Ho wever,theuddermaybet ooheav yfortheanimaltobearandcausegreat
di
scomf ort
.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Recordinf
ormat
ionof10random cowsaboutt
heirmil
ky i
eldatalocal
dai
ryfar
m
foratl
east60daysandnotethevari
ati
onsamongindi
vidualcowsandascer
tai
n
thecausesoft
hesevari
ati
ons.

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ivi
ti
es

1:
BACKGROUNDTOANI MALSCIENCE
2:
ANATOMYANDPHYSI OLOGY
3:
NUTRITI
ON
4:
GENETICSANDBREEDING
ANI
MALBREEDI
NG2
Byt
heendoft
hissub-
topi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scussanimali
mprov ementpr
ogrammesinani
malbreedi
ng.
2.Di
scusstheimpl
icat
ionsofgeneti
cengi
neer
ingi
nli
vestock
pr
oducti
on.

Ani
mal
impr
ovement
 Animalimpr ovementi stheprocessofenhancingproducti
oneff
iciencyofan
ani
mal bygenet i
cmeans.
 I
tinvol
vest het ransferofsuper
iori
tytr
ait
sthatareheri
tabl
efr
om par ent
sto
off
spri
ng.
 Animalimpr ovementcanbeachi evedthr
ought hef
oll
owingprogrammes.
o Cross- breeding
o Ou t-breeding
o Up -grading
o Ba ck-breeding
o Inbreedi ng

1.Cr
oss-
breedi
ng
 Crossbreedingiswhent woani malsofdiffer
entbreedsmat etoproduceahy bri
d.
 Superi
ormal esofonebr eedaremat edwithsuperiorfemal esofanot herbreed.
 I
tisdonet oimprov et
heov eral
lperf
ormanceoft heof fspring(progeny).
 Cross-
br eedingisalsodonet oproducenewbr eeds,forexampl eBrafordisacross
betweenHer efordandBr ahman.
 Therearet wor easonstoconsiderincrossbreedi
ngandt hesear ecompl ementary
andhy bridvi
gour( het
erosis)
.
 Breedcompl ement ari
tyisthecombiningofdesi r
ablechar acteri
sti
csbet weentwo
breedstopr oduceanof fspri
ngthatisofeconomi cimpor tance.
  Heterosisisthemeasureofsuper iorperf
ormancebetweenanoffspr
ing(crossbr
ed)
andthepar ents(
purebred)inv
olvedi nthecross.
 Forexampl eacrossbet weenAngusandHer ef
ordmaygener
all
ygrowf ast
erthan
ei
theroft hetwobreeds.
 Heterosisisexpr
essedasaper centageoftheav er
ageper
for
manceoft he
purebreds.

o Thegener
alf
ormul
aisasf
oll
ows:

Het
erosi
s(%)=Cr
ossbredaver
age-
Purebr
edaver
agePur
ebredaverage×100
 Theweani ngweightofAnguscal
fis170kg,
Heref
ordcalf175,
AngusxHerefor
d
crossbred179kg.Calcul
atet
hepercent
ageofhet
erosi
sbetweentheof
fspr
ingand
theparents.

Pur
ebr
edav
erage=170+1752=172.
5kg.
o Cr
ossbr
edav
erage=179kg.

Het
erosi
s(%)=179kg-
172.
5kg172.
5kg×100
 Thehet
erosi
sforwei
ghtwi
l
lbe3.
77%

Adv
ant
agesofcr
ossbr
eedi
ng

 Crossbr
edanimalsperf
orm betterthananyoft hepar entalpurebr
eds.
 Acrossbreedoff
spri
ngismor eferti
lethanitsparentalpurebreds.
 Crossbreedi
ngall
owsproductionofnewbr eedsthroughcombi ngimpor
tanttr
ait
s.
 Crossbr
edscanbeadapt edtodifferentenv
ironmental conditi
onswhichpurebr
eds
cannotadapt.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcr
ossbr
eedi
ng

 Poorqual i
tyani
mal scanbepr oducedifther
ei snocaref
ulatt
enti
ongi v
ent othe
pedigreeofanimals.
 Thereisriskofdystociai
fverylargeanimalsarecrossedwit
hsmal lanimals.
 Lossofher dunif
ormi t
ywhichnegat i
velyaff
ectsherdmanagement .
 Thereisneedt opurchasereplacementstockatr egul
ari
nter
valst
omai nt
ain
purebreds.
 Mayr esulti
nanimal di
scomfor t
,forexamplelargeuddersi
zesindairycows.
Out
-br
eedi
ng
 Outbreedi
ngreferstot hemat i
ngofunrelatedanimals,ei
theroft
hesamebreed
wit
hnocommonancest ororbetweendiff
erentbreeds.
 Out-
breedi
ngisdonewi thanimalsthathavedesirablet
rai
tsandthosewit
hless
desi
rablet
rai
tstoincreaset hedegreeofdesirabl
et r
ait
s.
 Outbreedi
ngisappliedt oanimalsbelowav er
agepr oduct
ivi
tyandgrowt
hrate.
 I
tisalsousedtoov ercomei nbreedi
ngdepression.
 Out-
breedi
ngcanbecl assif
iedintotwomajorclasses:
o Ou t
-br
eedingwi thinabreed.
o Ou t
-br
eedingbet weent wobreeds

Adv
ant
agesofout
-br
eedi
ng

 I
ncr
easedgrowthrate,weani ngandcarcasswei
ght
.
 I
ncr
easedresi
stancetodi seases.
 Cov
ersthedef
ectsofr ecessivelet
halgenes.
 I
ncr
easesgeneti
cv ari
ancewi t
hinl
i
nes.

Di
sadv
ant
ageofout
-br
eedi
ng

 Fer
ti
li
tyoft
heof
fspr
ingmaybel
ost
.

Up-
gradi
ng
 Ital
soreferst ot hesequent ialuseofpur ebredani malsov eraseri
esofgener ati
on
toprovi
deanof fspri
ngt hatiscl oset othesi r
e( purebred).
 Thegenet i
cmakeupoft heof fspr i
ngoft hef i
rstgenerationar ehalfthepur ebredof
thesir
e.
 Thedaught ersoft hefi
rstgener at ionar emat edbackt oanot hersireofthesame
breedresulti
ngi n34oft hepur ebr ed.
 Thenex tgener ationwillbe78oft hepur ebred.
 Thismat i
ngisr epeat edagai nandagai nuntilanear l
ypur ebredoffspri
ngi s
obtai
ned.
 Anearpur ebredani mal i
sobt ainedaf terfiv
et osi xgenerat i
onsofupgr ading.
 Upgradingresul tinimpr ovedper formanceofi nfer
iorbreedsbyi ncreasingt he
porti
onoft hesuper i
orgenesf rom t hebr eed.
 Theimpr ovementi sduet ohet er osisi nthef i
rstgeneration.
 Iti
salsodesi gnedt ocreatepur ebr eedsbymat ingsuccessi vegenerati
onsofnon-
descri
ptfemal est opuresires.
 Upgradingcanal sobedonet oconv er tonebr eedt oanothert hr
oughmat i
ng
successivegener ati
onoff emal esf rom thef i
rstgenerationt omalesoft hesecond
generati
on.
Adv
ant
agesofupgr
adi
ng

 Producespurebr eeds.
 Thev alueofgradedanimalsisimprov
ed.
 I
tprov esthebreedingpotent
ial
oftheexot
icsi
res.
 Upgradingisthefastestandeff
ecti
vewayofchangingl
owper
for
manceher
ds.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofupgr
adi
ng

 Upgradi
ngisnotpr acti
caltothear easthatarenotsuit
ableforexoti
cbr eeds.
 Gradedsir
eswillnotbeusef ulforbreedingpurposes.
 Genesintheorigi
nal f
oundationofabr eedmaybel ost
.
 Superi
orbreedisdowngr adedwhi lsttr
yingtoupgradetheinfer
iorbreed.
 Upgradedanimalsmaynotadaptt othelocalenvi
ronmentalcondit
ionsav ai
labl
e
andmayper for
m wor sethant heinferi
orbreed.

Back-
breedi
ng
 Backbr eedi nginvolvest hematingofunr elatedanimalsandt henmat i
ngbackt he
off
springt ot heirparents.
 Fir
stly
, twopur ebredst hatarenotr elatedar emat edtogi v
eacr ossbr
ed.
 Thecr ossbr edof f
springi smatedbackt ooneoft hepurebr ed( par
ent)
,butnotthe
exactpar ent .
 Back-breedi ngiscommonl yusedingenet icstudi
esandcommer ci
alcatt
le
operations.
 Thisbreedi ngsy stem, wherebyproduct i
vef emaleoffspri
ngar ematedtosuperior
si
rescanbepr actisedf orseveralgener ati
ons.
 Thisbreedi ngsy stem isusedt oincor porateaspeci f
ictraittoaher dorbreedthat
l
ackst het rait,
atthesamet i
memai ntainingselecti
vetrait
si nthatbreed.
 Howev er ,
repeat eduseofback- br
eedi ngmayr esulti
nlossofsomehy bri
dv i
gour
tr
aitsinlatergener ations.

I
nbr
eedi
ng
 Inbreedingr efer
st omat i
ngofclosel
yrelatedindividualswi thoneormor ecommon
ancest ors.
 Thecl osert herel
at i
onshipbetweentheanimal s,
thegr eatertheinbreeding
coefficient.
 Inbreedingcoef fi
cientisthemeasureoft heamountofi nbreedingint heoff
spri
ng.
 Inamor escient
ifi
cwayi nbreedi
ngcoeffici
entreferst ot heprobabili
tythattwo
i
dent i
cal genesar efoundatt hesamelocuswi thi
nt heof fspri
ng.
 Inbreedingcoef fi
cientvari
esbetween0-1andi susual lyexpressedasaper cent
age.
 Thehi gherv alueindicat
esthattheparentsareclosel yr el
ated.
 Inbreedingdepr essioncanbeexpl ai
nedast hedecr easei ntheperformanceoft he
offspring.
 Inbreedingdepr essionhast hegreat
esteffectonr epr oductiveandpr oducti
vetr
ait
s.
 I
nbr
eedi
ngisclassi
fi
edint
otwobasedoni
nbr
eedi
ngcoef
fi
cient
.
o Closei
nbreeding
o Li
ne-br
eeding

Cl
osei
nbr
eedi
ng
 Closei
nbreedi
ngisthemat
ingbet
weenv er
ycl
oselyrel
atedanimal
s.
 Forexampleful
lbr
other
swithf
ull
sist
ersorof
fspr
ingarecrossedwit
hthei
r
parent
s.

Li
nebr
eedi
ng
 Linebreedi
ngisthemati
ngofani malswit
hinagr oupofrel
atedani
malsofthe
samebr eed.
 Inthi
ssy st
em ani
malsarerepeatedl
yback-crossedtooneoutst
andi
ngancestor
suchthatit
scontri
but
iontot heoff
spri
ngisincreased.
 Linebreedi
ngshouldbepract i
cedi
naherdt hathassuperi
orfemal
esand
outst
andingsir
estoavoi
di nbreedi
ngdepression.

Adv
ant
agesofi
nbr
eedi
ng

 Favoursgeneti
cunifor
mi t
y.
 Promotesanincreaseintheabi
l
ityofani
ndi
vi
dual
toconsi
stent
lypassoni
ts
charact
eri
sti
cs.
 Eli
minatesdel
eteri
oustrait
s.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
nbr
eedi
ng

 Resultinov eral
l r
educti
oninperfor
mancel i
kerepr
oducti
veandpr
oduct
ive
eff
iciency .
 Lesspr of i
ttobreedersduereducedoveral
lperf
ormance.
 Lower sr esi
stancetodiseasesandparasit
es.
 Dif
ficulttoidentif
ythestageatwhichbreedingmustbestoppedt
oavoi
d
i
nbreedi ngdepr essi
on.

Genet
icengi
neer
ing
 Geneti
cengi neeri
ngr efer
stot hemodi fi
cation,manipul
ati
onandrecombinat
ionof
DNAi nanor ganism genomeusi ngbiotechnology.
 Thisprocessal lowsf orthestructureofthegenet obechanged.
 Ne wtrait
sinanor ganism arepr oducedbyaddi ngdesir
edtrai
tsi
ntonucl
eusofan
eggoral r
eadydev elopingcell
s.
 Thefollowingar ecommonmet hodsort echniquesusedingenet
icengi
neeri
ngin
l
ivest
ockpr oduct ion:
o Ar ti
fi
ci ali
nsemi nati
on
o Mu l
tipleov ul
ationembr yot r
ansfer(MOET)
 o Animal
cloning
o RecombinantDNAt
echnol
ogy

1.Ar
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
ion
 Arti
fi
ciali
nsemi nati
oni stheprocessofcol l
ectingsper m cell
sandi ntr
oducingit
i
ntothef emal er eproductiv
et r
acttoachievepr egnancy.
 Thepr ocessinv olvescollecti
onofsemenf rom thesire.
 Maleswi thdesi rabletr
aitsareusedt osuppl ysemenf orinsemi nation.
 Progenyt esti
ngi susual l
yusedt oselectmal esforarti
fici
alinsemi nation.
 Arti
fi
ciali
nsemi nati
oni soneoft heimpor t
antt echni
quesusedt oimpr ovethe
geneti
cqual it
yofani mals.
 Thistechniquei nvolvessemencol l
ecti
on,processing, f
reezing,storing,thawi
ng
andinsemi nati
ng.
 I
nZi mbabwear ti
fi
ciali
nsemi nati
onhasbeusedi ndairy,beefandpi gproducti
on
andisext ensivelyappliedindairyanimals.

2.Mul
ti
pleov
ulat
ionembr
yot
ransf
er(
MOET)
 Mul t
ipl
eov ulationembr yot r
ansferist heremov alofanembr yofrom af emale
animal t
hathassuper i
orgenesandt hepl acementoft heembr yointothe
reproducti
vet ractofanot herfemaleofav eragegenet ics.
 Mul t
ipl
eov ulationembr yot r
ansferinvolvest heuseofsuper -
ovulati
on,fert
ili
sati
on,
embr yorecov eryandi nv i
tr
ocul t
ureofembr yos,embr yof r
eezingandt ransfer.
 Iti
sanef fectivewayi ni mprovingther eproduct iv
ecy cleandef fi
ciencyoff emale
animals.
 Femal eanimal spr oducemor eeggst hant heyneedi nt heirl
ifet
ime, t
herefore
harvesti
ngt hoseeggsf orferti
li
sati
oni susef ul i
nreduci ngthegener ati
oninterval
withinacertainbr eed.
 Thef ol
li
clest i
mul ati
nghor monei susedt oinducet her eleaseofsev eraleggs
withinonecy cle.
 Theeggsar ef ert
il
isedbymat i
ngorar ti
fi
cialinsemination.

Theembr
yosaretr
ansfer
redint
osurr
ogatepar
ent
swhi
char
e
att
hesamestageofthei
rcycl
ebutnotyetmat
e.
 Theembr
yost
obeusedl
aterf
ori
nsemi
nat
ionmayal
sobest
oredl
i
kesemen.

3.Embr
yocl
oni
ng
 Cloningr
eferstotheproduct
ionofor
gani
smst
hatar
egeneti
cal
l
yident
icalt
oa
si
nglecommonancest or.
 Therearetwomet hodsthatcanbeusedt
ocl
oneani
mals,
embryospli
tt
ingand
nucleart
ransfer
.
 Embryosplitti
ngr eferstot hepr ocesst hatincludesthebisect
ingoftheembryoat
anearl
ystageofdev elopmentt ogener atetwinsandt hi
soccur snat
ural
ly
.
 Nucl
eartransf eri sthepr ocesswher ethegenet icmateri
alfr
om onecelli
splaced
i
ntoanunf erti
lisedegg( r
ecipient )thathashadi tsgeneti
cmat eri
alr
emov ed.
 Cl
oninghasbeencommonl yused:
o Tor emov egenet icvariationi nanimal s.
o F orr apidpr oductionofi nbr edlines.
o Toc opyout standingt r
aitsi nani malsf orbreedi
ng.
 However,cloninghasi tsownshor tfal
lsandt hesear e:
o Ve ryl owr atesofsuccess.
o E xpensi v eandcumber some.
o Pr obl emsofembr yocul turingandt r
ansf er.
o So memet hodspr oducef emal esonly .

4.Recombi
nantDNAt
echnol
ogy
 Recombi nantDNAt echnol ogyrefer
st othecombi ningofherit
ablematerialby
i
nsertingi tintoDNA.
 Desiredgenesar eassembl edandjoinedt oapieceofchr omosomesot hatthey
arereplicatedf orfurtheruse.
 Animal st hathav etheirgenesal t
eredt hr
oughintroductionofdesir
edtraitsare
call
edt ransgeni c.
 Therear et hreemet hodsofcr eat
ingtransgenicani malsandtheseare
microinjection,retr
oviralvectorsandembr yoni
cst em cell
s
 Withgenet i
cengi neering,specifi
ctrai
tscanbei ncor porat
edinapopulationbreed
i
nasi nglegener ati
onr atherthansev eralgener
ations.
 Therear esomei mplicati
onsassoci atedwi t
hgenet i
cengineeri
nginli
vestock
product i
on.

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsofgenet
icengi
neer
ing
Posi
ti
vei
mpl
i
cat
ions
 I
ncreasediseaseresist
ance,
producti
vit
y,har
diness,
andf
eedef
fi
ciency.
 Al
lowsf orbet
teryi
eldsofmeat,eggs,andmilk.
 I
mpr ovesanimalhealthanddi
agnosti
cmet hods.
 Pr
ov i
deanimal modelsforst
udyofhumandi seases.
 Tr
ansgenicanimalscanbeusedf orproducti
onofhumanphar
maceut i
cal
s.

Negat
ivei
mpl
i
cat
ions
 Geneti
cengi neer
ingthr
oughcl oni
ngandrecombinantDNAtechnol
ogycanbe
dangerousandv eryhar
mf ul.
 Wh enengineeri
nganimalsthenatural
ecosystem canbedi
stur
bed.
 Someani mal sdi
einexperimentswhil
eothersareborndef
ormed.
 Ani
malsmayli
veinoddcondi
ti
onst
hataff
ectt
hei
rnatur
alwayofl
i
fe.
 Mosti
nject
edeggsdonotendupcr
eat
ingali
vi
nganimal.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.I
denti
fythebenefi
tsassoci
atedwit
hthebr
eedi
ngpr
ogr
ammeinthatarea.
2.Wri
tedownt hepossi
blechall
engesbei
ngf
acedbyt
hefar
merwhenpracti
singt
he
i
denti
fi
edbreedingprogr
amme.

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o Form6

 Topi
cs

 Act
ivi
ti
es

1:
BACKGROUNDTOANI MALSCIENCE
2:
ANATOMYANDPHYSI OLOGY
3:
NUTRITI
ON
4:
GENETICSANDBREEDING
MATI
NGSYSTEMS
Byt
heendoft
hissub-
topi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Descr
ibedi
ff
erentt
ypesofmat
ingsy
stemsi
nani
mal
 pr
oduct
ion.

Mat
ingsy
stem
 Mati
ngsystem i
sawayinwhichani
malsar
egroupedi
nrel
ati
ontocopulat
ion.
 Mati
ngsystemscanbeclassi
fi
edi
ntot
wocategori
eswhi
charenat
uraland
ar
ti
fi
cial
system.

Nat
ural
mat
ingsy
stem
 Natural
mat i
ngsy st
em isawayi nwhi
chmalegamet es(semen)ar
eintr
oduced
i
ntothefemal e’
sreproduct
ivet
ractt
hroughor
dinar
ycopulati
on.
 I
nanimal producti
onwehav ethreet
ypesofnat
uralsyst
emsnamel yf
lock,
group
andindi
vidualorhandmat i
ng.

1.Fl
ockmat
ing
 Mal esandf emal esareputandl efttogetherinanencl osur eunt i
lthemat i
ng
seasoni sov er.
 Thissy st
em i scommonl ypracti
cedi next ensiv
ef armingsy stem.
 Inthissystem freshmal esshouldbei ntroducedwhi let akingoutot hersf orarest
.
 Ingoatpr oductiont heram tobuckr atiois1: 3andmal et ofemal erati
oi ncattl
eis
1:25.
 Teasersirescanbeputi ntheflockpr iortomat i
ngt ost imul atesexualact i
vi
tyand
detectdoesonheat .
 Mal esshouldbeol denought obeusedi nmat i
ngf oropt imum per for
mance, 5-
7
mont hsinsmal l
-st
ockand18- 24mont hsi ncatt
le.
 Inhotweat her ,
mal esar eseparatedf r
om f emalesdur i
ngt hedayandj oinedonly
duringtheni ghttoav oi
dheatst ress.
 Al i
ttl
echangei nbodyt emperatur emayr educespermat ogenesisandl ibido.
 Topr eventheatst ressinsheeppr oduction,ramsshoul dbeshear ed6-8mont hs
beforemat ingandt hescrotum shoul dbef reefrom wool .
 Adequat ewat erandshadeshoul dbepr ov i
deddur i
ngt hemat ingseason.

Adv
ant
agesoff
lockmat
ing

 Requi
resl
esslabour
,ti
meandmoney .
 Easi
ertomanage.
 Moremalesareavai
labl
eifal
argenumberoff
emal
escomeonheatatt
hesame
ti
me.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoff
lockmat
ing

 Mal
escanser
veonef
emal
erepeat
edl
yresul
ti
ngi
nlowf
ert
il
it
yrat
e.
 Malesarei
ncl
inedtofi
ghtandasar esul
tweakmalescanbeinj
uredbystr
ong
males.
 Nop r
operr
ecordscanbekeptwi t
hregar
dstooff
spri
ngofdif
fer
entmales.
 I
nfert
il
emalescannotbeident
if
ied.

2.Gr
oupmat
ing
 Inthi
smat ingsy st
em al argef l
ockofanimal
si sdi
v i
dedintosmal lgroups.
 Thesegr oupedanimal sarepl acedinpensorcampsf ormat i
ng.
 Groupmat ingismai nlypracti
cedwher ether
ei sacampi ngsy stem.
 Thenumberoff emal esandt henumberofmal estobepl acedi nacampi s
determinedbyt opography, si
zeofthecamp, sexdriveandmat ingpot enti
alofa
sir
e.
 Insheepandgoatpr oductiononer am/buckcanbepl acedt oser ve40ewes/ does
i
nagr oup.
 Ingroupmat inganimal sarenor mall
yearmar kedortaggedsot hatt hefarmerwil
l
knowt hesireusedandt hepar ent
softheoffspri
ng.
 Groupmat ingisusual l
ypracticedbystudbreederstoaccesst hebr eedingpotent
ial
ofbothani mals.

Adv
ant
agesofgr
oupmat
ing

 Si
rescanbeusedeffect
ivel
y.
 Mati
ngandprogenytest
ingcanbepl
anned.
 Br
eedingpot
enti
alofaram canbei
dent
ifi
ed.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofgr
oupmat
ing

 Cost
lysincei
trequir
esmor ecampsformati
ng.
 I
fthesir
ei si
nfer
ti
leorbecomesinf
erti
l
e,t
herewil
lbenoof f
spr
ing.
 Lar
gelossescanbei ncur
redift
hesi
rebecomesinfer
ti
le.

3.I
ndi
vi
dual
mat
ing
 Inthissy st
em asi r
eandadam ar eplacedi namat ingpensot hattheycan
naturall
ycopul ate.
 Teaserbul lsareusedt omakedamsr unfor15-20mi nutest wicedail
yt oi denti
fy
damst hatareonheat .
 Damsf oundt obei nst andingheatar esepar at
edf r
om ot hersandputi ntosmal l
pensneart heindividual si
repen.
 Afterrecordspr epar ati
on,thedam onheati stakent ot hemat ingpen( i
ndi v
idual
sir
epen)t oall
owmat ingtotakepl ace.
 Eachdam i smat edwi t
hacer tai
nsi r
et hati
snotr el
at edt oittoavoidi nbreeding.
 Insomecasest heani malsarehandmat edbyt hest ockmanorhandl er.
 Insheeppr oductiont heewei smat edt wicein24hour swi ththesamer am.
 Iti
sdonei nthemor ningandaf t
ernoonwhenst andingheati sobservedi nthe
 morning.
 Thi
shel psinknowi ngtheexpectedlampi
ngtimeandthesir
eresponsi
blefort
he
off
spring.
 Teaserbullsarealsousedtoi dent
if
ythedamswhof ai
ltoconceiv
eaftermati
ng.
 Thedam i sgivenanothersi
ref ort
hesecondti
me,i
fitfai
lst
oconceiveagaini
t
meansi t’
sinfert
il
eandi twi
llbecull
ed.
 I
fitconceivesitmeanst hefi
rstsir
eisinf
ert
il
eanditwil
lbecull
ed.

Adv
ant
agesofi
ndi
vi
dual
mat
ing

 Goodut i
li
sati
onofthesire.
 Sir
escanbepr ogenytestedandt hosewit
ht hebestperformancescanbeused
extensi
vely
.
 Nodomi nanceorfighti
ng,t
heref
or ethepossibil
i
tyofsir
ei nj
uryi
sreduced.
 Inf
erti
leanimal
scanbequi cklyi
dentifi
edandr emovedfrom thebreedi
ngstock.
 Mat i
ngpotenti
alofsir
escanber ecordedandexcel l
entrecordscanbekept.
 Fewsi r
esarerequir
edandt husfacil
it
atethebuy i
ngofgoodones.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
ndi
vi
dual
mat
ing

 Requiresi ntensi
velabourandt i
me.
 Diffi
culttohandl ealargenumberofanimals.
 Itisdif
ficulttomanageal ar
genumberofanimal
sift
heyareonheatatt
hesame
time.
 Sp eci
al pensar esomet i
mer equi
redf
orhandmati
ng,hencei
tbecomescost
lyt
o
constructt hoseextrapens.

Ar
ti
fi
cial
mat
ingsy
stem
 Art
if
ici
almati
ngistheint
roduct
ionofmalegamet
esintot
hefemal
erepr
oducti
ve
tr
actusi
nginst
ruments.
 Art
if
ici
alI
nseminat
ionistheonl
yarti
fi
cial
mati
ngsyst
em usedi
nani
malproduct
ion.

1.Ar
ti
fi
cial
Insemi
nat
ion(
AI)
 Arti
fi
cialinsemi nat i
oninv ol
vesthecollecti
onofsemenf rom thesir
eand
i
ntroducingt hem i ntothef emalerepr
oduct i
vetractwiththeaidofinstr
uments.
 Semeni scol lectedf rom abullofdesirabl
echar act
erist
icsandstoredat1600Ci n
l
iquidnitr
ogensot hatitcanbeusedl ater
.
 Semeni spl acedi napl ast i
cstr
aw, whichisthenstoredincanesi nsi
deal i
qui
d
nit
rogent ank.
 Apartfrom pr operst orageofsemenst raws,afarmerorpr oducershouldbeablet
o
detectanimal sonst andingheatforAIt obemor esuccessful
.
 I
ncows, unfer t
il
isedeggsl i
veonlyforashor tti
meaf terbeingrel
easedfrom t
he
 ov ary ,ther efor ecowsshoul dbei nsemi nated12- 18hour saf teroest rus.
 Cowsonheatwi ll standst i
llwhenmount edbyot herani mal s.
 Frequentur inat i
on, restlessness, clearmucousdi schar geandswol lenv ul
v aar ethe
signsofcowsonheat .
 Mount ingot hercows, reducedf eedi ntakeandsl ightdecr easei nmi lkpr oduct ion
aresomeoft hesi gnsobser v edi ndai rycowsonheat .
 Whenheati sdet ectedi nt hemor ning, cowsshoul dbei nsemi nat edi nt heaf t
ernoon
thatsameday .
 Whencowsbecomeonheati nt heev ening, theyshoul dbei nsemi nat edt he
followi ngmor ningandt hisisdonet oachi evet hehi ghestr at eofconcept ion.
 Thi si sal sodonebecausecowsusual lyov ul
at eaf terst andi ngheat .
 Properhandl i
ngf aci li
ti
essuchashol dingorhandl ingpensi samust ,toav oid
stressi ngt heani mal sandt opr ev enti njuryi ncowsandt heoper ator .
 Whenpr epar i
ngsemenf orAI , st rawi sr emov edf r om t het ankandpl acedi nawar m
wat erbat habout35° C-37° Cf orami nute.
 Frozensemenst rawsshoul dnotbeexposedt oai rf ormor et han20secondsas
thismayl owert hef ertili
tyoft hesemen.
 Semeni ssev er elyhar medbyhi ght emper atures, col dshocks, met als,soaps, aci
ds
andwat er.
 Thest rawi swr appedi napapert owel andshakensot hatt heai rbubbl ewi llbeon
onesi deandt hesemenont heot herend.
 Itist hencutusi ngast r
awcut t ert omakeasquar ecutendsucht hati twi l
l befit
ted
i
nt ot hesheat h.
 Thesheat hi sf ittedi ntot hei nsemi nat i
onr odandt ranspor tedt ot hecow.
 Insemi nat ionshoul doccurwi thi n15mi nut esaf tersement hawi ngt oav oidcol d
shocks.
 Thev ulvashoul dbecl eanedbef or ei nsemi nationt oav oidi ntr oduct i
onofmanur e
andot hercont ami nant st other epr oduct ivet ract.
 Thehandsshoul dbel ubr i
cat edwi thwat erormi l
dl ubr icat i
onssuchasK- YJel l
y.
 Soapanddet ergent sar enotadv isabl ebecauset heyar ei rritatingandmayhar m
thesper m.
 Theoper atorshoul dinser tthegr oov edhandi ntot her ect um andgr aspert hecer vi
x.
 Thei nsemi nationr odi st heni nser t
edi ntot hev agi nat ot heut erust hrought he
cer vix.
 Semeni st hendeposi tedi ntot heut erusandt her odi sr emov edf rom t hecow’ s
repr oduct i
v et ractatt hesamet i
met hehandi sal sor emov edf r
om t her ectum.
 Equi pmentshoul dbepr oper l
ycl eanedandst er i
li
sedaf teri nsemi nat ion.
 Theyshoul dbecl eanedorboi ledi ndi stil
ledwat erbef oreai rorov endr i
ed.
 Theequi pmentcanbedi sinfect edwi thal cohol orot herdi sinf ect ants.

Fi
g4.
51 Ar
ti
fi
cial
Insemi
nat
ion

Adv
ant
agesofAI
 Thenumberofsi restobemanagedatt hefarmi sreduced.
 Thecostofmai ntenanceofbr eedingbull
sissav ed.
 Semencol l
ectedisscreenedf orsexuall
ytransmitteddiseases,henceitpr
events
thespreadofdiseases.
 Semenofhi ghqualit
yisav ai
labletoalargegroupofani mal s.
 Thesemenofsuper i
orqual i
tyanddesi r
ablecharacter
isti
cscanbeusedev enaft
er
thesirei
salreadydead.
 I
tcanbedi stri
butedinlargeareaswi t
houtbuy i
ngbul l
s.
 Old,heavyweightandinjuredbullsthatcannotmountcanbeusedt hroughAI.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofAI

 I
trequir
esmor etimet hannaturalmat i
ng.
 AIrequi
reswell-
tr
ainedoper at
orsandspeci alequi
pmentforhandl
ingandstor
age
ofsemen.
 I
nt heabsenceofproperr ecor
dkeepi ng,chancesofinbreedi
ngarehigh.
 Someundesi r
abletrai
tsmayspr eadwidely.
 Poorhygieneconditi
onsandi mpr opercleaningofequi
pmentmayl eadtolower
fer
til
i
ty.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Wri
tedownt hechal
lengesbei
ngencount
eredbythepr
oducerwhenpracti
singt
he
i
denti
fiedmati
ngsystem.
2.Vi
sitanydai
ryfar
m andobservet
hestepsinvol
vedwhencarr
yingoutar
ti
fi
cial
i
nseminati
on.

ENDOFLOWERSI
XSYLLABUSCONTENT
ANI
MALHEALTH

1-Fact
orst
hati
nfl
uenceani
mal
diseases

o 2-Bacteri
aldisease-Ant hrax
o 3-Vir
al di
sease-I nfect
iousbur saldi
sease(IBD)
o 4-Bacteri
aldisease-Bl ackl
eg
o 5-Bacteri
aldisease-Cont agiousabor t
ion
o 6-Vir
al di
sease-Newcast le
o 7-Vir
al di
sease-Footandmout h
o 8-Vir
al di
sease-Lumpyski n
o 9-Protozoandi sease-Redwat er
o 10-Protozoandi sease-Tr y
panosomi asis/Nagana
o 11-Protozoandi sease-Cocci diosi
s
o 12-Rickett
siadi sease-Heartwat er
o 13-Animal parasites
o 14-I
mmuni ty
o 15-Legisl
ation3: ANIMALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngani
mal
diseases
 Numer
ousphy
sical
,bi
ologi
cal
andsoci
o-economi
cfact
orsi
nfl
uenceani
mal
 di
seases.
 Thesefactorsincl
udeenv ir
onmental
f act
ors,hy
giene,pat
hogenicorganismsand
nutri
ti
onaldefi
cienci
es.
 Therearethreemai nfactor
sthati
nfl
uencet heoccurr
enceofadi seaseinani
mals
andthesear e:
o Ho st
o Ag ent
o E nvi
ronment
 Thesefactorsareill
ustr
atedinFi
g.5.1.1i
nt hefor
m ofatriangl
e(epidemiol
ogi
cal
tr
iad).

Fi
g.5.
1.1 Epi
demi
ologi
cal
tri
ad

 Hosti stheani mal t

hatcont r
actsthedisease.
 Age, geneticmakeup, levelofexposureandt heanimal '
sst ateofhealth,i
nfluencea
host’ssuscept i
bil
itytodevelopingadisease.
 Th eagenti sthefactorthatcausesthedi sease(bact eria,vir
us,parasi
te,fungusor
chemi calpoison),oneormor eagentsmaybei nvol
v ed.
 Th eenvironmenti ncl
udessur roundi
ngsandcondi t
ionsei t
herwi t
hinthehostor
external.Theenv i
ronmentmayweakent hehostandi ncreaseitsvulnerabil
it
yto
diseasesorpr ovidecondi t
ionsthatfavourthesurvival oftheagent .

Env
ironment
alf
act
ors
 Envi
ronmentalfact
orsthatinfl
uenceanimaldi
seasesaretemperatur
e,humidi
ty
andmoisture.
 Thesefactorscont
ri
butetot heoccur
renceofdiseases.
 Envi
ronmentalchangesaffecttheabundanceanddistri
but
ionofanimals.

1.Temper
atur
e
 Temper atureist heintensi tyordegr eeofheat .
 Hightemper aturesi ncr easet her ateofdev el
opmenti npat
hogens.
 I
ncreasei ntemper atureaf f
ectsbot ht hedi str
ibutionandt heabundanceofv ect
ors.
 Hightemper aturesal socauseheatst resstoani mal s.
 Heatstressweakensani mal compet enceandr educesani mal vi
gour .
 Thisincreasest hev ulner abili
tyoft heani maltopat hogenact i
vit
y .
 Hightemper aturesi ndai ryproduct i
onl eadtoahi ghpar asit
icinfestationandthe
animalsbecomesuscept ibletomast i
ti
s.
 Otherpat hogensar esensi t
ivetohi ght emper aturesandt heirsurvivalmay
decreasewi thtemper at ureincrease.
 Lowert emper aturesal soi ncreasear thropodcompet ency.
 Thisisbecauset heyi ncr easet heirfeedi ngrateinor dertoregulatet heirbody
temperaturetot heext ernal environment .
 Thisweakenst heani mal i
mmunesy stem.
Pr
ocedur
eoft
aki
ngt
emper
atur
eonani
mal
susi
ngal
cohol
ther
momet
er

 Checkt healcohol l
evelofthet hermomet erbeforeusi
ngit.
 I
ft heal cohol leveli
snotclosert othebul b,shakethether
momet ert
omaket he
l
ev elgodown.
 Cont roltheani mal .
 Mov et ailoftheani mal t
ot hesi de.
 Putt het hermomet ergentl
yi ntother ectum.
 Hol dthet hermomet eratanangl esot hatittouchesthewalloft
herect
um.
 Keepaf i
rm gr i
pont hethermomet erandhol dthethermometeri
nplacefornotl
ess
thanami nute.
 Remov et het hermomet erandwi peitifnecessary.
 Readandr ecor dthetemper ature.

Pointst
onote:Donottouchthebul
bofthether
momet erast
his
couldchanget
hereading.
Cleanthether
momet erwit
hcoldwateranddi
si
nfecti
tsoon
aft
erusage.

Fi
g.5.
1.2 Readi
ngt
het
emper
atur
eresul
tsofagoat

2.Humi
dit
y
 Humi dit
yist heamountofwat erv apouri ntheai r.
 Theuni tofmeasur ementf orhumi dityisgr
amspercubi cmet r
e.
 Higherhumi ditywi llgenerallymakeani mal
sf eel warmerandl owerhumi dit
ywi l
l
makeani mal sf eel cooler
.
 Highhumi dityr educest heabi li
tyofani malst ouseev apor at
iontodi ssi
pateheat
ther ebyi ncr easi ngheatst ress.
 Rel ativehumi dityact sasadet ermi nantofincidenceofdi seasesbychangi ng
aer osol sset tlingrat e.
 Ov erhy drationi ncr easesthemor t ali
tyofchickenembr y
osdur ingincubati
on.
 Rel ativehumi dityismeasur edt odet erminewhet hertheani mal r
espirat
ory
disor der sar eduet ohighort ool owr el
ati
vehumi dit
y.
 Highr elativehumi dityi
ncreasest hegr owthofmostdi seasecausi ng
mi croor gani sms.
 Highhumi dityr esultsinlower edconcept i
onr atesanddef enseagai nstmastit
is.
 Ther eforet heoccur r
enceandpr ev al
enceofi nfecti
ousdi seasesi ssensiti
veto
relativ ehumi dity.

Howt
omeasur
ehumi
dit
y

 Humidit
yismeasuredusi
ngahygromet
er.
 Ahygrometershowstheper
cent
ageofwaterv
apouri
ntheat
mospher
e.
  Ahygromet ercontai
nswetanddr ybul bthermomet ers.
 Drybulbther momet ersarecommont hermomet erswhi l
ewetbulbthermometer
s
haveamoi stenedpieceofcot t
onorcl othwr appedar oundt
hebot t
om.
 Boththermomet ersshouldbeshookt omakesur ethatthemercuryisdowninthe
bul
bs.
 Soakacot tonbal li
nwat erandtapei taroundt hewetbul bt
hermomet er.
 Setthewetanddr ybul bther
momet erinthesamepl ace.
 Waitforsev eralhours,i
fnotovernight.
 Readthet emper aturesofbothwetanddr ybul
bt hermometers.
 Recordthet emper atur
es.

Fi
g.5.
1.3 Hy
gromet
er

3.Moi
stur
e
 Pathogensandpar asi tesaresensi t
iveandbehav ediff
erent
lytomoi standdr y
condi tions.
 Mostpar asitespr oliferateinmoi stconditi
ons.
 Manydi arrhoeal di seasesar eassociatedwi t
ht hepresenceofmoi stur
e.
 Thepr ev alenceofdi seasescausedbyspor ef ormingbacteriaforexampl ebotuli
sm
andant hraxi ncreasei nwet terconditi
ons.
 Thepr ev alenceofendemi cdiseasest r
ansmit t
edbyf aecal-
oralroutesincreasein
moi stcondi tions.
 Rainf allaffect sv ect orabundancebyi ncreasingv ect
oractivi
ty,thusaccelerati
ng
ther epr oduct ivecy cle.
 Duringt her ainyseasont hereishightickprolif
erati
onwhi chresultstodiseaseslike
thyl
er iosisandbabesi osis.
 Ther efor ear easwi thhi ghmoi sturecontenthav eahi gherdiseasepr ev
alence.

Measur
ingr
ainf
all

 Araingaugeisusedt omeasur er
ainfal
l
.
 Therearefourtypesofgauges:
1.Graduatedcy l
i
nder(cal
ledstandardordi
rectr
eadi
nggauge)
.
2.Tippingbucket.
3.Weighinggauges.
4.Opticalgauge.

Howt
omeasur
erai
nfal
lusi
ngagr
aduat
edcy
li
ndergauge

 Pl
acether ai
ngaugei nanopenspaceandfi
rml ymountonaconcr
etebase.
 Readthecollectedrainusingameasuri
ngdevicei
nsidet
herai
ngauge.
 Recor
dt herainfal
lreceiv
ed.
 Emptythecol l
ecti
ngf unnelandov
erf
lowcyl
inder.
 Readi
ngandr
ecor
dingofr
ainf
all
shoul
dbedonei
nthemor
ning.

Fi
g.5.
1.4 Rai
ngauge

Sui
tabl
est
ruct
urest
omodi
fyenv
ironment
alf
act
ors
 Theheightoft heencl osur es(cage, penorst all)shouldbet womet r
esandabov e
dependingwi tht heani mal species.
 Thisprov idemor ev olumei nsidetheencl osuref orbetteraer at
ion.
 Thef l
oorshoul dbeofconcr eteandcov eredwi thdrybeddi ngwhi chabsor bs
moisturef orexampl ewoodshav ings.
 Wallsshoul dbebui ltwi t
hbr i
cksf orf if
tycent i
met resandf enceabov ethebr i
cks.
 Thewal lsshoul dbecov eredwi t
hcur tainsforexampl etent s.
 Wheni tishott hecur t
ainsar epul leddownbel owt hebr ickwallstoletinfreshcold
air(
vent i
lat i
on)f r
om t het ophencer educi ngin-houset emper atures.
 Openingcur tainsf r
om bot tom onl yletsi nadr aftofcol dairwhichcauses
temperatur est osuddenl ydr opdown.
 Wheni tiscol dt het entsar epul l
edupwar dstoactasi nsulator
sincreasingin-
houset emper atures.
 Theencl osur esshoul dber oofedwi thasbest osori r
onsheet s(paintedinwhiteto
refl
ectheat )
.
 Roofspr ot ectani malsagai nstdirectsunl ightandr ain.
 Theencl osur esshoul dbespaci ousenoughsoast or educeov ercrowding.
 Adequat espaci ngai dsinmai ntainingt emper aturewi thi
nt hethermo- neut
ralzone.

Hy
giene
 Hy gieneisasetofcondi t
ionsorpr acti
cesconduct edt omai ntai
nahealthy
env i
ronment .
 Themostef f
ect i
vewayofmanagi ngdi seasesistopr eventanyinteract
ion
betweenpat hogensandani mals.
 Mat erial
s,containersorequi pmentbei ngusedshoul dbecl ean.
 Installandmai ntainaf ootbat hatev er
yent r
ance.
 Everyper sonorv ehi
cleent eri
ngtheani mal premisesshouldgot hr
oughaf oot
bat
h
orwheel bath,respecti
v el
y.
 Thedi sinfectantsoluti
oni schangedatl easteveryfortni
ght.
 Goodhy gienewi l
l si
gnifi
cant l
yreducelosses.
 Somedi seasescausedbypoorhy gienear ediar
rhoeaandsal monell
a.

Pat
hogeni
cor
gani
sms
 Apathogenisanyorgani
sm capabl
eofcausingdiseasest
oitshost
.
 Examplesofpathogensar
ebacteri
a,v
iruses,
prot
ozoaandr i
cket
tsi
a.
Bact
eri
a
 Bacteri
aar epr okaryoti
cor ganismsconsi sti
ngofasi nglecell
wi t
hasi mpl eint
ernal
str
ucture.
 Theyv aryinsi zeandshape.
 Theyar enumer ousinnat ureandt hemaj ori
tyarebenefici
al.
 Howev er,ther ear eotherbact eri
awhi chcausediseasest oanimal s.
 Bacteri
adi fferbasi ngonshape, oxy genneeds, abil
i
tytoabsor ba“ gram stai
n,”
abi
lit
yt oreleaset oxi
nsandt heabilitytoform spores.
 Bacteri
al spor esar eingestedbyani mal sduri
ngfeedingast heycansur viveinthe
soi
l f
orlongerper i
odsespeci all
yBaci l
lusanthr
acis.
 Acti
nobaci ll
osi sisalsoabact eri
aldi seasewhichiscausedbyi nfecti
onofani mal
woundsi flef tuntreated.
 Bacteri
acanal soaf f
ectani malsthr oughf oodpoisoning,f
orexampl ebot uli
sm
whichiscausedbyCl ostri
dium bot ulinum.

 Bact
eri
ali
nfect
ioncanmani
festi
ndi
ff
erentf
ormswhi
char
e:

1.Bact
eraemi
a
 I
tist
hepr
esenceofbact
eri
aint
hebl
oodst
ream.

2.Sept
icaemi
a
 I
tisthepresenceandmulti
pli
cat
ionofbact
eri
ainthebl
ood.
 I
tisaninfect
ioncausedbylar
geamountsofbacteri
aent
eri
ngt
hebl
oodst
ream.
 I
tisalsoknownasbl oodpoi
soni
ng.

3.Toxaemi
a
 I
tisbl
oodpoi
soni
ngbyt
oxi
nsf
rom al
ocal
bact
eri
ali
nfect
ion.

4.I
ntoxi
cat
ions
 I
toccurswhenspeci
fi
cpat
hogeni
cbact
eri
agr
owi
nthef
oodandr
eleaset
oxi
ns
i
ntothefood.

5.Toxi
co-
inf
ect
ion
 I
tisafoodbor neil
l
nesscausedbyi ngest
ingbacteri
athatproducetoxi
nswi
thi
nthe
di
gesti
vetract.
 Toxi
cinfecti
onsarechar
acteri
zedbybact er
iathatarenon-
invasi
veandcause
i
ll
nessbypr oduci
ngtoxi
nswhilegrowinginanimals.
 Theti
meofonseti sgeneral
lyshor
t,butnotalwayslongerthanthosefor
 i
ntoxi
cat
ions.

Fi
g.5.
1.5 Bact
eri
alcel
l

Vi
ruses
 Av irusisasmal linfect i
ousagentt hatrepl i
catesonlyinsidethelivi
ngcellofother
organisms.
 Virusesi nfectall cellularli
fe.
 Virusesar ethesmal l
estmi crobesandt heycanonl ybeseenusi ngami croscope.
 Theymustl i
veinsidecel l
sinor dertosur viveandbreed.
 Virusescausemostoft hedi seasesoutbr eaksinanimals.
 Exampl esofdi seasesi nani malscausedbyv i
rusesarer abies,Newcastleandthree
-dayst if
fsi ckness.
 Iti
sdi fficulttotreatdi seasescausedbyv i
rusesbecausev i
rusesli
veinsideanimal
cells.
 Ther efore,anymedi cinethatcanki llv
iruseswi llal
sohar mt hecell
sinwhi chthe
vir
usesar epr esent .
 Virusesar eclassifiedaccor dingtothety peoft i
ssuetheyi nvade,t
heirappearance
andt hehostt heynor mal lyaffect.

Fi
g.5.
1.6 Vi
rusl
i
fecy
cle

Pr
otozoa
 Protozoaar esingl
ecel ledeukaryotes.
 Theyar eeitherfr
ee-l
ivingorpar asi
ticandtheyfeedonor ganicsubst
ancessuchas
organictissuesanddebr is.
 Somepr otozoacanliveout si
decell
sespeciall
ythetypethatcausestri
chomonosi
s
i
nbi rds.
 Othersliveinsi
decells, forexample,thosecausingcocci
diosis,
redwater
,
heartwaterandgal l
sickness.
 Protozoaar edivi
dedi ntof ourmajorgroupswhicharecil
iates,f
lagel
l
ates,
heli
zoansandamoebas.

1.Ci
l
iat
es(
Cil
i
ophor
a)
 Thesearechar
acteri
sedbythepresenceofcil
i
aonatleastonedevel
opment
al
st
ageoftheorganism.
 Mo di
fi
cat
ionsf
rom theful
lbodycoverednormall
y,i
ncl
udesasingl
eri
ngofci
li
a,
 groupedcili
ar yorganel
lesandr estri
cti
onofcil
iatofeedi
ngtent
acl
es.
 Mo stspeciesal sobeartoxicy
stst hatar
eusedt ocaptur
eandstunpr
ey.
 Thesetoxicy stscanbef oundar oundthemout h,al
ongthel
engthoft
ent
acl
esor
anywhereel seont hesurfaceoft hecellbody
.

Fi
g.5.
1.7 Ci
l
ia

2.Fl
agel
l
ates(
Zoomast
igophor
a)
 Fl
agel
l
atesar
echaract
eri
zedbyhav
ingoneormorefl
agel
l
a.
 Par
asi
ti
cspeci
esgeneral
l
yhavemorefl
agel
lat
hanthoset
hatar
efr
eel
i
ving.

Fi
g.5.
1.8 Fl
agel
l
a

3.Amoebas(
Sar
codi
na)
 Amoebasr eachamaxi mum sizeoftwomill
imet resi
ndiamet er
.
 Theseprotozoansconstant
lychangethei
rshape.
 Theylookandmov emuchl ikeball
oonshal
ffil
ledwi t
hwat er
.
 Theycancr eat
eextensi
onsoft hei
rbodywallcalledpseudopodia,i
thel
psthem
l
ocomot e,
capturepreyorsi
mpl ychurnuptheirinsi
destodistri
butenut
ri
ents.
 Theshapeofapseudopodi sgener al
l
yrefl
ecti
v eofthefamilygroupi
ngtowhichi
t
bel
ongs.

Fi
g.5.
1.9 Amoeba

4.Fr
eshwat
err
adi
olar
ians(
Hel
i
ozoa)
 Themosti denti
fi
ablecharacteri
sti
cofr adi
olar
iansisthepresenceofaxopodia.
 Thisi
sat ypeofapseudopodst rengthenedbyt i
nymicrotubul
est hatext
endint
o
sol
idprotecti
verods.
 Somemar i
neheliozoans(radi
olari
ans)haveapr otect
iveexoskeletonofsil
i
cabut
fr
eshwaterspeciesjusthav eti
nysil
icascalesoraperforatedcapsule.

Fi
g.5.
1.10 Hel
i
ozoan

Ri
cket
tsi
a
 Ri
ckett
siaisagenusofnon- motil
e, gram-negative,
non-spor
ef or
mingandhighl
y
pl
eomor phi
cbacteri
athatcanbepr esentascocci ,r
odsorthread-
li
ke.
 Theyareobli
gate,i
ntr
acell
ularbacteriathatrangeinsizeandform.
 Ri
ckett
siabelongtothephylum alpha-protobacteri
awhicharecapableofgr
owing
 i
nl owlevel
sofnut ri
entsandhav eal onggener ation.
 Rickett
siaenterahostcel lbyinducingphagocy tosisthenimmediat
elyescapest
he
phagosomet ogr owandr eproducewi thi
nt hecy toplasm (
ornucl
eus)ofthehost
cell
.
 Thehostcel l
wi l
lnormallylyseev entuall
y,causi ngt herel
easeofnewor gani
sms.
 Li
kev ir
uses,manyoft hem canonl ygrowi nsidel i
vingcell
s.
 Theyar efr
equentlytr
ansmi t
tedbymi t
es,ticksorl i
ce.
 Thehostcel l
isalsohar medbyt hetoxicef fectoft hecellwall
.
 Diseasescausedbyr ickettsi
aar etyphus, anaplasmosi sandRockyMount ai
n
spottedfever
.

Nut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
es
 Nut ri
ti
onal deficiencedi seasescanbecausedbyspeci fi
cnutrientdefi
cienci
es,
excessesori mbal ancesandmet aboli
cdi sturbances.
 Thebodyr equiresnut ri
entst hatar ecrucialforbothbodydev elopmentand
mai ntenance.
 Anut rit
ional deficiencyoccur swhent hebodydoesnotabsor borgetnecessar y
amount sofnut rients.
 Def i
cienciescanl eadt oav arietyofheal thproblems.
 Thesecani ncl
udedi gesti
onpr oblems, skindisorders,st
untedordef ecti
vebone
growt h.
 Theamountofeachnut ri
entr equiredbyanani mal dependsonspeci es,ageor
wei ghtoft heani mal .
 Mal nutri
ti
oni st hei mpairedf unctionthatr esult
sf r
om apr ol
ongeddef ici
encyof
totalenergyorspeci fi
cnutrientssuchaspr otei
ns,essentialf
attyacids,vi
taminsor
miner al
s.
 Def i
ciencydi seasescanaf fectt hemi l
kout putandf er
til
i
ty.

Tabl
e5.1.
1Nut
ri
ent
sdef
ici
encysy
mpt
oms.
Nut
ri
ent Defi
ciencysy mptom
-Retardedgrowt hiny oungani malsandadel ayintheonsetofpuberty.
-Ashor tenedlactat
ionper iodanddecl ineinmil
kproducti
on.
-I
nmat ureanimals,lossofbody weightespeci
all
yduri
nglatepregnancy
Carbohydr
atesandear lyl
actati
on.
-Prolongedper i
odsofanoest rus.
-Calvesandl ambsmaybebor nweakandunder si
zed.
-Diseasescausedar eketosisandhy pogly
caemia.
-Reducedappet i
teiny oungani mals.
-Lower edfeedintake.
-Lackofmuscl edevelopment .
Protei
n
-Apr ol
ongedt imetor eachmat uri
ty.
-I
nmat ureanimalsther eislossofwei ghtanddecreasedmilk
production.
 -Forexampl ehy popr oteinemi a.
-Decr easedappet i
te.
-Impai redni ghtv i
sion.
-Increasedst i
ll birthsi npr egnantani malsduet oaffectedr eproductive
Vi
tami nA functionespeci al l
yi ncaseswher edrycowsar eof f
eredpoordi ets.
-Inlatterst agesofdef i
ciency , bonegr owthi saf f
ectedandt hismay
causepr essur eonner v est ot heey ewhi chmayl eadtot otal bl
indness.
Forexampl eni ghtbl i
ndness.
-Reducedgr owt hr at es.
-Thel egsmaybebent ,abnor mal swelli
ng, sti
ff
nessandl ameness.
Vi
tami nD -Thet eet hmaybeoutofl ine.
-Jawbonedef or med.
-Forexampl er i
cket s.
-Fail
ur eofbl oodcl otti
ngi ncl udingexcessi v ebleedingfrom cut s.
-Appear anceofl arger edhaemor rhagi
car easint hemembr anesoft he
Vi
tami nK mout h, ey esandnose.
-Abdomi nal pai nandl ameness.
-Forexampl ehaemor rhagi cdi sease.
-Weakenedbones.
-Slowgr owth.
Cal
cium -Lowmi lkpr oduct ion.
-Conv ul sionsi nsev eredef icienci es.
-Forexampl ehy pocal caemi a.
-Fragilebones.
-Gener al weakness.
-Emaci at i
on
Phosphorous -Stif
fness
-Reducedmi lkpr oduct ionandchewi ngofwood, r
ocks,bonesandot her
objects.
-Forexampl eost eomal acia.
-Slowgr owth.
-Reducedf eedandwat erint ake.
-Lowf eedconv ersionef f
ici ency .
Potassium -Muscul arweakness.
-Nerv ousdi sor der s.
-Stif
fnessandemaci ation.
-Forexampl ehy pokal emi a.
-Scour s.
-Palemucousmembr anes.
-Roughandbl eachedhai r.
Copper -Slowgr owthandl ossofbodywei ght.
-Bonesmaybr eakeasi lyandaf fectedcattlemaymov elikeapaci ng
horser at hert hannor mal cat tle.
-Forexampl esway backdi sease.
St
rat
egi
esusedt
ocombatspr
eadofdi
seases
 Pr act icinghy gi ene.
 Repor ti
nganysuspect edcasesofani mal diseasest ov eteri
nar ystationsorani mal
heal that tendant s.
 Ident i
fyandt r ackout br eaksofani mal diseases.
 Ident i
fyt hecausesofani mal diseasest hatdonotnor mallyoccuri nt hear ea.
 Compl ywi t
hr equi rement swheni mpor tingani mal s.
 Sel ectawel l-known, reliablesour cef r
om whi cht opur chaseani mal s,onet hatcan
suppl yheal t
hyst ock, i
nher ent lyvigorousanddev elopedf oraspeci ficpur pose.
 Newani mal sshoul dbemoni toredf ordi seases, quar anti
ningt hem f i
rstbef ore
bei ngi ntr
oducedi ntot hemai nflock.
 Pr act iseapr eci sev acci nati
onschedul ef oreachher dorf lock.
 Obser veani mal sf requent l
yf orsi gnsofdi seases.
 Ifadi seasedev elops, obt ainanear l
y,reli
abl ediagnosi sandappl ythebest
treat ment ,cont r
ol ander adicationmeasur esf orthatspeci fi
cdi sease.
 Disposeofal l deadani mal sbybur ning,deepbur y i
ngandl i
mi ngthear ea.
 Pr act isebi o-secur itymeasur eswhi chincludeuseoff oot
bat hsandwheel bat hs
cont ainingdi si nfect ant s.
 Mai ntai ngoodr ecor dsoff l
ockorher dheal thsuchasv accinationhi story
, disease
probl emsandmedi cat ion.

Summar
y
 Diseasesdet ermi nantsinli
vestockcanbei ll
ustrat
edintheform ofat ri
angle,
referredt oast heepi demiological
tri
ad.
 Themostef fectivewayt omanagedi seasesistopreventthepat hogensfrom
gettingt otheani mals.
 Exampl esofpat hogenswhi chcausedi seasesinanimalsarebact er
ia,v
iruses,
protozoaandr icket t
sia.
 Nut r
itionaldiseasescanbecausedbyspeci fi
cnutri
entdefi
ciencies.
 Thebodyr equiresnut ri
ent
st hatarecrucialf
orbothbodydev elopmentand
mai ntenance.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Measureandr
ecordhumidi
tyandtemper
aturefrom anylocalweat
herst
ati
on.
2.Recor
dtemperat
ureofanyl
ivest
ockani
mal speciesatyourschool
.

Ant
hrax
 Ant
hraxi
sahi ghl
yinfect
ious,f
atal
,not
if
iabl
eandzoonot
icdisease.
 Iti
scausedbysporef or
mi ng,
rect
angul
arshaped,
gram posi
ti
vebacter
ium
edBaci
cal
l l
lusanthraci
s.
 I
fant hr
axi snotcont r
olledi tmaycausehi ghmor t
ali
tybothi
nanimalsandhumans.
 I
tismost lyf
oundinher biv oresespeci all
ygr azi
nganimalssuchascatt
le,
sheep,
goat s,hippopotamus, deerandhor ses.
 Anthr axhasbeenr eportedf r
om near l
yev eryconti
nentandismostcommoni n
agriculturalr
egionswi thneut r
al oral
kal i
ne( cal
car
eous)soil
s.
 I
nt heser egi
onsant hraxper i
odicall
yemer gesasepizooti
csamongsuscepti
ble
domest icandwi l
dani mal s.
 Wrongdi agnosisandunr eliablereportingmakesi tdif
fi
cultt
oesti
matethetr
ue
i
ncidenceofant hraxwor l
dwi de.

Causes
 Anthraxiscausedbyabact erium cal ledBacill
usant hracis.
 Bacil
lusant hr aciscanbef oundi ngr owingform( veget ati
vef orm)andspor eform.
 Growingf orm bact eri
aar erodshapedandar ef oundi nendt oendr ows.
 Rodshapedbact eriaproducest oxinsandhasacapsul ewhi chr esi
sts
phagocy tosis.
 Sporef orm bact er i
aexi stindor mantf orm.
 Sporef orm bact er i
aishi ghlyr esistantandcanst ayint hesoi lformor et hantwo
hundredy ear s.
 Thegr owi ngf orm canchangei ntospor eswhencondi ti
onsar eunf avourable.
 Thepr esenceofai rencour agesspor ef ormati
on.
 Thereforeanant hraxcar cassshoul dnotbeopened, si
ncecont actwi t
hai rwil
l
encouraget hef ormat i
onofspor es.
 Whencondi tionsar efav ourablet hespor escanchanget othegr owingf orm agai
n.
 Thishappenswhent hespor esent eranani mal.
 Iti
sthegr owingf ormt hatcausest hedisease.
 Iti
salsopossi bl
ef orant hraxspor est omul ti
plyint hesoi lifcondi t
ionsar e
suit
able.
 Inwar m andwetcondi ti
onst hespor eschanget ogr owi ngfor ms.

Fi
g.5.
2.1 RodshapedBaci
l
lusant
hraci
s

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Thepr i
mar yreserv
oirofant hraxi sthesoil
.
 Thegr oundonwhi cht heant hraxinfect
edani mal di
esbecomescont aminatedwi
th
thespor es.
 Thiscausest hesoil
tobecomeper manent l
yinf ect
edwi t
ht hebacteri
a.
 Animalsgr azi
nginthear eamayeatt hesporesdur i
nggr azing.
 Sporesint hedustcanal sobei nhal
edbyanani mal.
 Thediseasecanbespr eadbyi nfectedhides,skins,wool andfeedsfrom ani
mal
sources( bonemeal,car cassmeat ,
bloodmeal andhay).
 Bit
ingf l
i
esmaymechani call
yt ransmitB.anthracissporesf rom oneani
mal to
another.
 Anthraxcanbetr
ansmit
tedtohumansthroughi
nfect
edani
malti
ssuesand
contaminat
edani
malproducts.
 Carnivor
esandomniv
orescanalsogetanthr
axbyeati
ngmeatf
rom inf
ect
ed
carcasses.

Fi
g.5.
2.2 Ant
hraxcy
cle

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Inmostcasesanthraxresul
tsinsuddendeathwit
houtshowi
nganysigns.
 Someanimalsmayshowcl i
nicalsi
gnswhichcanrangefr
om peracut
e,acut
eand
sub-
acutetochroni
cf or
ms.
 Therangeofincubati
onperi
odi sonetofour
teendays.

1.Peracut
eorapopl
ect
icsi
gns
 Thecourseoft hecl i
nical di
seaseisusual lylessthantwohour s.
 Whent hediseasei sinperacut estage, usuallyanimalsarefounddeadwi thout
showinganysi gnsofi l
lness.
 Forthoseanimal swhichshowcl inicalsignst hefol
lowingsi
gnsar eobserved:
i
. Labour edbr eat
hi ng.
ii
. Congest ionofmucousmembr anes.
i
ii
. Rumi nal stasis.
i
v. Col lapsing
v. Py r
exia( abnor mal elevat
ionofbodyt emper atur
e)dependingont hespeci
es.
vi
. Agi tati
onoranxi ety.
v
ii
. Muscl etr emor sandr ar
elyterminal convulsi
onsmaybeobser ved.
vi
ii
. Bl ood-stai nedfluidsomet imesexudesf r
om thenostri
ls,mouthandanus.

Fi
g.5.
2.3 Bl
oodoozi
ngoutf
rom t
henose

2.Acut
esi
gns
 Thecour seoft hedi seasei susuall
ylesst hansev entytwohours.
 Unpr edictableriseinbodyt emperature.
 Atf i
rst,affectedanimal sr emainstandingwi ththeirheadshangingandt hei
reyes
staring.
 Ani malswi llbedepr essed.
 Infectedani malsl agbehi ndothers,wal kaboutlistl
esslyandli
edownf r
equent
ly.
 Dy spnoeaandscat t
er edsmal lhaemor rhagesmayoccuri nthevisi
blemucous
membr anesandski n.
 Lackofappet i
te,rumi nati
onsuppr essionandacut edigest
ivedi
sturbances.
 Someani mal smaydev elophaemor rhagicdiarr
hoea.
 Milkpr oduct i
ondecr easesandt hesmal l
amountofmi l
ksecret
ediseitherbl
ood-
 stainedoryell
ow.
 Pregnantanimalsmayabor t.
 Oe demaoft hetongueandsubcutaneousoedemat
ousswell
i
ngsinther
egi
onof
thet hr
oat(mostlycarni
vor
es)andventr
alpart
soft
hethor
ax,abdomenand
perineum mayoccur .

3.Sub-
acut
etochr
oni
csi
gns
 Thecour seoft hediseaseusual lyext
endsformor ethanthreedaysbef or
e
recov
eryordeat hoccur s.
 Themostcommonsi gnisanoedemat ousswell
ingoft heface,throatandneck.
 Iti
sfoll
owedbypr i
mar yinfecti
onofthepharynx
, pharyngealti
ssuesandr egi
onal
l
y mphnodes.
 Theswel li
ngint hephar yngealregi
onmaybecomeext ensivethatitint
erf
ereswit
h
respi
rati
onr esulti
nginasphy xi
a(abnormalbr
eathing).
 Theinfecti
onmaypr ogresstoamor eacut
estageori tmayr emainlocali
zedfor
somet i
me, ortheani mal mayr ecover.

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Diff
erenti
aldi
agnosisisthepr ocessofdi
sti
nguishi
ngbetweentwoormore
di
seaseswhi chshowsi milarsignsandsymptoms.
 Fordiff
erenti
aldi
agnosis,othercausesofsuddendeathshouldbeconsi
der
ed.
 Diseasesthathavesimil
arsi gnsandsymptomst othatofant
hraxar
e:

i. Botul
ism
i
i. Bl
ackleg( Clostr
idium chauv
oei).
ii
i. Peracut ebabesiosis.
iv. Chemi calpoisoning(heavymet al
s,ot
herpoi
sons)
.
v. I
ngestionoft oxicplants.
vi. Snakebi te
vi
i. Li
ghtningst ri
ke
v
ii
i. Metabolicdisorderssuchasl acti
caci
dosis,
magnesi
um def
ici
ency
,bl
oat
.

 Thedif
fer
ent
ial
diagnosi
sli
stwil
linevi
tabl
yvar
ybyspeci
esandgeogr
aphi
cal
area
andtheabov
eli
stisnotexhaust
ive.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
a.Mi
croscopi
cexami
nat
ionofbl
oodsmear
s.
 Bloodsamplesarecoll
ect
edf r
om theani
malandsentt
ot helaborat
ory
.
 Bloodsmear songlasssl
idesareprepar
edusi
ngthecol
lectedbloodbefor
e
observ
ingunderami cr
oscope.
b.Geneti
cal
l
y-basedconf
ir
mat
ionbypol
ymer
asechai
nreact
ion
(PCR).

c.Retr
ospect
ivedi
agnosi
sbyenzyme-
li
nkedimmunosorbent
assay(ELI
SA)inani
malsthathav
esur
viv
edinfect
ioni
s
possi
ble.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
Pointt
onote:Ifant
hraxi
ssuspect
editi
snotrecommendedto
openthecarcassunti
labl
oodsmearhasprovennegati
vebuti
n
thecaseofpostmor t
em t
hefol
lowi
ngobserv
ationsar
emade.
 Rapidcarcassdecomposit
ionandbloat
ing.
 Ri
gormor ti
sisabsentori
ncomplete.
 Darkblooddischar
gefrom bodyopeni
ngs.

Fi
g.5.
2.4 Bl
ooddi
schar
gef
rom bodyopeni
ngs

 Haemorrhagesofv ary
ingsizesinmostpar
tsofthebody
.
 Si
gnsofsept i
caemiaort oxaemia.
 Enl
argedspleenwithsof t
,darkanddecomposedcont
ents.
 Oedemaespeci al
l
yi npigsandgoats.

Fi
g.5.
2.5 Spl
eenwi
thsof
t,dar
kanddecomposedcont
ent
s

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
esofant
hrax
 Thebasi sofcont r
ol l
ingander adicati
ngant hraxinthecaseofl i
vestock, i
sbr eaki
ng
thecy cleofi nf ecti
on.
 Insectrepel l
ent scanbeusedt ocont rolthev ectors(flies)
.
 Ifapot entialinf ectioussour ceisknown, itshouldbeel iminatedwi t
houtdel ay.
 Annual v accinat ionofal l grazi
ngani mal swhi char ekepti nendemi careas.
 Implement ationofcont rol measur esduringepi zootics.
 Livestockatr iskshoul dbei mmedi atelytreatedwi t
hal ong-actingant i
bioti
ct ostop
allpotent i
alincubat inginf ecti
ons.
 Animal sshoul dbemov edt oanot herpast ureawayf rom thel andwher ei nfected
carcasseswer el aid.
 Cont aminat edsoi l
scanbedecont aminatedbyf ormal dehyde.
 Suspect edcont ami natedf eedshoul dbei mmedi at
elyr emov ed.
 Managegr asssot hatitisnotov ergrazed, takingpar ticul
arcar eduringdr ought
 conditi
ons.
 Notif
icati
onoft heappr opri
ateregulatoryof f
ici
als.
 Sickanimalsshouldbei sol
ated.
 Disposedeadani mal s,
manur e,beddingorot hercontaminatedmaterial
.
 Cremat e(pr
eferable)ordeepbur ythecar cass.
 Disi
nfecttheplacewher etheanimal diedusi ngquickli
me, f
ormali
norcaust i
csoda.
 Controlofscavenger sthatfeedoncar cassesi nfectedwithanthr
ax.
 Observati
onofgener alsanit
aryprocedur esbypeopl ewhohandl ediseased
animals,bot
hf ortheirownsaf etyandt opr eventspreadofthedisease.

Tr
eat
ment
 Treatmentusual
lycomeslate.
 Antibi
oti
cssuchaspenicil
l
inandst rept
omy
cinar
eusedint
het
reat
mentofani
mal
s
showingcli
nical
il
lnessofanthrax.
 Sulphonamidesandoxytet
racycli
nescanal
sobeused.

Fi
g.5.
2.6 Ci
prof
loxaci
n

 Howeversomeot
hercount
ri
esdonotpermi
tanti
biot
ictr
eat
mentofl
i
vest
ockf
or
ant
hrax,
inst
eadt
heyareki
ll
edwit
happropr
iat
edisposal
.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(ant
hrax)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoft heani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,
animalhistory
,managementand
envi
ronmentalhist
ory).
2.Observetheanimal f
rom adi
stance,observi
ngit
sbehaviour,appet
it
e,l
esi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconf ormat
ionandcondi t
ion.
3.Pal
patetheanimal andnoteanyincreasedsensi
ti
vi
tyduringpalpat
ion.
Fi
g.5.
2.7 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orant
hrax:
 Highf ever .
 Muscl et remor .
 Dyspnoea( l
abour edbreat
hing).
 Localized, sub-cutaneous,oedemat ousswell
ingthatcanbequietext
ensiv
eusual l
y
onthev entralneck, t
ongue,thoraxandsternum.
 Convul sivemov ements.
 Blooddi schar gesf r
om thenaturalbodyopeningssuchasnose, mouth,
rectum and
otheropeni ngs.
 Rumi nal stasis
 Lagbehi ndot hers,walkaboutli
stl
esslyandliedownf r
equent
ly.

Summar
y
 Ant
hraxisabacteri
aldi seasecausedbyBaci ll
usanthri
cis.
 Majorsi
gnsandsy mpt omsi ncludelabouredbr eat
hing,suddendeat
h,hi
ghfever,
musclet
remorandbl ooddi schar gefrom bodyopenings.
 Ant
hraxmanifest
sint hr eedi
fferentformst hatisperacute,acut
eandsub-
acute.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Compil
eanthraxstat
ist
icsatalocalveteri
naryoff
ice.
2.Chooseanyli
vestockanimal(
cattl
e,sheepandgoat )ofyourchoi
cefrom y
our
school
andcollecti
tshi
storywhichisrelevanti
ndiagnosesofant
hrax.

I
nfect
iousbur
sal
disease(
IBD)
 I
nfecti
ousbursal disease(IBD)isanacut e,hi
ghl ycontagiousvi
raldiseasemostl
y
foundinchi
ckens.
 I
BDi salsoknownasgumbor oorinfect
iousbur sit
is.
 I
tiscommonwor ldwide.
 I
BDcanbepr esentasacl i
nicalorsubcli
nicaldisease.
 I
mmunosuppr essionandr elatedsecondaryinfectionsaretypi
call
yseen.
 Severi
tyofi
mmunosuppr essiondependsont hev i
rulenceoftheinfecti
ngvi
rusand
 ageofthehost.
 Inmostcasesy oungbi r
dsataroundt
wotosixweeksofagethathavehighl
y
acti
vebursaofFabr i
cius(BF)ar
emoresuscept
ibl
etothedi
sease.
 Severi
tyofthediseasealsodependsonbr
eedofchicken(
whit
eleghornsaremor
e
suscepti
ble)
.

Causes
 I
BDi scausedbyi nfecti
ousbur sal di
seasev i
rus(I
BDV)whi chbel ongsto
theBi rnav i
ri
daefami lyofRNAv i
ruses.
 I
BDVexi stintwoser otypes, serotypeoneandser otypetwo.
 Ser otypeonei spathogeni cwhi leser otypetwoi snon-pathogenic.
 TheI BDVi sadoublest randedRNAwhi chtarget
simmat ureBl ymphocytesofthe
bur saofFabr ici
us(BF)butmaybei solatedfrom ot
heror gans.
 BFi sapr i
mar ylymphoidor ganinav i
anspeci es.
 I
nf ectedmacr ophagest ranspor tthev i
rust otheBFwher eext ensiver
epli
cat
ion
takespl ace.
 Spr eadoft hev i
rusfrom t hebur sat oot herly
mphoi dorgansmayoccurdependi ng
ont hev irul
enceoft heIBDVst r
ain.
 Thev i
rusi shighl
yst abl
e, resist
antanddi ffi
cultt
odecont aminate.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Themodeoft ransmi ssi
onismostl
yt hr
oughhorizontaltr
ansmi ssi
on(thefoecal
-
oralpathway).
 Thev i
ruscanper severeinpoul
tr
yhouseev enifi
nf ect
edbi r
dsar eremoved.
 Co nt
actwithcont aminatedi
nani
mat eoranimate(farm staf
f,animals,
equipments)
tr
ansmi tst
hedi sease.
 Thev i
rusisresistanttosomedisi
nfectant
s.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 I
BDmai nlyaffectsy oungerchickens,whosebursasaresti
ll
underdevel
opedand
thosethatar eupt osi xweeksol d.
 Th ecli
nicalandsub- clini
cal
mani f
est
ati
onslargel
yvarydependi
ngonv i
russtr
ain.
 Clini
calmani fest
ationscanbegr oupedintot
hreecategor
iesaccor
dingtostr
ain
typeandt hesear ecl assi
c,var
iantandv er
yvir
ulent
.

1.Cl
assi
csi
gns
 Bur
salinfl
ammat i
onorlesi
ons.
 Li
stl
essnessandwasting.
 Musclehemorrhagi
ng.
 Moderatemortal
it
yrat
es.
 I
mmunosuppr essi
on.
2.Var
iantsi
gns
 Pri
mari
lysub-
cli
nical
,wi
thfewext
ernal
signsbuti
nwar
dlyshowi
ngbur
sal
atr
ophy
.
 Under
lyi
ngimmunosuppressi
on.

3.Ver
yvi
rul
entsi
gns
 Bursalandmuscl ehaemorrhagi
ng.
 Li
stlessness,wasti
ngandpoorov er
allappear
ance.
 Severebursalatr
ophy.
 Highmor tal
it
yrates.
 Severeimmunosuppr essi
on(inbi
rdsthatsurvi
ve)
.

Fi
g5.
5.1 Bur
sal
haemor
rhage

Di
seasesdi
agnosi
sandpost
mor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Therearetwoty
pesofdiseasediagnosesforI
BD.
 Thesearedif
fer
enti
alandlabor
atorydi
agnoses.
 Alsother
eareav ar
iet
yofpostmortem f
indi
ngsforI
BDdet
ermi
nat
ion.

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Marek'
sdi sease.
 Mycotoxicosis
 Cocci
diosis
 Haemor r
hagicsy ndrome.
 Avi
anadenov i
rusinfect
ion.
 I
nfecti
ousbr onchit
is.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Rever
setranscr
ipt
ionpol
ymerasechai
nreact
ion(
RT-
PCR)
.
 Agargel
immunodi ff
usi
ontest(AGI
D).
 Enzymeli
nkedimmunosorbentassay(
ELISA)
.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Cl
oacal bursai
senl ar
ged,swol
l
enandhaemorr
hagi
cinbir
dsthathav
edi
edandis
at
rophiedinrecoveredbir
ds.
 Dehydratedcarcass.
 Skel
etalmusclesbecomedar kwit
hhaemorr
hages(
especi
all
ythi
ghandpect
oral
 muscles).
 Thymusbecomesopaquewi ththi
ckenedgelati
nouscapsule.
 Bonemar rowbecomesf attyandyell
oworpi nk.
 Thelivermaybeenl arged.
 Kidneysswollenandf att
y.
 I
ncreasedmucusi nt heintesti
nes.
 Chickensthathaverecov eredfr
om IBDVinfecti
onshavesmal l
,atr
ophied,cloacal
bursasduet othedest r
ucti
onandl ackofregenerat
ionofthebursalf
olli
cles.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
esf
orI
BD
 Vaccinationofsuscept iblechickens.
 Whenout breaksdooccur ,bi
osecuritymeasuresmaybehel pful
inlimiti
ngthe
spreadoft hedi sease.
 Biosecuritymeasur esi ncludesconsi st
entuseoff ootbathsorwheel baths,
disi
nfectants,fencing, quarantini
ng(constr
uctingasi ckbayf orsickbirds),
safe
disposalofdeadcar cassesandbar r
ingunauthori
sedv i
sit
orsonf arms.
 Ifbuyi
nghat chi
ngeggsorchi cks,requestt
hatt hesupplierprovi
dei nformati
onon
thediseasecont r
ol andt esti
ngpr ogramsinthebr eedingflock.

Tr
eat
ment
 Nospeci
fict
reat
mentisav ai
l
able.
 Useofamulti
vit
aminsupplementandfacil
i
tati
ngaccesstowat
er.
 Ant
ibi
oti
cmedicati
onifsecondarybact
eri
alinf
ect
ionoccur
s.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(I
BD)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Rubberglov
es
 Paediat
ri
cstet
hoscope
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Thermometer

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatherhi
stor
yoft
heanimal(pati
ent’
sdata,pr
esenthistor
y,pasthi
stor
y,
managementandenvir
onmentalhistor
y).
2.Observet
hebirdf
rom adi
stance,bir
d`sbehav
iour
,lesionsonoutersur
face,
body
 confor
mationandappetit
e.
3.Palpat
ethebir
dandnoteanyi ncreasedsensiti
vi
tyduringpalpat
ion.
4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbyt hebird(auscult
ati
on),f
orexampl
e
l
abouredbreat
hing.
5.Taketemperat
ureofthebirdusingat her
momet er.
6.Takepulseofthebi
rdusingapaedi at
ricstet
hoscope.

Fi
g5.
5.2 Taki
ngpul
seofabi
rd

7.Recor
dther
esul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 Cl
assicsi
gns
 Bur
salinf
lammat i
onorlesi
ons.
 Li
stl
essnessandwasting.
 Musclehemorrhagi
ng.
 I
mmunosuppr essi
on.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h(I
BD)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprotect
iveclot
hing.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknif
e( wit
houthinge)orscal
pel
.

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Obtai
nthehi
storyofthebird.
2.Examinet
hebirdexternal
l
y

Fi
g.5.
5.3 Ext
ernal
bodyexami
nat
ion
 3.Opent hebodyusingakni f
eorscalpel
,cutthr
oughtheskinbetweenthelegsand
breast.
4.Remov etheviscer
al or
gans.
5.Remov etheabdomi nalvi
sceraf
ir
standt hengobackandr emovethethoraci
c
organs.
6. Examineall
theorgansf oranyl
esi
onsorabnor mal
iti
es.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 Cloacal bursaisenlarged,swol l
enandhaemor r
hagi
c.
 Cloacal bursaisatrophiedi nrecoveredbir
ds.
 Dehy dratedcarcass.
 Skeletalmuscl esdarkwi thhaemor rhages.
 Thymusbecomesopaquewi t
ht hi
ckenedgelati
nouscapsul
e.
 Bonemar r
owbecomesf attyandyelloworpink.
 Thel i
vermaybeenl arged.
 Kidneysswol lenandf atty.
 I
ncreasedmucusi nthei ntest
ines.

Summar
y
 I
nfect iousbur saldisease( I
BD)i sanacut e,hi
ghlycontagiousvir
al i
nfecti
onmost ly
foundi nchickens.
 I
BDi scausedbyi nfect i
ousbur sal diseasevir
us(IBDV)whi chbelongst othe
Birnaviri
daef ami l
yofRNAv i
ruses.
 I
BDVexi sti
nt woser otypes,serotypeoneandser otypetwo.
 Themodeoft r
ansmi ssionismost l
yt hr
oughhorizontalt
ransmission,thefecal-
oral
pathway .
 I
BDmai nlyaffectsy oungerchi ckensupt osixweeksol d,whosebur sasarestill
underdev el
opment .
 Thecl inicalandsub- cl i
nicalmani f
est ati
onsvarydependinglargel
yonv i
russtrai
n.
 Maj orsignsandsy mpt omsofI BDi ncludehaemor r
haging,bur
sal atr
ophy ,
depr essionanddi ar r
hoea.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Conductacl
ini
calexaminat
ionofanyav
ianspeci
espr
esentaty
ourschool
wit
hthe
gui
dancefr
om yourfaci
l
itat
or.

Bl
ackl
eg
 Bl
ackl
egi
sanacut
e,i
nfect
ious,
highl
yfat
albact
eri
aldi
seaseofcat
tl
eandsheep
 causedbyCl ost ridium chauv oei(Cl.chauvoei).
 Blackl
egcanal sobeknownasquar t
erev i
lorblackquarter
.
 Thediseasei si nf ectiousandcausessev ereinfl
ammat ionofskel
etalandcardi
ac
muscle.
 Ithassev eretoxi cit
yandhi ghmor tal
ityinmostcases.
 Iti
schar acterisedbyemphy semat ousswel li
ngcommonl yaff
ecti
ngheavymuscl es
(cl
ostridiamy osi tis).
 Thediseasei si nf ectious,butnotcont agi
ous( normall
ydoesnotspreadfrom one
animal toanot her )
.
 Itaff
ect scattl
el esst hantwoy earsandsheepatanyage.
 Thediseasei senzoot i
cinareaswi t
hahi storyoffloodi
ng.
 Mostl ossest akepl acewher et hereisabundanceoff ood.
 Blackl
egcanaf fecti nmostpar tsofZi mbabweandi tcanoccuranyti
meoft heyear
alt
houghmostl ossesar eobser veddur i
ngthespr i
ngandsummer .

Causes
 Blackl
egi scausedbyaspor efor ming,gram posi tive,rodshapedbact eri
um
caledCl
l ostridi
um chauv oei.
 Clostr
idi
um chauv oeiisat oxinpr oducinganaer obebact eri
um.
 Otherlesscommoncausesofbl acklegar eCl ostridium septicum andCl ostri
dium
novyi.
 Growthoft hebact eriacausesacut eandl ocalisedi nfl
ammat ionofmuscl etissue.
 Affect
edmuscl esar eblackish-redi ncolourhencet henamebl ackl eg.
 Growthoft heor ganism leadst ogener al i
zedt oxaemi aorpoi soningandr apid
death.
 Insheep, thedi seasei salmostal wayst heresul tofawoundi nf ectionsuchas
sheari
ngcut s,docki ng,crutchingorcast r
ation.
 Sporespr oducedbycl ostri
diacanbedor manti nthesoi l f
ory ears.
 Blackl
egdev elopswhenspor esar einthenor mal skeletalandcar diacmuscl eand
thenproliferateafterlocalisedt raumaoranoxi a.
 Toxinsar ethenr eleasedr esultingi nanecr oti
zi ngmy ositi
sandsy stemi
ct oxaemia.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Likeallclostr
idiabact eria,C.chauv oeisur
vivesi ntheenv i
ronmentasar esili
ent
spore.
 Bacteri
al sporesar eingest edincont aminatedf eed,past ureorsoilbytheani mal.
 Thespor esar eabsor bedi ntothegast ro-i
ntestinaltr
act( GIT)andmov edi ntothe
bloodst r
eam andi nt
ov ariousor gansandt issuesi ncludingmuscl es.
 Sporesst aylatentwi t
houtcausi nganyi l
l-
effectunt i
lcondi t
ionsformulti
plicati
on
prevail
,most l
ybysomel ightinjurytot heanimal .
 Incattl
e,thedi seaseiscausedbyexcessi vebr uisingorexcessi veexerci
se.
 Insheep, iti
sf requentlyassoci at edwithwoundi ngasar esultofshear
ing, t
ail
dockingandcast r
ati
on
 Injur
ytoewesatl ambi ngori nfect i
onofnav el soonaf terbirt
ht r
ansmitsthe
 disease.
 Thei nj
ur yreducesbloodflowtotheareat her
ebydroppi
ngt hesuppl
yofoxy gent
o
thet i
ssues.
 Oxy gendef ici
encywillt
henpromotespor esgerminat
ionandmul t
ipl
i
cation.
 Ast heygr owt hebacter
iaproducetoxinswhichdestr
oysurroundi
ngtissues.
 Thet oxinsar eabsorbedintot
heanimal ’
sbloodst
ream whichmakest heanimal
severelysickandcausessuddendeat h.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 I
ncubat i
onper iodi stwot of i
v edays.
 Suddenonset ,f ewcat tl
emaydi ewi thoutshowi ngpr emonit
or ysi
gns.
 Suddenonsetoff everfollowedbynor mal temper aturesi
nlaterst
ages.
 Depression
 Lossofappet ite.
 Severelamenesswi t
hswel li
ngofmuscl e.
 Animal f
ail
st okeepupwi ththeherdorf lock.
 Atfir
st,theswel l
i
ngi ssmal l
,hotandpai nful.
 Crepit
ati
on( crackl i
ngsound)onpal pati
onduet or api
daccumul at
ionofgasunder
theskinandi nt hebodycav i
ty.
 Theskinbecomescol dandi nsensitiveduet odecr easeinbloodtotheaff
ected
area.
 Bloat
edappear anceoft hecar cass.
 Excessbubbl ybl ood-stainedf l
uidwithsweet ish-sourodourandf rot
hyappearance.
 Themuscl ewi llbedar ki ncolour.

Fi
g.5.
3.1 Ty
pical
dar
kmuscl
e

 Prostrat
ionandt remors.
 Rapidbreathing.
 I
nsomecat tle,t
hel esi
onsarerestr
ict
edtothemyocardi
um andthedi
aphragm.
 Ther emaybeaf rothy,
blood-
stai
neddischar
gefr
om themout h,
nost
ri
lsand
rectum.
 De athoccurswithin12t o72hours.

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Di
ffer
entialdiagnosisistheprocessofwei ghingt
helikel
i
hoodofsi
gnsand
sy
mpt omsofonedi seaseagai nstthatofotherdi
seases.
 Di
ffer
entialdiagnosisforblackl
eginclude:
i. Acut eclostr
idiali
nfecti
ons.
i
i. Li ght ni
ngstri
ke.
i
i
i. Ant hrax
i
v. Baci l
laryhaemoglobinuria.
v. Lact ati
ontetany.
 vi
. Ext
ensi
vehaemorr
hage.
v
ii
. Acut
eleadpoi
soni
ng.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Pol
ymer asechai
nreacti
on.
 Fl
uorescentanti
bodytest
.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
Poi
nttonote:I
nmakingpostmor tem exam ofcar
casses,
car
e
mustbetakennottoinfectt
hesoi lf
urther
.Theref
orethewor
k
i
stobedoneatt hepointofdisposal
.
 Theani mal diesly i
ngoni tssidewi t
ht heaffectedhindli
mbst uckoutst
if
fl
y.
 Bloatingandput ref
act ion(decomposi ti
on)occursquickl
y .
 Bloodyst ai
nedf r
othyf lui
dexudesf rom thenost r
il
sandr ectum.
 Clotti
ngofbl oodoccur srapidly
.
 Dar kblood-stainedf lui
dwi thpatchesofdar kredhaemor rhagesi
sfoundonthe
surfacesofi nternal organsincludingt heheart.
 As cit
is(accumul ationoff lui
di ntheper it
onealcavit
y .
 Onr emov aloft heski nonaf fectedar ea,alarge,dar
kswel li
ngwil
lbeobserv
ed.

Fi
g.5.
3.2 Lar
gedar
kswel
l
ingoft
hemuscl
e

 Ranci
dodour ,
met al
li
csheenonthecutsur
face.
 Thespleenisfi
rm andswoll
en.
 Theli
veriscongestedandmayshowamot tledcol
orat
iononi
tssur
face.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
esofbl
ackl
eg
 Safedisposal ofdeadcar casses.
 Thecar cassshoul dbebur nedorbur i
eddeepl yandcov erwi t
hqui ckl ime.
 Thecont ami natedsurfacesoilshouldbebur i
edinthebur ialhol
e.
 Repor t
ingtot her esponsibleauthori
ti
es( v
eterinar
yst ationsorpol icewhent he
di
seasei ssuspect ed).
 Properv accinationprogram toal l
susceptibleanimals.
 Calvesmaybev acci
natedatanear l
yagehowev er,i
ft heyar evacci natedbeforesix
mont hs,theyshoul dbev accinatedagain.
 Calvesv accinatedaf t
ersixmont hsofagear eusuall
ypr otectedforsev er
alyears.
 Ewesshoul dbev acci
natedataboutt hreeweeksbef or etheyhav et heirfi
rstlambs.
 Lambsbor nt oimmuni sedewesar eresistanttotheinf ecti
onsunt il aboutthree
weeksofage.
 Castr
ati
onanddockingshouldbedonewi t
hinthet
hreeweekr
angeaft
erbir
thi
n
or
dertotakeadvantageofthenatur
ali
mmuni t
yperi
od.
 Sheepvacci
natedbeforeoneyearofageshoul
dber ev
acci
nat
edasyearl
i
ngs.

Tr
eat
ment
 Thespeedwi thwhichblackl
egkil
l
susuall
ymakesindi
vi
dualtreat
ment
unsuccessful
.
 I
nsomecasesi fanimal
sar etr
eat
edearl
ywit
hanti
biot
icstheymaysurvi
ve.
 Howev er
,theymaysuf f
erpermanentdef
ormi
tyduetopart
ialorcompl
ete
destr
ucti
onofmuscl es.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(bl
ackl
eg)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoftheani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,curr
entstat
us,pasthi
story
,
managementandenv ir
onmentalhist
ory)f
rom thefarmer.
2.Observetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,observi
ngitsbehavi
our,appet
it
e,l
esionson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi t
ion.
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincreasedsensit
ivi
tyduri
ngpalpati
on.

Fi
g.5.
3.3 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orbl
ackl
eg:
 Suddenonset ,
fewcat tlemaydi ewi thoutshowi ngpr emonitorysigns.
 Suddenonsetoff everfollowedbynor mal temper aturesinl
aterstages.
 Depr ession
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Sever elamenesswi thswel li
ngofmuscl e.
 Animal f
ail
st okeepupwi ththeher dorf lock.
 Atfirst,theswel li
ngi ssmal l
,hotandpai nful.
 Crepitati
on( crackl i
ngsound)onpal pationduet or apidaccumulationofgasunder
theski nandi nt hebodycav i
ty.
 Theski nbecomescol dandi nsensi tiveduet odecr easeinbloodt otheaffected
area.
 Bloatedappear anceoft hecar cass.
 Excessbubbl ybl ood-stainedf l
uidwi t
hsweet i
sh-sourodourandf rot
hyappear ance.
 Themuscl eaf fectedwi l
lbedar ki ncol our .
 Prost r
ationandt remor s.
 Rapidbr eathing.
 I
nsomecat tle,thel esi
onsar erest r
ictedt ot hemy ocardi
um andt hediaphragm.
 Ther emaybeaf rothy,blood-staineddi schar gef rom themout h,nostri
l
sand
rectum.
 Deat hoccur swi thin12t o72hour s.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Rubberglov
es
 Apron
 Facemask
 Eyegoggles
 Soli
dknif
e(withouthi
nge)

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheanimalonitsl
eftside.
2.Conductexter
nalexaminati
on,obser
vingi
fther
ear
eanylesi
ons,br
uisesorany
abnormali
ti
es.
3.Cutbacklegs.
4.Cutbackskinofbodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycavi
tyandpulltheabdominalmuscl
ewal
lcar
eful
lyt
hroughbell
y
 muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdi
aphr
agm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanyl
esi
onsorabnor
mal
i
tiesf
orexampl
eaccumul
ati
onof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
hagi
ng.

Fi
g.5.
3.4 Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 Theani mal diesl yingoni tssidewi t
ht heaffectedhindl imbstuckoutst i
ff
ly.
 Bloati
ngandput refact ion(decomposi ti
on)occur squickly.
 Bloodst ainedf rothyf l
uidexudesf rom thenost ri
lsandr ectum.
 Clotti
ngofbl oodoccur srapidly
.
 Darkbl ood-stainedf lui
dwi thpatchesofdar kredhaemor rhagesisfoundont he
surfacesofi nternal organsincludingt hehear t
.
 Asciti
s( accumul ationoff lui
di ntheper it
oneal cavi
ty.
 Onr emov al oftheski nonaf fectedar ea,alarge,darkswel li
ngwi l
lbeobserved.
 Rancidodour ,met al l
icsheenont hecutsur face.
 Thespl eeni sfirm andswol l
en.
 Thel i
veriscongest edandmayshowamot tledcolorationoni t
ssurface.

Summar
y
 Blacklegi sanacut e,
infect i
ous,highl
yfatalbacterialdi
seaseofcattl
eandsheep
causedbyCl ostridium chauv oei(Cl.chauvoei).
 Clost r
idium chauv oeipr oducestoxins.
 Blacklegdev elopswhenspor esisfoundint henormal skel
etal
orcar di
acmuscle
andt henpr oli
ferateaf t
erl ocali
sedt r
aumaoranoxi a.
 Bact eri
al sporesar eingest edincontaminatedf eed,pastur
eorsoilbytheanimal
.
 Thebact erium isanaer obicmeani ngthatitwillnotmultipl
yinthepresenceof
oxygen.
 Maj orsi gnsandsy mptomsofbl acklegincludelameness, depr
ession,hotand
painful swel l
i
ng.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Vi
sitt
henear
estv
eter
inar
yst
ati
onandpar
ti
ci
pat
einpostmor
tem exami
nat
ion.

Cont
agi
ousabor
ti
on
 Cont
agiousabort
ionisahi
ghl
ycont
agi
ous,
zoonot
ic,
bact
eri
alandi
nfect
ious
di
seaseofruminant
s.
 I
tischi
eflyf
oundincatt
le.
 Cont agiousabor t
ioni salsoknownasBr ucell
osisorBang’ sdisease.
 Iti
scausedbyt heBr ucellaspecieswhichspeci fical
lyaffectsther eproductive
organs.
 Itresultsinaborti
on, poorsper m qualit
y,reoccurringfevers,sti
ll
births,inf
erti
li
tyand
udderi nfecti
on.
 Thedi seaseoccur sthr oughoutt heyearinmostcount ri
esbuti tisv erycommon
wher ethereisintensiv eproduction.
 Humanscanbeaf fectedt hroughdr i
nki
ngunpast euri
zedmi l
k,eati
ngunder cooked
meatanddi rectcontactwi t
hinfectedanimal s(throughopencut sorwounds) .
 Cont agiousabor t
ionaf fectscattl
e,sheep, goats,catt
le,
pi gs,horses, dogsand
somewi l
dli
fespecies( bison,deerandbuf falo)
.

Causes
 Contagiousaborti
oni scausedbyspeci esbelongingt othegenusBr ucel
la.
 Cattl
ear epri
maril
yaf f
ectedbyBr ucel
laabor t
us( B.abortus)
,sheep(B.
melit
ensisandB.ov is),goats(B.mel i
tensis)andpi gs(B.sui
s).
 Brucel
laspeciesaresmal l
aerobic,gram-negative,non-mot i
l
e,non-sporefor
ming
androdshapedbact er i
a.
 Theyfunctionasfacultati
veintracell
ularparasit
escausi ngchronic(l
onglasti
ng)
di
seases.
 Exposuretodirectsunli
ghtkilsBr
l ucellabacteri
awi thi
nf ewhours.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Brucellabacter i
ai susual lyspr eadt hr
oughcont actwi thinfectedti
ssues.
 Thesebi r
thtissuesandf l
uidsi ncludeplacenta, abor t
edf oetuses,f
oetalfl
uidsand
vaginal di
schar ge.
 I
tcanbef oundi nmi lk,blood, urineandsemenofi nfectedanimals.
 Animal scangett hebact eriathrougheat i
nginf ectedf eed, di
rectcontactwith
mucousmembr anes( eye, nose, mouth)orabr adedski n.
 Pathogenscanbet ransmi ttedbycar r
ierani
mal s.
 Carrieranimal shav et hebact er i
abutshownosi gnsofi ll
ness.
 I
nsemi nati
ngwi thBrucella-infectedsement r
ansmi t
st hedisease.
 Mov ementofani nf
ect edani mal t
oanuni nf
ect edsuscept i
bleherd.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Non- pregnantani
malsusuallydonotshowcl ini
cal
signs.
 Abor ti
oninthelasttr
imester(usual
lyfrom si
xmonthsonwards)
.
 Greyishwhi t
emucousormuco- purulentdi
schar
gesfrom t
hevagi
na.
 Retentionofplacentamembr ane.
 Sti
ll
bi r
ths
 Chronicendomet eri
ti
s.
 Prolongedcal v
ingtoconceptionint
erval.
 Swel
l
ingoft
heknee(
hygr
omat
a)mi
ghtbeobser
ved.

Fi
g.5.
4.1 Redar
rowpoi
nti
ngonhy
gromat
a

 Insir
es(bull
sandrams)geni
talorgansareaff
ect
edl
eadi
ngt
omani
fest
ati
onof
epidi
dymit
is,or
chi
ti
sandsemi nal
v esi
cul
i
ties.

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Contagiousabor tionshouldalwaysbesuspectedwhenther
earemulti
plelat
eterm
abort
ionsi naher d.
 Otherdiseasesorcondi t
ionsthatcanbeconfusedwi
thcontagi
ousabort
ionareas
fol
lows:
i
. Tr ichomoni asi
s
i
i
. Vi briosis
ii
i
. Lept ospri
rosis
iv
. I nf ecti
ousbov inerhinot
rachei
ti
s.
v
. My coses

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
Bact
eri
ologi
cal
met
hods
 St
ainedsmear
s
 Cul
ture

Ser
ologi
cal
met
hods
 ELI
SAt est
 Serum aggl
uti
nati
ontest(SAT)
 Complementfixat
iontest(CFT)
 RoseBengaltest(RBT)

Suppl
ement
aryt
est
s
 Mil
ktesti
ng.
 Mil
kringtest
.
 Mil
kELISA.
 Fl
uorescencepol
ari
zat
ionassay
.
 I
ntr
adermal t
est.
Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Mi l
dtosev ereendomet r
it
is.
 Thepl acentaisthick,oedemat ous,andyel
low-
greyandmayhav
eexudat
esont
he
surface.
 Lesionsont hemammar ygland.
 Infl
amedr egionally mphnodes.
 Vary i
ngdegreesofsubcut aneousoedema.
 Bloodst ai
nedf l
uidi nbodycav i
ti
es.
 Enlargedorange-br owndiscolouredliv
er.
 Fibrouspleuri
ti
sandf ocalpneumoni a.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
esofcont
agi
ousabor
ti
on
 Vaccinationshouldbedonei nallfemalecal v
es.
 Wher ether ei
sneedt oer
adicatethedisease, testandslaught
ermethodisused.
 Str
icthygi eneshouldbemaintai
ned.
 Contami natedpremisesmustbedi si
nfectedpr oper
ly.
 All
newl ypur chasedani
malsshoul dbet ested.
 Testtheani malsthathaveabortedandani malsthattestposi
ti
veshoul
dbe
el
iminated.

Tr
eat
ment
 Ther
ei snoeff
ecti
vetr
eatmentoncet
heanimali
sinfect
edsi
ncet
hebact
eri
a
remainsint
hebodyoftheanimal.
 Anti
bioti
cshavebeenusedbutl
it
tl
esuccesswasachiev
ed.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(cont
agi
ousabor
ti
on)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gat
heri
nfor
mat
ionoft
heani
mal
(pat
ient
’sdat
a,hi
stor
yoft
heani
mal
,
 managementandenvir
onmentalhi
story)
.
2.Obser
vetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,observ
ingit
sbehavi
our,
appet
it
e,l
esi
onson
out
ersur
face,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi t
ion.
3.Pal
patet
heanimalandnoteanyincr
easedsensiti
vi
tydur
ingpal
pat
ion.

Fi
g.5.
4.2 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orcont
agi
ousabor
ti
on:
 Non- pregnantanimalsusuall
ydonotshowcl i
nicalsi
gns.
 Grey i
shwhi t
emucousormuco- pur
ulentdi
schargesfrom t
hev
agina.
 Retent i
onofplacent amembr ane.
 Sti
llbir
thorbirt
hofweakcal ves.
 Chroni cendomet er
iti
soccurs.
 Prolongedconcept ion-cal
vi
ngint er
val.
 Swel l
ingoftheknee( hygr
omat a).
 Insires(bull
s,rams)geni t
alorgansar eaff
ectedleadingt
omanif
estat
ionof
epididymiti
s,orchit
isandsemi nal v
esicul
it
ies.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h(cont
agi
ousabor
ti
on)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Rubberglov
es
 Apron
 Facemask
 Eyegoggles
 Soli
dknif
e(withouthi
nge)

Pr
ocedur
e
 1.Laytheani mal onitsl
eftside.
2.Conductext ernalexaminati
on.
3.Observ eift
her eareanylesions,br
uisesorabnormal
it
ies.
4.Cutbackl egs.
5.Cutbackski nofbodywal l
.
6.Enterbodycav i
tyandpulltheabdomi nal
musclewallcaref
ull
ythr
oughbel
ly
muscl es.
7.Pullbackchestwal landcutdi aphr
agm.
8.Inspectallorgansforanylesionsorabnormalit
iesf
orexampleaccumulat
ionof
flui
d,colourorhaemor r
hagi ng.

Fi
g.5.
4.3 Apostmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 Mildt osev ereendomet r
it
is.
 Thepl acent aisthick,oedemat ous,y
ellow-
greyandmayhav
eexudat
esonsur
face.
 Mammar yglandl esions.
 I
nf l
amedr egional l
y mphnodes.
 Vary i
ngdegr eesofsubcut aneousoedema.
 Bloodst ainedf l
uidi nbodycav i
ti
es.
 Enlargedor ange-br owndiscolouredliv
er.
 Fi
br ouspleur i
ti
sandf ocalpneumoni a.

Summar
y
 Contagi
ousaborti
onisahighlycontagi
ous,zoonoti
c,bact
eri
alandinf
ecti
ous
di
seaseofruminants.
 Contagi
ousaborti
oniscausedbybact er
iaspeciesbel
ongingtothegenusBrucel
l
a.
 Si
gnsandsy mptomsofcont agiousabor
tionincl
udessti
ll
bir
th,
weakcalvesand
pr
olongedconcepti
on-cal
vi
ngi nter
val
.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Wr
it
ear
epor
tofcont
agi
ousabor
ti
oncasesf
rom t
hepastt
woy
ear
siny
ourar
ea.

Newcast
ledi
sease(
NCD)
 Newcastl
eisanacut e,vi
ralinf
ecti
onthatishi
ghlycont
agi
ous.
 I
tisanotif
iabl
ediseaset hataff
ectsbothdomesticandwi
ldbi
rds.
 Newcastl
eischaracter
isedbydi gest
ive,
respi
rat
oryandner
voussi
gns.
 NCDisendemi ci
nsev eralcountri
es.
 NCDaffectsbi
rdsofallages.
 Humansandothermammal
sar
eal
sosuscept
ibl
etot
hedi
seasebuti
tcausesa
mil
dconj
unct
ivi
ti
s.

Causes
 NCDi scausedbyaPar amy xovir
ussy notypeB1t hatcanv aryinpathogeni
cit
y.
 Therear ethr
eef or
msofNewcast ledisease.
 Thesear emi l
dlypathogenic( l
entogenic),
moder atelypathogenic(
mesogenic)and
highl
ypat hogenic(v
el ogenic).
 Th ediseaseisalsogr oupedaccor di
ngt ositeofinfecti
on,forexample
pneumot ropi
c( r
espiratory
), v
iscerot
ropic(gastr
o-intest
inal
)andneur ot
ropi
c
(nervous).

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Newcast l
ev ir
uscanendur esomeweeksi nt heenv ir
onmentpar ti
cul
arl
yincool
weat her.
 NCDi stransmi t
tedbydirectcont
actwithsickorcar ri
erbirds.
 Thedi seasecanal sobetransmit
tedbyairwi t
hinthesamef lockt
hathasinf
ect
ed
straybirds.
 Directcont actwithfaeces,r
espir
ator
ydischargest hathavebeenshedbyi nf
ected
birds.
 Itcanbet r
ansmi tt
edmechani cal
lybycontaminatedf arm equipment
,worker
s,
wat erandf eed.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Fourbroadcl
ini
calsyndr
omesofNewcast
ledi
seasear
evi
scer
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
c,
neurot
ropi
c-v
elogeni
c,mesogeni
candl
ent
ogeni
c.

1.Lent
ogeni
c
 Mostlynosi gnsareshown(subcl
i
nical
)buti
ncaseofcli
nical
signst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
s
observed:
 Mil
dr espir
atorysi
gns.
 Short
-termlossofappetit
e.
 Decli
nei neggproducti
on.
 Noner voussigns.
 Negli
giblemor t
ali
tyunl
essther
eisaco-exi
sti
ngdi
sease.

2.Mesogeni
c
 Depression.
 Weightloss.
 Decl
ineineggpr oduct
ionandquali
ty.
 Acut
er espir
atorydiseasewit
hintensecoughing.
 Nerv
oussi gnslikegaspingmaydev el
oplater
.
 Lowmor tali
tyrate.

3.Vi
scer
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
c
 Thediseasehappenssuddenl yandspreadsquickl
y.
 Markeddepr essionandl ossofappet i
te.
 Sharpdeclineineggpr oduction.
 I
ncreasedbr eathingrat
e.
 Excessi
vedi arr
hoeawi thbright-gr
eenfaeces.
 Oedemat ousswel l
i
ngoft heheadandcy anosisofthecombsandconj
unct
ivi
ti
s.
 Highmor tali
tyrateinvul
nerabl efl
ocks(morethan90%).

4.Neur
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
c
 Acuterespir
atoryandnerv
oussignspr
evail
.
 Suddendepr essi
on.
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Decl
ineineggpr oduct
ion.
 Respir
atorydistr
ess(r
igor
ouscoughi
ng).
 Gasping(headt r
emors,wi
ngandlegparal
ysis,
tor
ti
col
l
is(
twi
stedneck)
).

Fi
g.5.
6.1 Tor
ti
col
l
issi
gni
nchi
cken

 Mor
tal
i
tyr
atei
nadul
tsi
slowercompar
edt
othatofy
oungchi
ckens.

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Avianinfl
uenza
 I
nfectiouslary
ngotr
achei
ti
s
 I
nfectiousbronchi
ti
s
 Fowl choler
a
 Salmonellosi
s
 Otherav i
anparamyxovi
rusi
nfect
ions

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Vir
usisolati
on
 Serol
ogicaltest(ELI
SA)
 Rever
set ranscri
pti
onpol
ymer
asechai
nreact
ion(
RT-
PCR)
Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
Vi
scer
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
cfor
m
 Oedemaoftheinter
sti
ti
alti
ssuesoft heneck.
 Haemorr
hagesandnecr osi
sintheprov ent
ri
culus,gi
zzardandsmal
li
ntest
inal
wal
l
.
 Small
haemorrhagesareoftenpresentinotherint
ernalorgans.

Neur
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
candmesogeni
cfor
ms
 Acutelaryngit
isandtr
acheiti
scongest i
on.
 Catar
rhal exudat
esairsacsar ethickenedandcloudy
.
 Haemor rhagesintheproventri
culus.
 Grosslesionsmaynotbepr esentinbirdsthatonl
yshowner
voussi
gns.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
esf
orNCD
 Stri
ctisolati
onofi nfectedbir
dsdur i
ngout breaks.
 Destructionofal linfectedandexposedbi rds.
 Cleaninganddi sinfecti
onofpr emises.
 Propercar cassdi sposal .
 Pestcont roli
nf locks.
 Depopul ati
onf ollowedbyt wentyoneday sbef orerest
ocking.
 Avoidingcont actwi t hbir
dsofunknownheal t
hstatus.
 Broil
ersandl ay ersshoul dnotbei nclosepr oxi
mi t
y.
 Oneagegr oupperf armisrecommended( 'alli
n-al
loutsystem')
.
 Vaccinationwi thl i
veand/ oroilemulsionvaccines.
 I
nbr oiler
sl i
vev accinesar eusedatdayol d, andaboost erfol
lowsbet
weent
enand
twentyoneday s.

Tr
eat
ment
 Thereisnotreat
mentforNCD,al
thought
reat
mentwi
thant
ibi
oti
cst
ocont
rol
secondaryi
nfect
ionsmayassi
st.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(Newcast
ledi
sease)
.

Mat
eri
als
  Rubberglov
es
 Paediat
ri
cstet
hoscope
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Thermometer

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatherhistoryoftheanimal (patient’sdata,cur r
entst atusandpasti nf
ormati
onof
theanimal ,
managementandenv ironment alhistory).
2.Obser vethebir
df r
om adi stance, observingitsbehav i
our ,
appetit
e,l
esionsonout
er
surface,bodyconformationandcondi ti
on.
3.Palpatethebirdandnoteanyi ncreasedsensi t
ivitydur i
ngpal pat
ion.
4.List
ent othesoundsbei ngpr oducedbyt hebi rd( auscultati
on),f
orexample
l
abour edbreathi
ng.
5.Taket emperatureofthebi r
dusi ngat her
momet er.
6.Takepul seofthebirdusingapaedi atr
icstethoscope.

Fi
g.5.
5.2 Taki
ngpul
seofabi
rd

7.Recor
dther
esul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
a.Vi
scer
otr
opi
cvel
ogeni
c

 Thediseasehappenssuddenl yandspreadsquickl
y.
 Markeddepr essionandl ossofappetit
e.
 Sharpdeclineineggpr oduction.
 I
ncreasedbr eathingrat
e.
 Excessi
vedi arr
hoeawi thbr i
ght-
greenfaeces.
 Oedemat ousswel l
i
ngsoft heheadandcy anosisofthecombsandconj
unct
ivi
ti
s.
 Highmor tali
tyrate(morethan90%)i nv ul
nerabl
efl
ocks.

b.Neur
otr
opi
cvel
ogeni
c

 Acuterespir
atoryandnerv
oussigns.
 Suddendepr essi
on.
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Decl
ineineggpr oducti
on.
 Respir
atorydistr
ess(r
igor
ouscoughi
ng).
 Gasping(headt r
emors,wi
ngandlegparal
ysi
s,t
ort
icol
l
is(t
wistedneck)
).
 Mortali
tyrat
ei nadul
tsisl
owercomparedtot
hatofyoungchickens.

c.Mesogeni
c
  Depression.
 Weightloss.
 Decli
neineggpr oductionandquali
ty.
 Acuterespirat
orydiseasewithcoughi
ng.
 Gaspingmaydev el
opl at
er.
 Lowmor tal
i
tyrate.

d.Lent
ogeni
c

Mostl
ynosignsareshown(subcl
i
nical
)buti
ncaseofcl
i
nical
si
gnsthef
ollowi
ngisobser
ved:
o Mil
dr espir
atorysi
gns.
o Shor
t-termlossofappetit
e.
o Decl
inei neggproducti
on.
o Noner voussigns.
o Negl
igiblemor t
ali
tyunl
essther
eisaco-
exi
sti
ngdi
sease.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h(Newcast
ledi
sease)
.

Mat
eri
als
1.Adequateprot
ecti
veclot
hing
2.Rubberglov
es
3.Apron
4.Facemask
5.Eyegoggles
6.Soli
dknif
e(withouthi
nge)orscal
pel

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Obtainthehi
storyoft hebird.
2.Examinethebi r
dexter nal
ly
3.Opent hebodyusingakni feorscal pel
,cutthr
oughtheski
nbetweenthelegsand
breast.
4.Remov ethev i
scer
al organs.
5.Remov etheabdomi nal vi
scer
af i
rstandt hengobackandremovethethoraci
c
organs.
6.Examinealltheorgansf oranylesionsorabnormali
ti
es.
Fi
g.5.
5.3 Vi
scer
alor
gans

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
a.Vi
scer
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
cfor
m

 Oedemaoftheinter
sti
ti
alti
ssuesoft heneck.
 Haemorr
hagesandnecr osi
sintheprov ent
ri
culus,gi
zzardandsmal
li
ntest
inal
wal
l
.
 Small
haemorrhagesareoftenpresentinotherint
ernalorgans.

b.Neur
otr
opi
c-v
elogeni
candmesogeni
cfor
ms

 Acutelaryngi
ti
sandtracheiti
scongest i
on.
 Catar
rhal ai
rsacsexudatesar ethickenedandcloudy
.
 Haemor rhagesint
hepr oventri
culus.
 Grosslesionsmaynotbepr esentinbirdsthatonl
yshowner
voussi
gns.

Summar
y
 Newcastledi
sease(NCD)isanacut evir
alinf
ecti
on.
 NCDi str
ansmitt
edbydirectcontactwi
thsickorcar
rierbi
rds.
 Cli
nical
signsdependonstrainofvir
us,speci
esandageofbi r
d.
 Newcastledi
seaseisassociatedwitht
orti
col
li
s(twi
stedneck),r
espi
rat
orydi
str
ess
anddeclinei
neggproduction.

Act
ivi
ty
1.I
ll
ust
rat
ehowy
ouwoul
dconductapostmor
tem exami
nat
ionanyav
ianspeci
es.

Footandmout
hdi
sease
 Footandmout hdisease(FMD)isanacut e, hi
ghlycont
agious,
v i
raldi
sease.
 Itpri
mar i
l
yaf f
ectsclovenhoofedanimalssuchascat t
le,
pigs,sheepandbuffal
oes.
 Afri
canbuf f
aloplaysamaj orrol
eintheepi demi ol
ogyofFMDbecauset heyare
reserv
oirsofthev i
rus(carr
ier
s).
 Iti
sendemi cinpar t
sofAsia,Afr
ica,theMiddleEastandSout hAmer i
ca,wit
h
sporadicoutbreaksoccurri
ngindisease-
freear eas.

Causes
 FMDiscausedbyapiconavi
rusvi
rus.
 Thevi
rusbel
ongstothefamiyPi
l maizeavi
ri
daeandgenusApt
hov
irus.
 Ther
earesevenknownimmunologicalser
otypesofFMD.
 Theypor trayal mostsimi l
arsy mpt omsbutdi stinguishablethroughl aborat
oryt est
s.
 Thesev endi stinctserotypesar eSout her nAfricanTer ri
tor
ies( SAT)1, SAT2, SAT3,
Asia1, serotypeA, OandC.
 Thesear ef urthersubdividedi nt
omor et hansixt ystrai
ns.
 Theviral parti
cleorv i
rioncont ai
nsasi ngle-
strandedRNAofposi ti
vepol ar
it
y.
 Thesigni fi
canceoft heseser ot y
pesi st hat,protection(immuni ty)againstone
serot
y pewi llnotprotectagai nstinfectionwi t
hanot herserotype.
 Thismeanst hereisnocr ossi mmuni tyhencepr esentsdiff
iculti
esinv acci
nation.
 Dif
ferentser otypesdomi nateindi f
ferentpar t
soft hewor l
d.
 TheFMDv irussur v
ivesinl y
mphnodesandbonemar r
owatneut ralpHbutcanbe
destr
oy edi nmuscl eatpHl esst han6. 0.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Thev i
ruscanbet r
ansmi t
tedbot hdirectlyandindir
ectl
y.
 Thev i
rusispr esentinv astamount sint hebodyf l
uidsuchassal iv
a,mi l
k,dungand
respiredair.
 Infectedani mal sstar
tbyexcr etingthev irusafewday sbeforesignsoft hedisease
mani fest.
 Thev i
rusistr ansmitt
edt hroughai r
.
 Ani malspickupt heviruseitherbydi r
ectcont actwit
hani nfect
edani mal orby
cont actwithf oodstuff
sorot hermat erialswhichhav ebeencont aminated.
 Thedi seasei sspr eadmechani cal
lybyt hemov ementofani mals,personsand
vehicleswhi chhav ebeencont aminatedbyt hevir
us.
 Theboot s,clothingandhandsofast ockmanwhohasat tendeddiseasedani mals
canspr eadthedi sease.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Thesev erit
yofclini
calsignswill
dependont hestr
ainofthevi
rus,ageandspecies
oftheani mal.
 Th esi
gnscanr angef r
om ami l
dinfecti
ontosev er
e.
 Cli
nicalsignsaremor esev er
eincattleandintensi
vel
yrearedpigsthaninsheep
andgoat s.
 Averageincubationperiodistwot osixdays,sometimesitcantakelongert
han
that.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
ncat
tl
e
 Lameness
 Reducedmi l
ky i
eld.
 Soresandblist
ersonf eet.
 Riseintemperaturefortwotothreeday
s.
 Cowsdev el
opbl i
stersonteats.
 Quiveri
ngli
psandf rothi
ngofmout h.
 Sti
cky,foamy,str
ingysali
va(sal
iv
ation).
 Vesicl
esr upt
ureanddischar
geclearorcl oudyf
lui
d.
 Lossofappet i
tebecauseofpainful
t ongueandmouthbl
i
ster
s.

Fi
g.5.
7.1

Sal
i
vat
ioni
ncat
tl
e

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
nsheepandgoat
s
 Orallesi
onswhi char eoftenmi l
d.
 Suddenandsev erelameness.
 Pyrexia(abnormal elevat
ionofbodytemper at
ure).
 Theani mal l
i
esdownandbecomesv er
yreluctanttorise.
 Footlesionsalongt hecor onar
ybandorint
er -
digit
alspaces
 Lesionsont hedent alpad.
 Agalacti
ai nmilki
ngsheepandgoat s(f
ail
ureofmi l
kletdown)
.
 Deathofy oungst ockwi t
houtshowingcli
nicalsigns.

Fi
g.5.
7.2
I
diopat
hicor
alul
cer
sinsheep’
smout
h

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
npi
gs
 Severef ootlesionsandl amenesswi thdetachmentoftheclawhornespecial
l
y
whenhousedonconcr et
e.
 Theani mal preferstol i
edown.
 Theani mal squeal sloudlyandhobblespainful
lywhenforcedtomov e.
 Vesiclesonpr essurepointsoflimbsalongthecarpusresulti
nknuckli
ng.
 Vesicularlesionsont hesnout.
 Abortion.
 Vesiclesappearr ai
sedont opofthetongue,snoutandtheudder
.
 Thev esiclesmayr uptureleavi
ngsmal lul
cers.

Fi
g.5.
7.3
Det
achmentoft
hecl
awhor
ninpi
gs

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Vesi cularstomat iti
s.
 Phot otoxicder mat it
is.
 My cot i
cstomat it
is.
 I
nf ectiousbov i
ner hinot
rachei
ti
s.
 Bluet ongue.
 Bov inepapul arst omat i
ti
s.
 Footr ot
 Vesi cularexant hema.
 Swi nev esiculardisease.
 Rinder pest.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Complementf i
xati
ont est(CFT)
 Serum neutr
ali
sati
ontest( SNT)
 Enzyme-li
nkedimmunor sorbentassay(
ELI
SA)
 Polymerasechainreacti
on( PCR)

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Diagnosticlesionswhi charesi ngl
eormul ti
plefr
om twomi l
li
met r
estot en
centimetresi nsize.
 Lesionsinanyst ageofdev elopmentf r
om asmal lwhit
eareatoaf lui
dbl i
ster.
 Vesiclesbur stleavi
ngr ederodedar eawhichisthencoveredwi t
hagr ayfibrinous
coating.
 Drylesionswhi char enecroti
candnotv esi
cular(morewidespreadinpigor al
cavit
y )
.
 Tigerhear tl
esionswhi charechar acter
isedbyagr ayoryell
owst r
eakingint he
my ocardium.
 Vesicularlesionsont herumen.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
off
ootandmout
hdi
sease
 Manageandcont r
ol t
hei ntroductionofnewani malst oexistingstock.
 Maintaincleanli
nessbydi sinfecti
nglivestockpens, buil
dings, vehi
clesand
equipment .
 Scruti
nizeandr eportsickness.
 Gentledest r
ucti
onofal linfect ed,r
ecov er
edandFMDv ul
ner ablecont actanimals.
 Correctdisposalofmanur e, deadcarcassesandal lanimal products.
 Closewat chandt raci
ngofpot enti
all
yinfectedorexposedl ivestock.
 Stri
ctquar ant
ineandcont rol ofli
vest
ockmov ements,equipmentandv ehicl
es.
 Inendemi careas,cull
ingmaybecompl ement edbyv acci
nat ionforsuscept ibl
e
l
ivestock.
 Vaccinesusedmustpr otectagai nstthepar t
icularv
irusst r
ainpr evalentinthearea.

Tr
eat
ment
 Ther
ei snotr
eatmentofFMD.
 Vesi
clesanderosi
onsmustbetr
eat
edt
opr
eventsecondar
yinf
ect
ion.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(f
ootandmout
h).

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Gloves

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoftheani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,ani
mal cur
rentst at
usandits
hi
story,
managementandenv i
ronment alhi
stor
y).
2.Observetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,(obser
vingit
sbehav i
our,appetit
e,l
esi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi ti
on).
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincreasedsensit
ivi
tyduri
ngpal pati
on.

Fi
g.5.
2.6

Pal
pat
ion

 Listentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
,forexampl
elabour
edbr
eat
hing
(auscult
ation).
 Ta ketemper at
ureoft
heanimalusingathermomet
er .
 Ta kepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
 Re cordtheresult
s.

Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orf
ootandmout
h
Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
ncat
tl
e
 Lameness.
 Reducedmilkyield.
 Soresandbli
stersont hef
eet
.
 Risei
ntemperat uref
ortwotothreeday
s.
 Cowsdev el
opbl i
ster
sonteats.
 Quiver
ingl i
psandf rot
hingofmouth.
 Sti
cky,foamy ,str
ingysali
va(sal
i
vati
on).
 Vesicl
esr uptureanddischar
geclearorcloudyflui
d,l
eav
ingr
awer odedar
eas
surr
oundedbyr aggedfragmentsofloosetissues.
 Lossofappet i
tebecauseofpainonthetongueandmout hbl
ist
ers.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
nsheepandgoat
s
 Orallesi
onswhi char eoftenmi l
d.
 Suddenandsev erelameness.
 Pyrexia(abnormal elevat
ionofbodytemper at
ure).
 Theani mal l
i
esdownandbecomesv er
yreluctanttorise.
 Footlesionsalongt hecor onar
ybandorint
er -
digit
alspaces
 Lesionsont hedent alpad.
 Agalacti
ai nmilki
ngsheepandgoat s(f
ail
ureofmi l
kletdown)
.
 Deathofy oungst ockwi t
houtshowingcli
nicalsigns.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofFMDi
npi
gs
 Severef ootlesionsandl amenesswi thdetachmentoftheclawhornespecial
l
y
whenhousedonconcr et
e.
 Theani mal preferstol i
edown.
 Theani mal squeal sloudlyandhobblespainful
lywhenforcedtomov e.
 Vesiclesonpr essurepointsoflimbsalongthecarpusresulti
nknuckli
ng.
 Vesicularlesionsont hesnout.
 Abortion.
 Vesiclesappearr ai
sedont opofthetongue,snoutandtheudder
.
 Thev esiclesmayr uptureleavi
ngsmal lul
cers.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.

Mat
eri
als
 Protect
ivecl
othi
ng.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknife(wit
houthi
nge)
.
Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheani malonitsl
eftside.
2.Conductext er
nalexaminati
on, observ
ingi
fther
ear eanylesi
ons,br
uisesorany
abnormal i
ti
es.
3.Cutbackl egs.
4.Cutbackski nofbodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycav i
tyandpulltheabdomi nalmuscl
ewal lcar
eful
lyt
hroughbell
y
muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdi aphragm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanyl esi
onsorabnormali
tiesforexampleaccumulat
ionof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
hagi ng.

Fi
g.5.
7.4

Postmor
tem exami
nat
iononagoat

Expect
edobser
vat
ions:
 Diagnosticlesi
onswhi charesingl
eormul
tipl
efrom t
womi l
li
metrestoten
centimetresinsize.
 Lesionsinanyst ageofdev el
opmentfr
om asmal l
whiteareatoaf l
uidbli
ster
.
 Ve si
clesburstleavi
ngar ederodedar
eawhichisthencoveredwithagr ayfi
brinous
coating.
 Drylesionswhichar enecroti
cinst
eadofv
esicul
ar(morewi despr
eadi npigoral
cav i
ty)
.
 Tigerhear
tlesionscharact
eri
sedbyagrayory
ell
owst
reaki
ngi
nthemy
ocar
dium
causedbydet eri
orat
ionandnecrosi
s.
 Ve si
cul
arl
esionsont herumen.

Summar
y
 Footandmout hdisease(FMD)iscausedbyaPi conav i
rusv i
rus.
 FMDi sanacute,highl
ycontagi
ous,vir
aldiseasewhi chpr i
mar i
lyaf
fect
scloven
hoofedanimals.
 Thev i
ruscanbetransmitt
edbothdi r
ectl
yandi ndir
ect l
y.
 Therearesevenknowni mmunologicall
ydifferentser oty
peswhi chport
raysalmost
si
mi l
arsymptomsbutdi st
ingui
shableinthel aboratory.
 Thesev er
it
yofcli
nicalsi
gnswilldependont hest rainofthev ir
us,ageandspecies
oftheanimal.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Justi
fyhowy ouwoul dconductasurveyonf ootandmouthdisease,el
aborat
ing
thediseasediagnosis,
postmortem proceduresandeducat
ingont heprev
entiv
e
andcont r
olmeasur esoft
hedisease.

Lumpyski
ndi
sease
 Lumpyski ndi
sease( LSD)i sanacut e,i
nfecti
ous,vi
raldiseasecausedbyavi
rus
bel
ongingt ot
hef amilyPoxv i
ri
dae.
 Thevirusisal
soknownasNeet hlingvir
us.
 LSDmai nlyaf
fectscattlebutaf ewcaseshav ebeenr eport
edinAsianwat
er
buff
alo,sheepandgoat s.
 Thediseaseischaracterisedbyf everandv ar
ioussizedlumpsornodulesint
he
ski
ncov eri
ngallpart
soft hebody .
 LSDisalsocall
edNodul ardermat i
ti
s.
 Iti
scommondur ingrainyseason.

Causes
 Lumpyski ndiseasei scausedbyapoxvir
usfrom thefami lyPoxvi
ri
dae,
genusCapr i
poxvirus.
 Thevirusisstable,survi
vesforext
endedperi
odsatambi enttemperatur
eespeci
all
y
i
ndr i
edscabs.
 Thevirusisvulnerabletosunli
ghtanddet
ergentscontainingli
pidsolv
ents.
 LSDispr i
marilyspreadamongani malsbybit
inginsects(v ect
or)
,suchas
mosqui t
oesandbi tingfl
ies.
Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Bit
ingf l
ies( arthr
opodv ector)playthemosti mpor tantroleinspreadi
ngt hevi
rus.
 Inf
ect i
onsi ncreasedur ingt hewetsummerandaut umnmont hswhent hereare
mor ef l
i
es.
 Transmi ssioncanoccurt hroughdi ff
erentmaterial
s, f
orexampl eingesti
onoffeed
andwat erwhi chiscont ami natedwi thinf
ectedsaliva.
 Animal scanbei nfectedexper i
ment all
ybyinoculationwithmat eri
alfr
om
cutaneousnodul esorbl ood.
 Althoughi tisnotcommon, thev i
rusmaybespr eadbydi rectcontactwit
hskin
l
esi ons,sali
v a,nasaldischar ge,mi l
korsemenofi nfectedanimals.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 I
ncubat ionper i
odusual l
yist woday stot woweeks.
 LSDsi gnsandsy mptomsr angef rom in-apparentt osevereil
lness.
 Temper at uremayr i
seupt o41° C.
 Swollenl egsandsor esdev elop.
 Enlar
gedl ymphnodes.
 Pneumoni aandcoughi ngasar esul tofinfecti
onoft herespi
rator
ytractandlungs.
 Thicknasal di
schargeoff luidwi thwat erypus.
 I
nferti
lebul l
sduet oor chit
is( infecti
onoft hetestes).
 I
nferti
lecows.
 Mastitiswhi chlowersmi lkpr oduct i
on.
 Lachrymat ion,i
nfecti
onoft heey eorblindness.
 Emaci ation
 Sali
vation
 Deathsar egener al
lyrarebuti nsev erecases.
 Theani mal maysuccumbt osecondar ybact er
ialinfecti
ons.
 Recov erymayt akeonet ot hreemont hs.
 Skinnodul esandul cerswhi chv aryfrom af ewt ohundr eds.
 Thenodul esi zerangesf r
om 0. 5cm t o5cm.
 Thenodul escanbef oundany wher eont heski n,i
ncludingthenose,udder,vulv
a,
andscr ot um aswel lasint hemout h.

Fi
g.5.
8.1 Cat
tl
ewi
thl
umpyski
ndi
sease

Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Bovi
neherpesmammi l
li
ti
s(pseudo-
lumpyski
ndi
sease)
 Bovi
nepapul arstomati
ti
s(Parapoxv
irus)
 Pseudocowpox( Par
apoxvi
rus)
 Dermatophil
osis
 Demodicosis
 I
nsectortickbites
 Besnoit
iosi
s
 Ri
nderpest
 Hypodermabov i
sinfecti
on
 Photosensi
ti
sati
on
 Urt
icari
a
 Cutaneoustuber
culosis
 Onchocercosi
s

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 I
mmunof l
uorescence
 Enzymeli
nkedimmunosor bentassay(
ELI
SA)
 Poly
merasechainreact
ion(PCR)

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Thenodul esar egr eyish-pink,withnecr ot i
ccent resont heskin.
 Thesenodul esof t
enext endintot hesubcut aneousandunder l
yingskeletalmuscle.
 Theadj acentt i
ssueexhi bit
scongest ion,haemor rhagesandoedema.
 Ther egional l
ymphnodesar eusual lyenlarged.
 Flatorul cerat i
velesionsmaybef oundont hemucousmembr anesoft heor aland
nasal cav it
ies,phar y
nx ,epiglot
tisandt rachea.
 Nodul esorot herlesionscanoccuri nthegast rointesti
nal t
ract(parti
cularl
ythe
abomasum) ,udderandl ungs.
 Italsooccur sinot hert i
ssuessuchast heur i
narybl adder,ki
dney s,uter
usand
testes.
 Lesionsi nt hel ungsar ehar dtoobser veandof tenemer geasf ocalareasof
atelectasisandoedema.
 Themedi astinallymphnodesmay beenl argedinsev er
ecasesandpl eur i
ti
smaybe
clear.
 Someani mal shav eot hercompl icat i
onssuchassy novi
tisandt endosynov i
tis.
 Someabor tedf oetusesandpr emat urecal vesmayhav eseveral ski
nnodul es.
 Theycanal sohav elesi onsoni nter nalorgans.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
es
 Checky ouranimalsf r
equentlyforanysi gnsofthedisease,
especi al
lyski
nlesions
orlameness.
 Segr egateneworr eturninganimal sforsev er
alweeksbeforeput t
ingthem wit
ht he
restoft heherd.
 Mov ementr estri
ctions,removal ofaffectedanimalsandvacci
nat i
onar eusual
ly
effective.
 Minimi seexposureofy ouranimalst oinsectssuchasmosquit oesorbiti
ngfli
es.
 Applyv ectorcontrolmeasur esony ourfarm.
 Cat t
leshouldbedi ppedi nadi ptankt hatcontai
nsaninsecti
cide.
 Cor rectdisposalofdeadani
malsf orexampleinci
nerati
on.
 Disinfectionofpremisesandequipment .
 LSDcanbecont rol
ledeff
ect
ivel
ybyv accinat
ionwhichshouldbedonebef
ore
Oct oberorear l
yNov ember(
beforerainyseasonstart
s)inZi
mbabwe.
 An nual vacci
nati
oni sr
ecommended.

Tr
eat
ment
 ThereisnotreatmentofLSDsopr eventi
onbyv acci
nati
onisthemosteffect
ive
meansofcont rol.
 I
nsev erecases,antibi
oti
csmaybeusedt otreatorprev
entsecondar
yinf
ections.
 I
ncaseswher ethereisswel
li
ngofthelimbs,anti
-i
nfl
ammat or
ydrugsare
recommendedf orexampledexamethasone.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(l
umpyski
ndi
sease)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoftheani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,
hist
oryoftheanimal,
managementandenv ir
onmentalhist
ory).
2.Observetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,observi
ngit
sbehavi
our,appeti
te,
lesi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi t
ion.
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincreasedsensi
ti
vit
yduri
ngpalpati
on.

Fi
g.5.
8.2 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.
Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orl
umpyski
n:
 Temper at uremayr i
seupt o41° C.
 Swollenl egsandsor esdevelop.
 Enlar
gedl ymphnodes.
 Pneumoni aandcoughi ngasar esultofi
nfecti
onoftherespi
rat
oryt
ractandlungs.
 Thicknasal di
schar gewithflui
df i
l
ledwithwaterypus.
 I
nferti
lebul l
s.
 I
nferti
lecows.
 Mastitis
 Lachrymat ion
 Emaci ati
on
 Sali
vation
 Deathst houghv eryrare.
 Secondar ybact eriali
nfecti
ons.
 Recov erymayt akeonet othreemont hs.
 Skinnodul esandul cer
swhi chv ar
yfrom afewt ohundr
eds.
 Thenodul esi zer angesfrom 0.5cm to5cm.
 Thenodul escanbef oundany whereont heski
n, i
ncl
udi
ngthenose,udder
,vulv
a,
andscr otum aswel lasinthemout h.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprot
ecti
veclot
hing
 Rubberglov
es
 Apron
 Facemask
 Eyegoggles
 Soli
dknif
e(withouthi
nge)

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheanimalonitsl
eftsi
de.
2.Conductexter
nalexaminat
ion,obser
vingi
fther
ear
eanyl
esi
ons,
brui
sesorany
abnormal
iti
es.
3.Cutbacklegs.
4.Cutbackskinofthebodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycav i
tyandpull
theabdominalmuscl
ewal
lcar
eful
l
ythroughbell
y
muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdiaphr
agm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanylesi
onsorabnor
mali
ti
esf
orexampleaccumulat
ionof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
haging.

Fi
g.5.
8.3 Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Expect
edobser
vat
ions:
 Greyi
sh-pink, profoundnodul eswi thnecr oticcent resontheskin.
 Thesenodul esof t
enext endintot hesubcut aneousandunder l
yingskel etalmuscl e.
 Theadjacentt i
ssuesexhi bitcongest ion,haemor rhagesandoedema.
 Theregional l
ymphnodesar eusual lyenlarged.
 Fl
atorul cerat i
velesionsmaybef oundont hemucousmembr anesoft heor al and
nasalcav it
ies,pharynx ,
epiglott
isandt rachea.
 Nodulesorot herlesionscanoccuri nthegast rointesti
naltr
act(par t
icularl
yt he
abomasum) ,udderandl ungs.
 Theycanal sooccuri not herti
ssuessuchast heur inar
ybladder,kidneys, uterus
andtestes.
 Lesi
onsi nt hel ungsarehar dtoobser veandof tenemer geasf ocal areasof
atel
ectasisandoedema.
 Themedi astinallymphnodesmay beenl ar
gedi nsev er
ecasesandpl eur i
ti
smaybe
cl
ear.
 Someani mal shav eothercompl icat i
onssuchassy novi
ti
sandt endosy nov i
tis.
 Someabor tedf oetusesandpr emat urecalvesmayhav esev er
al skinnodul es.
 Theycanal sohav elesionsoni nter nalorgans.

Summar
y
 Lumpyskindisease( LSD)isanacut e,i
nfectious,vi
raldiseasecausedbyavir
us
bel
ongingt ot
hef amilyPoxviri
dae.
 LSDcanal sobecal l
edNodul ardermati
tis.
 Bit
ingfl
ies(ar
thropodv ector
)playthemosti mportantroleinspreadi
ngthev
irus.
 I
ncubationperi
odi stwot ofourteendays.
 LSDsignsandsy mpt omsr angesf r
om i
n- apparenttosev er
eill
ness.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Withthegui
danceofaf
aci
l
itat
or,
conductadi
seasedi
agnosi
spr
ocedur
eusi
ngt
he
schoolani
mals.

Redwat
er
 Redwat erisat ickbor nediseasewhi chinf
ectsanddest roysredbloodcellsi
n
animal s.
 I
tisal socal ledbov i
nebabesiosis,bacil
lar
yhaemogl obinuri
a,pir
oplasmosisand
ti
ckf ever .
 Therear etwot y pesofr edwaterdiseases,whichareAfricanandAsi at
icredwater
.
 Redwat erdiseasei sfoundintropi
cal andsubtropi
calcli
mat eswher et
icksare
prevalent .
 I
nendemi car eas, cat
tlebecomei nfectedatay oungageanddev elopalong-t
erm
i
mmuni ty.
 Mor bidityandmor tal
ityvar
iesgreatly,
theyareinfl
uencedbyexi st
ingtreatments,
pastexposur et oast rainofthepar asi
teandv acci
nati
onst atus.

Causes
 Redwat erdi seaseiscausedbyapr otozoanbloodparasi
tewhichis
aBabesi aspeci es.
 I
tiscausedbyt wospeci eswhichar eBabesiabigeminaandBabesiabov i
s.
 Babesiabi gemi nacausesAf r
icanredwat erandBabesiabovi
scausesAsi an
redwater
 Animalsinf ectedwiththesepar asi
tesr emaincarr
ier
sforconsi
derableperi
ods.
 Animalst hathav erecoveredfrom Africanredwaterhav
eadegr eeofimmuni t
y
againstAsi aticorEuropeanredwater .
 I
nsheepandgoat sredwateriscausedbyB.ov i
sandB.mot asirespect
ivel
y.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Redwaterisonlytransmitt
edbyticks.
 Asi
ati
candAf ricanredwateraretransmitt
edbytwotypesofbl
uet
icks.
 Asi
ati
cr edwateristransmit
tedbyRhi pi
cephal
usmicr
oplusandAf
ri
canredwat
er
byRhi
picephalusdecol or
atus.

1.Af
ri
canr
edwat
ert
ransmi
ssi
on
 Ticksar ei
nf ect
edwiththediseasewhenf eedingonani nfect
edorcar ri
eranimal.
 Thedi seasei str
ansmitt
edf r
om thel
arvalstagev iat
heny mphst aget otheadult.
 Engorgingadul tfemal
et i
ckspickuptheinfectionandt r
ansmitthedi seasethrough
theeggst age( eggsarelai
dont heground).
 I
tt hencarriestothenextgenerati
onoflarvaeinapr ocesscall
edt rans-ovar
ian
transmission.
 Th enymphsandadul t
soft henextgenerati
ont ransmitthedi
seaset osuscept i
ble
hostani mals.

2.Asi
ati
corEur
opeanr
edwat
ert
ransmi
ssi
on
 Ther
out
eoft
ransmi
ssi
onoft
hedi
seasei
sal
i
ket
othatofAf
ri
canr
edwat
er.
 Theinf
ectedfemaleticktr
ansmitsthediseaset ransovi
ari
all
ytoof
fspr
ing.
 Howeveronlythelarv
alstageofthet i
cktransmitsthediseasetot
heanimal.
 Thelar
vaenol ongercarr
ythediseaseaftertransmitti
ngit.
 Ther
eforenextgenerati
onofnymphsi sagaininfectedbyfeedi
ngonacarri
er
ani
mal,whichoncemor etransmitsthediseaset oadultt
icks.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Incattl
e,redwateri
smost l
yobser
vedinadul
tani
mals.
 Infect
edani mal
sbuildupalast
ingimmunit
yagai
nstre-
inf
ect
ionwi
tht
hesame
species.
 Incubati
onperiodusuall
yisar
oundtwoweeks.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofAsi
anr
edwat B.bov
er( is)
 Conditi
onsofAsi anr edwateraremor eseveret
hanot herstr
ains.
 Highfev er
.
 Parasit
aemi a(per centageofinfectedery
throcy
tes),
itusuall
ydoesnotexceedone
percent.
 Neurologicsignssuchasi ncoordinati
on,t
eethgri
ndingandmani a.
 Cattl
emaybef oundont hegroundhav i
nginvol
untarymov ementsoft
helegs.
 Darkcolouredur ine.
 Anorexia.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofAf
ri
canr
edwat B.bi
er( gemi
na)
 Fever
 Anorexia
 Affectedanimalmayi sol
ateitsel
ffr
om theher
d.
 Lacksst rengt
h,depressi
onandunwi ll
i
ngtomov e.
 Haemogl obi
nuri
a(darkcolour
edur i
ne).
 Anaemi a
 Lesions
 Parasitaemiaoftenexceedstenpercent.

Fi
g.5.
9.1 Ani
mal
inf
ect
edwi
thr
edwat
erbecomest
ooweakt
ost
and.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofr
edwat
ercausedbyB.di
ver
gens
 Cli
nicalsympt omsforBabesi
adiver
gensar eparal
l
eltoB.bigemina.
 Thesur vi
vorsmaybeweakandi npoorcondi ti
onthoughtheygeneral
lyr
ecov
er
compl et
ely.
 Sub-acuteinfect
ionswit
hlessvi
sibl
ecli
nicalsi
gns.
Di
ff
erent
ial
diagnosi
s
 Fever
 Hemol yti
canemi a.
 Anaplasmosi s
 Trypanosomi asi
s
 Theil
eriosis
 Bacil
laryhaemogl obi
nur
ia.
 Leptospirosi
s
 Eperythrozoonosis
 Rabiesandot herencephal
it
idesmayalsobeconsi
der
edi
nani
mal
swi
thdi
seases
thatshowcent ralner
voussystem si
gns.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Microscopicexaminati
onofblood.
 Poly
mer asechainreacti
on(PCR).
 Enzymel i
nkedimmunosor bentassay(
ELI
SA)
.
 I
ndirectfl
uorescentant
ibody(I
FA)test
.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Lesionsobser vedar emostof tenassoci atedwi t
hani ntr
avascularhaemolyt
ic
conditi
on.
 Paleori cter
icmucousmembr anes.
 Anaemi aandpal emuscl es.
 Bloodappear sthinandwat ery.
 Enlargedandy ellowl i
ver.
 Distendedgal lbladderwi ththickdar kgreenbile.
 Jaundicepar ticularl
ynot edi ntheconnect ivetissue.
 Oedemat ousandhaemor rhagiclymphnodes.
 Oedemaandcongest edl ungs.
 Enlargeddar kspl een.
 Kidneysappeardar kerthannor mal withpossiblepetechial
haemor rhages.
 Bladdercont ainsdar kr edorbr own-colouredurine.
 Subcut aneoust issues, abdomi nal fatandoment um appearict
eric.
 Possibleoedemaofl ungs.
 Pinkhaemor rhageoft hebov inebr ain.
 Petechiaeorecchy mosi sonsur f
aceofhear tandbr ain.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
es
 Useofredwat
erorant
i-
ti
ckvacci
nes.
 Prophy
lact
ic(
prev
enti
ve)t
reat
mentofcat
tl
ewhi
char
eaboutt
obemov
edt
oar
isk
ar
ea.
 Catt
leshoul dbeexposedt oti
ckinf estedgrazi
ngar easbeforesixmont
hs.
 Preventi
ngani malsfrom t
ickbit
est hrough:
o Pa sturemanagement( clearscr ub,pr
eventov er
growth).
o Pr ev enti
ngcattlefr
om grazingi nti
ckinfest
edar easduri
ngmajorri
sk
per i
ods.
o Ti ckcont rolbyacaraci
dedippi ngofliv
estock.

Tr
eat
ment
 Di
minazeneacet ur
ate:
o Iti sababesi aci
debutwi thanar rowtherapeuticindex.
o Itdoesnotel iminateB. bovisbutitcaneli
mi nateB.bigeminahencei
tissaid
tohav eanar rowt herapeuticindex.
 I
midocarbdi propri
onat:
o Iti sthemostpr efer
redone.
o Itel i
mi natesB.bigemi na,B.bov i
sandB.di vergens.
o Ithasasi gnifi
cantprophy lact
icactivi
tyagainstBabesiaspeci
esespeci yB.
al
l
bigemi na.
 Tet
racycli
nesbot hshor tacti
ngandl ongacting.

Exper
iment1:
Diseasedi
agnosi
s
Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(r
edwat
er)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoftheani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,presentstat
usandhi st
oryoft
he
ani
mal ,
managementandenv i
ronment alhi
stor
y)fr
om t hefar
mer .
2.Observetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,(obser
vingit
sbehav iour
,appeti
te,l
esi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi ti
on).
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincreasedsensit
ivit
yduringpalpat
ion.

Fi
g.5.
9.2 Pal
pat
ion
4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orr
edwat
er
Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofr
edwat
ercausedbyB.bov
is
 Conditi
onsofAsi anr edwateraremoresev erethanot herstr
ains.
 Highfev er
.
 Parasit
aemi a(per centageofinfect
ederythrocytes),i
tusuall
ydoesnotexceedone
percent.
 Neurologicsignssuchasi n-coordi
nat
ion,teethgrindingandmani a.
 Cattl
emaybef oundont hegroundhavinginvoluntarymov ementsofthel
egs.
 Darkcolouredur ine.
 Anorexia.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofr
edwat
ercausedbyB.bi
gemi
na
 Fever
 Anorexia
 Affectedanimalmayi sol
ateitsel
ffr
om theher
d.
 Lacksst rengt
h,depressi
onandunwi ll
i
ngtomov e.
 Haemogl obi
nuri
a(darkcolour
edur i
ne).
 Anaemi a
 Lesions
 Parasitaemiaoftenexceedstenpercent.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsofr
edwat
ercausedbyB.di
ver
gens
 Cli
nicalsympt omsforBabesi
adiver
gensar eparal
l
eltoB.bigeminainfect
ions.
 Thesur vi
vorsmaybeweakandi npoorcondi ti
onthoughtheygenerall
yrecover
compl et
ely.
 Sub-acuteinfect
ionswit
hlessvi
sibl
ecli
nicalsi
gns.

Exper
iment2:
Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion
Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.
Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprotect
iveclot
hing.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknif
e( wit
houthinge).

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheani malonitsl
eftsi
de.
2.Conductext er
nalexaminat
ion,observ
ingift
her
ear eanylesi
ons,br
uisesorany
abnormal i
ti
es.
3.Cutbackl egs.
4.Cutbackski nofthebodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycav i
tyandpullt
heabdomi nalmuscl
ewal lcar
eful
lyt
hroughbell
y
muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdiaphragm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanylesionsorabnormal
i
tiesforexampleaccumulat
ionof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
haging.

Fi
g.5.
9.3 Postmor
tem exami
nat
ionofacat
tl
ecar
cass

Expect
edobser
vat
ions:
 Lesionsobser vedar emostof tenassoci atedwi t
hani ntr
avascularhaemolyt
ic
conditi
on.
 Paleori cter
icmucousmembr anes.
 Anaemi aandpal emuscl es.
 Bloodappear sthinandwat ery.
 Enlargedandy ellowl i
ver.
 Distendedgal lbladderwi ththickdar kgreenbile.
 Jaundicepar ticularl
ynot edi ntheconnect ivetissue.
 Oedemat ousandhaemor rhagiclymphnodes.
 Oedemaandcongest edl ungs.
 Enlargeddar kspl een.
 Kidneysappeardar kerthannor mal withpossiblepetechial
haemor rhages.
 Bladdercont ainsdar kr edorbr own-colouredurine.
 Subcut aneoust issues, abdomi nal fatandoment um appearict
eric.
 Possibleoedemaofl ungs.
 Pinkhaemor rhageoft hebov inebr ain.
 Petechiaeorecchy mosi sonsur f
aceofhear tandbr ain.
Summar
y
 Redwaterisapr ot
ozoaldiseasetransmitt
edbyti
ckswhichinf
ectsanddest
roy
s
redbloodcell
s.
 I
tiscausedbyBabesi aspeci es.
 Therearetwocommont ypesofredwater.
 Asiat
icblueti
ckRhipicephalus(Boophil
us)micr
oplusandtheAfr
icanbl
ueti
ck
Rhipi
cephalus(Boophil
us)decoloratus.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Col l
ectdi
ffer
entty
pesoft i
cksandcar
ryouttheti
ckident
if
icat
ionprocess.
2.Visitthenear
bydipt ankandenquir
eaboutt hedi
ppingpr
ocedures.Coll
ect
i
nf ormati
onondipt anksize,t
ypeofacari
cidesusedandthecorrectr
atiosusedi
n
thechemi calf
ormulations.

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el)/Ani
mal
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ence
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ent

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ivi
ti
es

1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

PROTOZOANDI
SEASE-TRYPANOSOMI
ASI
S(NAGANA)
 Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scusscausesandtr
ansmissi
onoftr
ypanosomiasi
s.
2.Descr
ibesi
gnsandsymptomsoftry
panosomiasis.
3.Descr
ibepr
event
ionandcontr
olmeasuresoftr
ypanosomi
asi
s.

Tr
ypanosomi
asi
s(nagana)
 Trypanosomiasisisav ect
orborne(protozoan)di sease.
 I
taf f
ectsbothanimalsandhumans( zoonot i
c).
 Trypanosomiasisisgeneral
lyachron¬icev ol
v i
ngdi seasewhichisusual
l
yfat
ali
f
appropri
atetreatmentisnotestabl
i
shed.
 I
tleadst oconsider
ablelossofweightandanaemi a.
 I
tispr ev
alentinthetr
opicalandsubtropicalregions.
 Trypanosomiasisisalsoknownasnaganaorsl eepingsickness.

Causes
 Trypanosomi asisiscausedbyt hebi teofaGl ossi
naspeci es( t
setsefly).
 Theev ol
utionoft rypanosomi asisv ar i
eswi delyaccordingt othetrypanosome
i
nv olv edandt heanimal speciesorbr eedaf fect
ed.
 Trypanosomesar epr otozoanpar asit esint hefamilyTrypanosomat idae.
 Mostt r
ypanosomesar etransmi t
tedbyt setsefli
es.
 Africant rypanosomi asisiscausedbyTr ypanosoma( T)br ucei
gambi enseandTr y
panosoma( T)br uceir hodesiensewhi chisazoonot icdisease.
 Ther emai ningtsetse- tr
ansmi tt
edt ry panosomespr imar i
l
yaf fectanimal sand
causeani mal tr
ypanosomi asis.
 Themostsi gnif
icantspeci esar eTr y panosoma( T.)congolense, T.vi
v axandT.
bruceispeci es.
 T.congol ensei sclassi fi
edintot hreet ypeswhi charethesav annah, forestandkili
fi
.
 Inpi gst ry
pano¬somi asiscanbecausedbyT.si miae.
 Zebucat t
lear eextremel ysus¬cept iblet oinfectonscausedbyT.
i
congol enseandT.v i
v ax.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Mosttr
ypanosomesdevel
opinsi
detset
sefli
esf
oronetoaf
ewweeks.
 Tset
sefli
es(Gl
ossi
naspeci
es)actasbi
ologi
cal
vect
ors.

Fi
g.5.
10.
1 Tset
sef
ly(
Glossi
naspeci
es)

 Whenani
nfect
edt
set
sef
lybi
tesanani
mal
,thepar
asi
tesar
etr
ansmi
tt
edi
nthe
 saliva.
 Trypanosomescanal sobespr eadbyf omi tesandmechani cal vectorsincl
uding
surgical instrument s,needles,syri
ngesandv ariousbi t
ingfliesincludinghor sefli
es
(Tabani dae) .
 T.v i
v axinSout hAmer i
cadoesnotr equiretsetsef li
estodev el
op, i
tistransmi t
ted
mechani cal l
y.
 Themosti mpor tantvectorsareTabani daeandst ablefli
es( Stomoxy sspeci es).
 Thei mmuner esponseofi nfectedanimal smayf ai ltocompl etelyeliminate
trypanosomesandani malscanbecomei n-
appar entcar r
iers.
 Thesei n-appar entinfecti
onscanber eactiv
atedi ft heanimal isstressed.
 Ver t
ical t
r ansmi ssioncanoccuri ntr
a-uteroanddur i
ngpar t
um.
 ForT.br ucei,per -oralt
ransmissioncanoccuraf tert hebirth, whencont ami nant
bloodorot herfluidsareingestedbyt hecal f.
 Per -
or altransmi ssionisalsocommonf orcar ni
v or eswheneat ingfreshi nf
ected
prey.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Thecl inical signsoft rypanosomi asi svar yaccor dingtothetry
panosomespecies.
 Signsandsy mpt omsmi ghtbesub- cli
nical,wher ebyinfect
edani malsshowno
over tsignsoft hedi seasebutcanmani festifstressed.
 Thei ncubat ionper iodf orAf ri
cant ry panosomi asisrangesfrom fourday st
o
appr oximat elyei ghtweeks.
 I
nf ectionswi t
hmor ev ir
ulenti solateshav eashor t
erincubati
onper iod.
 Mostcasesoft rypanosomi asi sarechr oni c.
 I
tcanbeacut eandf atalwithinaweek.
 Dur i
ngt heonsetoft hedi sease, l
ocal i
zedswel li
ng( chancr
e)att hesiteoft
hef
ly
bi
t esbutt hi
susual lyr emainsunnot iced.
 Thegener alsignsandsy mpt omsi ncl ude:
o I nt ermi t
tentf ever.
o An aemi a
o L ymphadenopat hy(enl argedl ymphnodes) .
o We i
ghtl oss.
o An imal slosecondi tionandbecomepr ogressivel
yemaci ated.
o De creasei nmi lky i
eldi ndair yanimal s.
o An imal swi llappeardul l.
o Ne urologi cal signs.
o De pendentoedema.
o Ca rdiacl esions.
o Di ar r
hoea
o Ke ratit
is
o L acr i
mat ionandocul ardischar ge.
o Ap pet i
tel oss
o Vi scer alandmucosal haemor rhagesmi ghtbeobser ved.
 Effectsonr epr oduct i
oninclude:
 oAbor t
ions
oPremat urebirths.
oPerinatallosses.
oTesticulardamagei nmal
es.
 Deat
hsar ecommonamongchr oni
cal
l
yinf
ect
ed.

Di
ff
erent
ialdi
agnosi
s
 Acutetr
ypanosomi asishassimil
archaract
eri
sti
cswit
h:
o Babesi osis
o An apl asmosi s
o Thei leri
osi s(EastCoastFever
).
o Ha emor rhagicsepti
caemia.
o An thrax
 Chroni
ctry panosomasi swithanaemiaandemaciat
ionhassi
mil
archar
act
eri
sti
cs
wit
h:
o He lmi nthosis
o Ma lnut ri
tion
o Otherhaemopar asi
toses.

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Microscopicexaminati
onofbloodandt i
ssuesampl
es.
 Enzyme-li
nkedimmunosor bentassay(ELI
SA).
 Poly
mer asechainreacti
on(PCR).
 I
ndirectfl
uorescentant
ibodytest(
IFAT).

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Post-mort
em lesi
onswhi charenonspeci
fi
candr elat
edtoanaemi
a.
 Emaciati
onandser ousat r
ophyoffat.
 Enlar
gedlymphnodes, l
i
verandspleen.
 Excessi
veflui
dint hebodycav i
ti
esandsubcutaneousoedema.
 Petechi
alhaemorrhages.
 Atr
ophiclymphoidt issueinthetermi
nalphases.
 Severemyocardit
is.
 I
nflammationand/ ordegener at
ionofmult
ipl
etissues.
 Anaemia

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
es
 Thedi
seasecanbepr
event
edt
hroughsani
tar
yandmedi
cal
prophy
laxi
s.

Sani
tar
ypr
ophy
laxi
s
 Landsprayofi nsect
ici
detocontrolthevector
.
 Bushcleari
ng.
 Eli
minati
onofgameani mals.
 Dippi
nganimal s.
 Useofpher omonebai t
edtsetsetrapsthatatt
ractandcat
cht set
sefl
ies.
 I
ntroducti
onanddev elopmentoftrypano-t
olerantani
malbreeds,f
orexampl
ecat
tl
e
breedli
keN’ DamaandWestAf ri
canShor t
horn.

Medi
calpr
ophy
laxi
s
 Drugssuchasi sometamidium chlor
ideandquinapy
raminesul
phat
eandchlor
ide
canbeusedaspr ophyl
acti
cdur i
ngtranshumanceorhi
ghseasonalpar
asi
ti
c
pressure.
 Cu rat
ivedr
ugssuchasdi minazeneaceturat
eandquinapyrami
nemethyl
sul
fat
ecan
beused.
 Ch emotherapy

Tr
eat
ment
 Useoftrypanocideswhi
chcanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
her
apeut
icandpr
ophy
lact
ic
dr
ugs.
 Thesedrugsinclude:
o Diminazeneacetur
ate
o Isometami di
um
o Ho midium
o Qu i
napy r
amine

Exper
iment1:Di
seasedi
agnosi
s

Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(t
rypanosomi
asi
s).

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gat
heri
nfor
mat
ionoft
heani
mal
(pat
ient
’sdat
a,pr
esentst
atusandhi
stor
yoft
he
 ani
mal,managementandenv i
ronmentalhi
stor
y)fr
om thefar
mer .
2.Obser
vet heani
mal f
rom adi
stance,
(obser
vingit
sbehaviour
,appeti
te,
lesi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandconditi
on).
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincr
easedsensit
ivi
tydur
ingpalpat
ion.

Fi
g.5.
10.
2 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
 I
nt ermi t
tentf ev er.
 Anaemi a
 Lymphadenopat hy(enlar
gedl ymphnodes).
 Wei ghtl oss.
 Ani mal slosebodycondi ti
onandbecomepr ogressi
vel
yemaci
ated.
 Decr easei nmi lkyieldindairyanimals.
 Ani mal sappear ingdull.
 Neur ologi calsigns.
 Dependentoedema.
 Car diacl esions.
 Diar r
hoea
 Ker atit
is
 Lacr i
mat ionandocul ardischarge.
 Appet i
tel oss.
 Viscer alandmucosal haemor r
hages.
 Effect sonr eproduct i
oninclude:
o Ab orti
ons
o Pr emat ur ebirt
hs.
o Pe ri
natal l
osses.
o Te sticulardamagei nmal es.
 De athsar ecommonamongchr oni
call
yinf
ect
edanimals.

Exper
iment2:Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Ai
m:
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.
Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprotect
iveclot
hing.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknif
e( wit
houthinge).

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheani malonitsl
eftside.
2.Conductext er
nalexaminati
on, observ
ingi
fther
ear eanylesi
ons,br
uisesorany
abnormal i
ti
es.
3.Cutbackl egs.
4.Cutbackski nofbodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycav i
tyandpulltheabdomi nalmuscl
ewal lcar
eful
lyt
hroughbell
y
muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdi aphragm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanyl esi
onsorabnormali
tiesforexampleaccumulat
ionof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
hagi ng.

Fi
g.5.
10.
3 Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Expect
edobser
vat
ions:
 Post-mort
em lesi
onswhi charenonspeci
fi
candr elat
edtoanaemi
a.
 Emaciati
onandser ousat r
ophyoffat.
 Enlar
gedlymphnodes, l
i
verandspleen.
 Excessi
veflui
dint hebodycav i
ti
esandsubcutaneousoedema.
 Petechi
alhaemorrhages.
 Atr
ophiclymphoidt issueinthetermi
nalphases.
 Severemyocardit
is.
 I
nflammationand/ ordegener at
ionofmult
ipl
etissues.
 Anaemia

Summar
y
 Tr
ypanosomiasi
sisav ect
orbor ne(prot
ozoan)disease.
 I
tiscausedbythebit
eofGl ossi
naspecies( t
setsefly
).
 Tr
ypanosomesarepr ot
ozoanpar asi
tesinthefamilyTry
panosomati
dae.
 Mosttry
panosomesar etr
ansmi tt
edbytsetsefli
es.
 Gener
alsignsoft
rypanosomiasisincl
udelacri
mat i
on,oedema,andanaemi
a,
vi
scer
alandmucosal haemorrhages.
Act
ivi
ty
1.Just
if
ythepr
event
iveandcont
rol
measur
eoft
rypanosomi
asi
s.

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1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

PROTOZOANDI
SEASE-COCCI
DIOSI
S

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scusscausesandtr
ansmissi
onofcoccidi
osi
s.
2.Descr
ibesi
gnsandsymptomsofcoccidiosi
s.
3.Descr
ibepr
event
ionandcontr
olmeasuresofcocci
diosi
s.

Cocci
diosi
s
 Cocci
diosisi
sapr otozoandi
seasewhichprimar
il
yaff
ect
sbir
ds.
 TheprotozoabelongstothegenusEimeriaorI
sospor
aspeci
es.
 Cocci
diosisi
salsoknownasbl ackscours.
 Italsoaf fectscatt
le,sheep,goats,pigsandr abbi t
s.
 Cocci diosisdamagest hegutwall ofchickenscausi ngdiar
rhoeaandpossibl
y
dysent ery.
 Itaffectsmai nlyyoungani malsbutcanaf f
ectol deranimal
st hatar
einpoor
condi t
ion.
 Th ediseaseaf f
ectstheliv
erandi ntesti
nes.
 Co ccidiosisiscommoni n:
o Yo ungcalves,lambsandki ds.
o An i
mal swithlowbodywei ghtatweani ng.
o Wa rm, wetareas.
o An i
mal sconfinedtosmal lareas,especiallyi
fstocki
ngdensityi
shigh.
o F eedorwat eri
ngpointsthatar econtami natedwithfaeces.
o St ressedani mals.

Causes
 Cocci diosisisapar asit
ei nfecti
oncausedbyt hepr otozoanor ganism cocci dia.
 Eimer iaorI sospor aspeci esar ehost -specif
icwhi chmeanst hatthespeci est hat
affectsgoat swi llnotaf fectsheeporcat tl
e.
 Cocci diahav eav er ycompl exlifecy cl
ewhi chi sfini
shedwi thi
nt hehostani mal .
 Thel i
fecy clest art
swi t
hwhati sknownasanunspor ulatedoocy st, whichis
resistantandcansur v
ivef orsev eral y
ears.
 Theoocy stspr orulatesunderopt imum condi ti
ons.
 Thespor ulatedoocy stisingest edandchemi calsint hegutbr eakdownt heoocy st
wal l
.
 Theoocy stwal lreleasest hei nfect i
vef or
m ofcocci diosiscall
edt hespor ocy st.
 Thespor ocy stschangei ntospor ozoiteswhichi nvadet hecel l
soft hegutwal land
replicate.
 Whent hespor ozoi teshav er eplicatedi nthecell,thecel lburst
sr eleasinganot her
stageofcocci diosiscal l
edmer izoi t
es.
 Themer i
zoitesi nvadeanddest roymor eofthecel lsint hegutwal l.
 Event uallythecocci diosisinfect i
onr esultsinthepr oduct ionofmor eoocy stswhi ch
arepassedoutwi ththef aecesi nt otheenv ir
onmentandcangoont oinfectot her
animal s.
 Ifanani mal ingestaf ewoocy stst heani mal willnothav eanyi l
lnessandt he
animal becomesi mmunet ococci di
osi s.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Coccidiosisistr
ansmitt
edfrom animal toanimalthroughthefaecal-
oralrout
e.
 Inf
ectedf aecalmateri
alcancontaminatef eed,waterorsoi
l.
 Thereforeanani malcancontr
actt hediseasebyeat i
nganddr i
nkingfrom
contami natedsour
ces.
 Suckli
ngani mal
smaybecomei nfectedbynur si
ngcontaminatedudder s.
 Adultani malsmayharboursmal l
number sofCoccidiaandpassittotheiroff
spri
ng.
Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Themani
festati
onofclini
calsignsofcoccidiosi
sdependont
he:
o Parasi
t e(numbers,species).
o Host(age, st
ageofpr oduct i
on,
healt
hconditi
onandbr
eed)
.
o Envir
onment alcondit
ions( cl
imate,
str
ess).

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsi
nbi
rds
 Bloodydi arrhoea.
 Wat erydiarrhoea.
 Ruffledfeathers.
 Huddl ing
 Weightl oss.
 Depr ession
 Paleness
 Lackofappet it
e.
 Poorwei ghtgain.
 Decr easedeggpr oduct
ion.
 Highmor tal
itylev
elsinacutecases.

Fi
g.5.
11.
1 Bl
oodyandwat
erydi
arr
hoea

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsi
nsheepandgoat
s
 Di
arrhoea,(hindquarter
sandtai
lmaybecoatedwit
hmanure).
 Decreasedappet i
te.
 Li
stl
essness
 Abdomi nal
pai n(shownbycry
ingorf
requentr
epeat
edst
andingandl
yi
ngdown)
.
 Poorgrowthr ate.
 Poormi l
kpr oducti
on.
 Occasional
lydeat hmayoccur
.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
omsi
ncat
tl
e
 Diar
rhoeawhi chcanr
angefrom wat
eryt
obloodstained.
 Dehydration
 Weightloss.
 Depression
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Occasionall
ydeathmayoccuri
ncalveswi
thacut
ei ntest
inal
cocci
diosi
s

Fi
g.5.
11.
2 Wat
erydi
arr
hoeast
aini
ngi
ncal
ves
Di
ff
erent
ialdi
agnosi
s
 Gastroenteriti
s
 Sal
monel losi s
 Abomasal ulceration.
 Necroticent eri
ti
s.
 Ragwor tpoisoni ng.
 Perit
oniti
s
 I
nfectiousbur sal disease.
 Cryptosporidiosis
 Tri
chomoni asis
 Amebi asi
s
 Toxoplasmosi s

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Microscopi
cexaminati
onofscrapi
ngs.
 Poly
mer asechai
nreacti
on(PCR)basedassay
s.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Grosslesi
onsofcocci
diosi
svar
yaccor
dingt
ohostspeci
es,
par
asi
tespeci
esand
i
ntesti
nall
ocat
ion.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngsi
nbi
rds
 Thickening, ecchymosesofcaecal mucosa.
 Accumul at i
onofv aryi
ngquantit
iesofbloodandcaseousnecr
oticmater
ial
int
he
caecum.
 Enterit
is(inflammat i
onoftheintest
ine).
 Enlargedi ntesti
naltr
actthathavenecroti
cand/orhaemorr
hagicfoci
.
 Undigestedf eedandgas.
 Localisati
onofl esions.
 Mucosal ulcerati
onandhaemor rhages.

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngsi
nrumi
nant
s
 Excessivesi gnsofent er
it
ismayr angefrom mil
dcat
arr
haltohaemorrhagi
cor
necroticinnat ur
e.
 I
ntest i
nallumenmaycont ainfr
eshblood.
 Thickeningofi ntest
inalwall.
 Mu lt
ipleraisedwhi t
enodul esontheintest
inal
mucosa(gametogony
).
Fi
g.5.
11.
3 Haemor
rhagei
nthei
ntest
ines

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
es
 Isolateandt reatinfectedanimal s.
 Ifthereisanout breakofcocci di
osisani mal sshouldbetreatedimmediat
ely.
 Prov i
deadequat e,cleananddr ybeddi ng.
 Rai sefeedandwat ertr
oughst oprev entfaecal contami
nat i
on.
 Fenceof fnaturalwat ersourcesandensur eadequat edrainagetopr
eventareasof
standingwat er .
 Reducest ockingdensi ty.
 Thor oughlycleananddi sinf
ectanimal houses.
 Ant i-
coccidi
al drugsmi xedint hefeedar eusedt oli
mithighlevel
sofi
nfect
ion.
 Keepchi cks, feedandwat erawayf rom dr oppings.
 Roostbi rdsov erwi renetti
ng.
 Mi nimizestressasmuchaspossi ble.

Tr
eat
ment
 Useofant i-cocci
dial
s,swi
tchi
ngclassesofdr
ugst
oreducedr
ugr
esi
stance.
 Sulphonami des
 Nit
rofurazones
 Vit
ami nsAandKi nfeedorwat er
.
 ESB3i ndrinkingwater.

Exper
iment1:Di
seasedi
agnosi
s

Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(cocci
diosi
s).

Mat
eri
als
 Rubberglov
es.
 Paediat
ri
cstet
hoscope.
 Thermometer
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing.

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gat
herinfor
mati
onoftheanimal (
pati
ent’
sdata,
presentst
atusandhi
stor
yoft
he
ani
mal,managementandenvironmental
hist
ory)
.
2.I
nspecttheani
malfr
om adistance.
 3.Palpat
etheanimal,noti
ngt hedegreeofsensiti
vi
tytotouch.
4.Li
stentothesoundswhi cht heanimalisproduci
ng(auscult
ati
on)
.
5.Taketemperatur
eoft heanimal usi
ngat hermometer.
6.Takepulseoftheanimal usingastethoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
a.Bi
rds

 Thedi seaseaf fectsbir

dsbetweent
hreet
ofi
veweeksol
dbuti
nchi
ckensi
tcan
affectanyage.
 Bloodydi arrhoea.
 Wat erydiarrhoea.
 Ruf f
ledfeathers.
 Huddl ing
 Wei ghtloss.
 Depr ession
 Paleness
 Lossofappet it
e.
 Poorwei ghtgain.
 Decr easedeggpr oducti
on.
 Mor tali
tyishighinacut ecases.

b.Sheepandgoat
s

 Diar
rhoea,(hindquarter
sandtai
lmaybecoatedwithmanur e).
 Decreasedappet i
te.
 Li
stl
essness
 Weakness
 Abdomi nalpain(shownbycry
ingorf
requentr
epeatedstandingandl
yi
ngdown)
.
 Poorgrowt hrate.
 Poormi l
kpr oducti
on.
 Susceptibl
et ohealt
hprobl
emsduetodamaget otheint
esti
nes.
 Occasionall
ydeat hmayoccur
.

c.Cat
tl
e

 Diar
rhoeawhi chcanr
angefr
om wat
erytobl
oody.
 Dehydration
 Weightloss.
 Depression
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Occasionall
ydeathmaydev
elopi
ncalveswi
thacut
eint
est
inal
cocci
diosi
s.
Exper
iment2:Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprotect
iveclot
hing.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknif
e( wit
houthinge)orscal
pel
.

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Obtaint hehi
storyoft hebird.
2.Examinet hebi r
dexter nall
y
3.Opent hebodyusi ngakni feorscalpel
,cutti
ngt
hroughtheski
nbet
weenthelegs
andbr east.
4.Remov etheviscer
al organs.
5.Remov etheabdomi nal vi
scerafir
standt hengobackandremovet
hethoraci
c
organs.
6. Examinealltheorgansf oranylesi
onsorabnor mal
iti
es.

Expect
edobser
vat
ions
a.Bi
rds

 Thickening, ecchymosesofcaecalmucosa.
 Accumul at i
onofv aryi
ngquanti
ti
esofbloodandcaseousnecr
oti
cmat
eri
ali
nthe
caecum.
 Enterit
is
 Enlargedi ntesti
naltr
actandnecrot
icand/orhaemorr
hagi
cfoci.
 Undigestedf eedandgas.
 Localisati
onofl esions.
 Mucosal ulcerati
onandhaemor r
hages.

b.Rumi
nant
s

 Grossl
ysignsofenter
it
ismayr
angef
rom mi
l
dcat
arr
hal
tohaemor
rhagi
cor
necrot
ici
nnature.
 I
ntesti
nall
umenmaycont ai
nfr
eshbl
ood.
 Thi
ckeni
ngofint
est
inal
wal
l.
 Mult
ipl
erai
sedwhit
enodul
esont
hei
ntest
inal
mucosa(
gamet
ogony
).

Summar
y
 Cocci
diosisisadi seasecausedbyapr otozoa.
 Theparasit
ebel ongst othegenusEi meri
aorI sosporaspecies.
 Cocci
diosisistr
ansmi ttedfrom animal toanimal bythefaecal-
oralr
out
e.
 Themani f
estati
onofcl ini
cal si
gnsofcocci di
osisdependsont he:
o Pa r
asite(number s,species).
o Ho st(age,stageofpr oduct i
on,healthconditi
onandbr eed).
o Env i
ronment alcondit
ions( cl
imate, str
ess).

Act
ivi
ty
1.Doasur
veyi
nyourar
eaofcocci
diosi
scasesi
nbacky
ardchi
ckenpr
oject
s.

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1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
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MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

RI
CKETTSI
ADI
SEASE–HEARTWATER
 Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scusscausesandtr
ansmissi
onofheart
water.
2.Descr
ibesi
gnsandsymptomsofheartwater
.
3.Descr
ibepr
event
ionandcontr
olmeasuresofheart
wat
er.

Hear
twat
er
 Heartwat erisani nfect i
ous,non- contagi ous, t
ick-bornedi seaseofr uminants.
 Rickettsi
aear eadi versecollect i
onofobl igateintracellul
argram negativebact eri
a
foundi nticks,l
ice, f
leasandmi tes.
 Heartwat erhasasi gnificantimpacti nt hedecr easeofpr oductiv
ityinr
egions
wher eiti
sendemi c.
 Thedi seasei scommoni nsub- SaharanAf r
ica.
 Animal sof t
enacqui r ethedi seasewhent heyar emov edt opastureswhereinfected
ti
cksar ef ound.
 Rumi nants, f
orexampl ecat tle,sheep, goat sandbuf faloesaresuscept i
bleto
heartwater .
 I
nendemi careas,someani mal smaybecomesub- cli
nicallyi
nfectedandactas
reservoir
s.
 I
tisamaj ort hr
eatt oexot i
cbr eedswhi char ehi ghlysuscept i
ble.
 I
ndigenouscat tl
ebr eedsl i
keBosI ndicusar emor er esistanttocli
nicalhear
t water
thanexot icbreeds( BosTaur us).
 Thedi sease’snamei sder i
vedf rom thef actthatf l
uidcancol l
ectaroundthehear t
orinthel ungsofi nfect edani mal s.
 Thedi seasei salsoknownascowdr iosi s.

Causes
 Thedi seaseiscausedbyabl oodpar asit
e,Ehrl
ichia(E.)r
uminantium.
 I
tiscar ri
edbythebontt i
ckwhi chisamemberoft hegenusAmbl y omma.
 Ehrli
chiaruminanti
um isanobligateintr
acell
ulargram negativ
ecocci bacter
ium.
 Str nsofE.r
ai uminanti
um arever ydi
verse,somest rainsarehighl
yv i
rul
entwhil
e
othersappeartobenon- pathogenic.
 E.rumi nant
ium hasahighlevel ofgenomicplasticit
y.
 E.rumi nant
ium mult
ipl
iesinvascularendotheli
al cel
ls.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
 Hear
twateri
stransmit
tedbyathr
ee-
hostixodi
dti
ckofthegenusAmblyomma( A).
 Tr
ansstadi
altr
ansmissi
onist
hemethodoft r
ansmissi
ontheti
cksuse.
 Tr
ansstadi
altr
ansmissi
oniswhenapathogenremainswi
ththevect
orfrom one
l
if
estagetothenext.
 A.var
iegatum (
tropi
calbontti
ck)i
st hemajorv
ectori
nAfr
icaandt
heCar i
bbean.
 A.hebraeum (
bonttick)i
salsoanothervect
orfoundi
nsouther
nAf
rica.

Fi
g.5.
12.
1 Ambl
yommahebr
aeum

Fi
g.5.
12.
2 Ambl
yommav
ari
egat
um

 Ticksbecomecar r
yt hediseaset hroughfeedingonani malsinfect
edwith
heartwater.
 Theset i
cksbecomei nfecteddur i
ngt hel
arvalorny mphalstagesandt r
ansmissi
on
i
sdonebyadul tsorny mphs.
 Adultsprefertofeedoncat tl
ewhi l
eny mphsf eedonsheepandgoat s.
 Hear t
watercanbet r
ansmi ttedvert
icall
ythroughcol ost
rum ofcarri
erdams.
 Latrogenictr
ansmi ssionoccur swhenunst eri
lizedneedlesarereusedbetween
animals.
 Transmissioncanbet hroughi nt
ravenousinocul at
ionofblood,ti
ckhomogenates
orcellcult
uremat eri
al contai ngE.r
ni uminanti
um.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
 Theav er agei ncubat ionper iodi nnat uralinfecti
onsisappr oximat elytwot othr ee
weeks.
 Somei nf ect i
onscanbecomeappar entasl ateasf ourtofiveweeksaf terexposur e.
 Morbidityi shi ghlyv ariableanddependsont hedegreeoft ickinfest at
ion.
 Morbidityi sal soi nf l
uencedbypr eviousexposur etoinfectedt i
cksandl evel
of
acari
cidepr otect ion.
 Oncesi gnsoft hedi seasehav edev el oped, t
hepr ognosi
si spoorf orexot i
canimal s.
 Themor tal i
tyrat ei nexot i
cbr eedsi shi ghert hannat i
vebreeds.
 Recover yf rom hear twat erinf ectionusual l
yr esul
tsincompl eteimmuni tyagainst
homologousst rainsal thoughani mal sr emai ncarri
ersofthei nfection.
 Heartwat eroccur si nf ourdi fferentcl inicalformswhi chisdet ermi nedbyv ar
iations
i
nhostsuscept ibili
ty ,agentv irulenceandi nfecti
vedose.
 Thefourf ormsofhear twat erdi seasei ncludeperacut e,acute,sub- acut eandmi l
d
for
m( knownashear t
wat erf ever ).
 Thegener alsignsoft hedi seasei ncludes:
o Su ddendeat hs.
o I ncr easei nt emper atur e(41° c- 43°c).
o An orexia
o De pressi onanddy spnoea.
o E xagger atedbl inkingofey elids.
o Wa l
kingi nci rcles.
o Hi ghst eppi nggai t.
o Sa l
ivati
on
o Oc casional aggr essiveness.
 o Ani
mal l
iesonl at
eral
recumbency(
onsi
de)
,wi
thl
i
mbsmaki
ngr
unni
ng
movement s.
o Convul
si
ons, comaanddeath.

Di
ff
erent
ialdi
agnosi
s
 Anthrax
 Rabies
 Tetanus
 Bacteri
al meningit
is.
 Encephaliti
s
 Babesiosis
 Anaplasmosi s
 Cerebraltrypanosomiasi
s.
 Theil
eriosis

Labor
ator
ydi
agnosi
s
 Poly
mer asechainreacti
on(PCR).
 Loop-mediatedi
sothermalamplif
icat
ion(LAMP)assay
.
 Microscopeexamination.
 Enzymel i
nkedimmunosor bentassay(ELI
SA).

Postmor
tem f
indi
ngs
 Accumul ati
onofst raw-colouredtoreddishf
luidint
hepericardi
um i
nsheepand
goatst hani ncat tl
e.
 Hy dr
oper i
car dium.
 Hy dr
othor ax.
 Ascites( mild).
 Medi asti
nal oedema.
 Pulmonar yoedemaandoedemaoft hemedi asti
nalandbronchi
all
ymphnodes.
 Frothint het rachea.
 Subendocar dialpetechialhaemorrhages.
 Submucosal andsub- serosalhaemor r
hages.
 Subtleswel lingoft hebr ai
n.
 Nephr i
tis(inflammat i
onoft hekidney)inAngoragoats.
 Congest ionand/ oroedemaoft heabomasal foldsi
ncattl
e.

Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
measur
es
 Testi
ngofsuscepti
blerumi
nantsfr
om endemicregi
onsbef
orei
mportat
ion.
 Quarant
ini
ngofoutbreaksi
nendemi cregi
ons.
 Prophyl
act
ictr
eatmentofnewlyint
roducedani
malswit
htet
racy
cli
ne.
 St
rategi
cti
ckcont
rol
whi
chall
owsl
owlev
elofexposur
e.
 I
nfecti
onandtr
eat
mentmet
hodasawayofvacci
nati
ngani
mal
s.

Tr
eat
ment
 Tetracycli
neisef f
ecti
veint heearl
ystageoft hedisease.
 Prolongedt r
eatmentand/ orlargerdosesmaybeneededi ft
reat
menti sstar
ted
l
ater.
 Antibi
oticsareof t
enineffecti
veonceneur ologi
calsignsappear.
 Sulphonami desalsohav eactivi
tyagainstE.ruminanti
um butarelessef f
ect
ive.
 Supportivetreatment(fl
uids,nutri
ti
onalsupport)mayal sobeneeded.
 Animalsshoul dbekeptqui etandundi stur
bedincomf ort
abl
esurroundings,
stimul
i
mayel i
citfatalconvul
sions.

Exper
iment1:Di
seasedi
agnosi
s

Ai
m
 Tocomeupwi
that
ent
ati
vedi
agnosi
s(hear
twat
er)
.

Mat
eri
als
 Thermometer
 Stet
hoscope
 Gloves
 Prot
ecti
veclot
hing.

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Gatheri
nformati
onoftheani
mal (pati
ent’
sdata,presentstat
usandhi st
oryoft
he
ani
mal ,
managementandenv i
ronment alhi
stor
y)fr
om t hefar
mer .
2.Observetheani
mal f
rom adi
stance,(obser
vingit
sbehav iour
,appeti
te,l
esi
onson
out
ersurface,
bodyconformat
ionandcondi ti
on).
3.Pal
patetheanimalandnoteanyincreasedsensit
ivit
yduringpalpat
ion.

Fi
g.5.
12.
3 Pal
pat
ion

4.Li
stentothesoundsbeingproducedbytheanimal
(auscul
tat
ion)
,forexampl
e
l
abouredbreathi
ng.
5.Taketemperatur
eoftheanimalusingathermomet
er.
6.Takepulseoftheanimalusi
ngast et
hoscope.
7.Recordtheresul
ts.
Expect
edobser
vat
ionsf
orhear
twat
er:
 Incubat i
onper i
odof10t o14day s.
 Calvesl essthansi xmont hsarenotusual
lyaff
ect
ed.
 Suddendeat hs.
 Increasei ntemper ature(41°c-43°c)
.
 Anor exia
 Depr essionanddy spnoea.
 Exagger atedblinkingofey el
i
ds.
 Wal kingincircl
es.
 Highst eppinggai t.
 sali
v ati
on
 Occasi onalaggr essiveness.
 Animal l
iesonl ateralrecumbence( onsi
de),
withl
imbsmaki
ngr
unni
ngmov
ement
s.
 Conv ulsions,comaanddeat h.

Exper
iment2:Postmor
tem exami
nat
ion

Ai
m
 Todet
ermi
net
hecauseofdeat
h.

Mat
eri
als
 Adequateprotect
iveclot
hing.
 Rubbergloves.
 Apron
 Facemask.
 Eyegoggles.
 Soli
dknif
e( wit
houthinge).

Pr
ocedur
e
1.Laytheani malonitsl
eftsi
de.
2.Conductext er
nalexaminat
ion,observ
ingift
her
ear eanylesi
ons,br
uisesorany
abnormal i
ti
es.
3.Cutbackl egs.
4.Cutbackski nofthebodywal l
.
5.Enterbodycav i
tyandpullt
heabdomi nalmuscl
ewal lcar
eful
lyt
hroughbell
y
muscl es.
6.Pullbackchestwallandcutdiaphragm.
7.Exami neallor
gansforanylesionsorabnormal
i
tiesforexampleaccumulat
ionof
fl
uid,colourorhaemorr
haging.
Fi
g.5.
12.
1 Postmor
tem onanAngor
agoat

Expect
edobser
vat
ions:
 Accumul ati
onofst r
aw- colouredtoreddishfl
uidintheper
icar
dium.
 Hy dr
oper i
car dium.
 Hy dr
othorax.
 Ascites(mild).
 Medi ast
inaloedema.
 Pulmonar yoedema.
 Oedemaoft hemedi astinalandbronchiall
ymphnodes.
 Frothinthet rachea.
 Subendocar dialpet
echi alhaemorrhages.
 Submucosal andsub- serosalhaemor r
hages.
 Nephr i
ti
s(inflammat ionoft hekidney).
 Congest i
onand/ oroedemaoft heabomasal folds.

Summar
y
 Heartwaterisaninfecti
ous,
non- cont
agious,ti
ck-
borner
icket
tsi
aldiseaseof
ruminants.
 Thediseasei scausedbyabl oodparasite,Ehr
li
chi
aruminant
ium carri
edbythe
bonttick.
 Theav erageincubati
onperi
odi nnaturalinf
ect
ionsi
sapproxi
mat el
ytwot ot
hree
weeks.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Youwer eassignedt
oproposeanawarenesscampaignabouthear
twat
erdi
sease
i
ny ourarea.Writ
earepor
ttothemayor,j
ust
if
yingt
hiscampaignandannot
ati
ng
thefi
nerdetai
lsofhowiti
sgoingtobeofhelptoyourcommunity.

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m 6(
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el)/Ani
mal
Sci
ence
Cont
ent

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 Topi
cs

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ivi
ti
es

1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

ANI
MALPARASI
TES

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
e
t
o:

1.Descr
ibeexternalandint
ernalparasi
tes.
2.Rel
ateparasit
estot hedamaget heycause.
3.Descr
ibemet hodsofcontrol
li
ngpar asi
tes.

Ani
malpar
asi
tes
 Anani mal par
asiteisanorganism thatl
ivesinoronanotherani
mal (
host)and
takesi tsnouri
shmentf rom thatotherorganism.
 Ah ostisanor ganism t
hatsupportsapar asite.
 At timest hehostisharmedbyt heparasit
eandsomet imestherel
ati
onshipis
neut ralbutthehostnev erbenefi
tsfrom it
.
 Th erear etwot y
pesofpar asit
es,exter
nal andinter
nal
.

A.Ext
ernalpar
asi
tes
 Exter
nalparasi
tesarepar asi
testhatli
veoutsi
dethebody .
 Theyarealsocall
edect oparasi
tes.
 Ectopar
asit
escauseser iousskinproblemsandcarrydiseasecausi
ngmi
crobes.
 Theynormallysuckthebl oodofthehost.
 Examplesofexternalparasit
esincludeti
cks,f
li
es,f
leesandtampans.

1.Ti
cks
 Ti
cksar
esmal
lar
achni
dswhi
chbel
ongt
ot assAcar
hesubcl i.
 Theyar ear t
hr opods( invertebr ateswi thext ernalskel etonsandjoint
edlegs).
 Ticksar ebloodsucki ngpar asi tes.
 Theyar edomi nanti nwar m, humi dcl i
mat esbecauset heyrequir
eacer t
ainamount
ofmoi stureint heai rtounder gomet amor phosis.
 Lowt emper at uresinhi bi
ttheirdev el
opmentf rom eggt olar
va.
 Thisi swhyt heyar emor edomi nantdur ingt herainyseasoni nZimbabwe.
 Adul ttickshav eeightl egsandov oidorpear -shapedbodi eswhichbecome
engor gedwi thbl oodwhent heyf eed.
 Tickshav ef ourst agest othei rlifecy cle(egg, larva, nymphandadul t
).
 Duet ot hei
rhabi tofi ngestingbl ood, ticksar ev ect orsofzoonoti
cdiseases.
 Theyar esubdi videdi ntotwomaj orf ami l
i
es, theI xodidae(hardti
cks)whichare
di
f f
icultt ocr ushandt heAr gasi daeorsof tticks.
 Bothf ami l
i
esl ocat eapot ent i
al hostbyodourorf r om changesintheenvir
onment.

i
.Har
dti
cks
 Hardtickshav eahar dshiel
dont heirdorsalsurfacest hatparti
all
yrest
ri
ctsther
ate
atwhicht heycanengor ge.
 Hardtickshav eapl at
eont heirbackst hatiscalledascut um.
 Thefemal ehardtickshav eal argerbodysi zethant hemal et
icks.
 Theyhav eabeak-likestructureatt hefr
ontcont ainingt hemout hpar
ts.
 Hardticksrequir
emanyday sofat tachmentt ofullyfeed.
 Theysear chandfeedont heirhost sduri
ngday ti
me.
 Mosthar dticksareeitheroneort woort hreehostt icks.
 Exampl esofhardt i
ckspeciesi ncludeAmbl y
omma, Rhipi
cephalusandHy al
omma.

i
I.Sof
tti
cks
 Softtickshavetheirmouthpartsont heunder si
deoft hebody.
 Theirbodyappear ancesarerel
ati
v el
yleatheryandlacktheprotect
iveplate.
 Softtickscanengor gemuchmor er apidl
y,somet i
mesi namatterofmi nutes.
 Theyhav eclosetosi mil
arbodysizesbetweent hef emalesandmales.
 Thef eedandsear chforhostsduringthenightandt heyaremostdomi nantin
ani
mal shel
ter
sandcabi ns.
 Exampl esofsoftticksspeci
esincludeArgas, Otobi
usandOr ni
thodorus.

Fi
g.5.
13.
1imgHar
dti
ckandsof
tti
ck

Damagescausedbyt
icks
 Theycausetickbit
eparalysiswhichischaract
erisedbyanacuteascendingfl
acci
d
motorparal
ysisforexampleneckst i
ffness.
 I
tiscausedbyt heinj
ecti
onofat oxinbyt i
ckwhilefeedi
ng.
 I
rri
tati
onwhichcausesrestlessnessandunderf eedingofani
mals.
 I
njuryduetotickbi
teswhichpav ewayf orbacteri
atheref
orecausi
ngdiseasetothe
 animal.
 Massiveinfestat
ionofti
cksleadst owei ghtandbloodloss.
 Damaget ohi desduetoscarri
ngwhi chr emainsforyearsaft
erthetickhas
detached.
 Udderdamageofl act
ati
ngani malsleadingtomast i
tis.
 Ticksarevectorsofanimaldiseasest heref
orecausingalotofdiseasesli
ke
anaplasmosis,babesi
osis,
tickparalysis,l
ymediseaseandr ockymount ai
nspot
ted
fever.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
ticks
 Chemi calcontrolwhichi nvol
vestheuseofacar ici
des.
 Acarici
descanbeappl iedt hr
oughpl ungedipping, spr
ayi
ng,handdressi
ng,
oruse
ofpour -
ons.
 Rearingofani malsthatar eresi
stanttotickinf
est ati
on.
 Manual remov alofti
cks.
 I
mmunol ogicalcontrolthroughvaccines.
 Pasturemanagementt hr oughpastur espell
i
ng, pasturebur
ninganduseofcer
tai
n
grassesandl egumes.

Col
lect
ionoft
icksampl
es
 Ticksarecoll
ectedusingadragcl
othmet hod.
 Onehast owal katafair
lysl
owpacedr aggingthecl
othbehi
ndwhil
etheflannel
si
dei sdown.
 Re movetheticksfr
om theclot
husi
ngf orceps.
 Placethem incoll
ecti
ngbott
leswhi
char efill
edwit
hethanol
(70%)orfor
mal i
nfor
preservat
ion.
 Labelthecontainer
swi t
hdateandreservename.

2.Fl
ies
 Fl
iesareext er
nal parasitesandsev eralki
ndsofnon-biti
ngfli
escanbef oundinand
aroundani mal f
acili
ties.
 Flieshaveamobi l
ehead, apairoflargecompoundey es.
 Theirmout hpartsar edesi gnedforpi erci
ngandsucking(blackfl
ies)orforlapping
andsuckingi ntheot hergr oups.
 Thear r
angementoff lywingsgi v
est hem greatmanoeuv r
abil
ityi
nf l
ight.
 Clawsandpadsont heirfeetenablet hem tocl
ingontosmoot hsurfaces.
 Fl
iesunder gocompl etemet amor phosis.
 Met amorphosisist hechangei nform andhabi t
sofanor ganism duringit
snor mal
stageofdev elopment .
 Fl
yl i
fecyclehasf ourst ages( egg,l
ar va(maggot),
pupaandadul tstage).
 Eggsar elaidont helar v
al f
ood-sour ce.
 Thel ar
v aewhi chlackt r
uel i
mbs.
 Larvaedev elopsi napr otectedenv ir
onmentof teninsi
det hei
rfoodsour ce.
 Thepupai sat oughcapsul efr
om whi chtheadultemer geswhenr eady.
 Thel i
fespanofanadul tflyisshor t.
 Fl
iescancauseannoy anceanddi scomf ort
.
 Theadul tf
lyhast wodev elopedwi ngs(thehindpairisreducedt oaknobbed
balancingor gan).
 Fl
iesar ebenef ici
altoobecauset heyf uncti
onasscav engers,predator
sor
parasit
esofcer tai
ninsectpest s.
 Fl
iescanactaspol li
natorsofpl antsandasdest r
oy er
sofweedsandt heyare
noxioust ohumans.
 Fl
iesar emostact iv
eint her ai
nyseasonandwar m mont hs.
 Typesoff l
iesthatarecommoni nlivest
ockar ebit
ingfli
esandf li
eswhichcausef
ly
str
ike.

i
.Bi
ti
ngf
li
es
 Ther earemanybi t
ingflieswhi chi ncludeblackf l
ies,bit
ingmidges, mosquit
oes,
stablefl
ies, horsefli
esandt setsef li
es.
 Fli
essuchasbl ackf l
ies, mosqui toesandmi dgesat t
ackanimal sinswarms.
 Mosqui toes, bl
ackf li
es,sandf li
es, bi
tingmi dgesandhor sefl
ieshav eevol
ved
mandi bl
esandmax il
laet hatar ebladelikewi thpierci
ngst y
let
s.
 Thesepi er ci
ngor gansar edev elopedonl yi
nf emales,whichusebl oodprotei
nin
eggpr oduct i
on.
 Mal esdonotf eedonbl ood.
 Thesef l
iessuckbl oodandcausei rri
tation,painf
ul bit
esandbl oodloss.
 Manyoft hesecanal sospr eaddi seasesamongani malssuchasgal lsi
ckness
(horsefl
ies) ,
three-dayst iffsi
ckness( biti
ngmi dgesandmosqui t
oes),l
umpy -
ski
n
disease( biti
ngf l
ies),Rif
tVal leyf ever(mosqui toes),nagana(tsetsefli
es),
and
pinkeye( facefli
es) .

I
I.Fl
ieswhi
chcausef
lyst
ri
ke
 Otherf
li
es(
blowf
li
esandscr
ew-
wor
mfl
i
es)ar
eimpor
tantbecauset
heyl
ayt
hei
r
eggsonani
mals.

Fi
g.5.
13.
2imgBl
owf
lyandscr
ew-
wor
mfl
y

 Theeggshatchi
ntolarv
ae(maggots)andcancauseseverei
njur
iestoani
mal
s.
 Thecondi
ti
oncausedbymaggot sl
ivi
ngonanimal si
scal
ledfl
ystri
ke.
 Ti
ckbit
esandcutscanbecomei nf
estedwithblowfl
i
esorscr
ewwor m.
 Thi
scanleadtoseverewoundsandev endeat
h.

Damagecausedbyf
li
es
 Inlar
genumber sfli
escanbeanui sance.
 Theydisturbanimalsduringfeedingt husdecreasi
nganimalwei
ghtgainand
producti
on.
 Theyalsohav eanegat i
vepsy chologicalimpactbecauset
hei
rpresencei
s
consider
edasi gnofunhy gienicconditions.
 Fli
escanspr eaddiseasesbecauset heyf eedf
reel
yonanimalf
oodandf i
lt
hy
mat t
er.
 Thef l
ypicksuppat hogenswhi lecrawlingandfeeding.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
fli
es
 Manur eandot heror gani cmat erialshoul dber egular
lyremov edfrom barnand
stableareast or educebr eedingar easf orf l
i
es.
 Compost ingmanur ecanal soai di nf l
ycont rol.
 Theheatgener at edbypr opercompost i
ngwi llkil
lfl
yeggs, t
hereforereducingfly
populati
ons.
 Cleaningupal l spil
ledf eedsandot heror ganicmat er
ial
stopr eventadditi
onal f
ly
breedinggr ounds.
 Automat icwat ert r
oughsshoul dbepr oper lycleanedandmai nt
ained.
 Positi
oningofwal kthroughf lytr apsatt hegat eswher eli
vestockpasst hrough.
 Feedaddi ti
vescanbeusedf orcont r
oll
ingdev el
opingofflylarvaeinmanur e.
 Useofi nsect icide-impregnat edeart ags.
 Useoff lyr epellents.
 Useofpr oper l
yf itt
edf l
ymaskt okeepf li
esawayf rom thefacewhi l
egr azi
ng.
 Areaspr ay sorgener alt opical appl i
cations.
 Forblackf l
iesy oucanpast ur et heani mal satnightbecausebl ackfli
esonl yfeed
duringday l
ighthour s.

Col
lect
ionoff
lysampl
es
 Gointhefiel
dwher ey ouwantt
ocoll
ectt
hefl
ies.
 Usefl
ytrapst ocatchthefl
i
es.
 Tokil
landpr eser
vethespecimensonecanuseakil
l
ingj
armet
hod,
alcohol
methodorf r
eezedr y
ing.

Ki
ll
ingj
armet
hod
 Sel
ectaj arwithat i
ghtfit
ti
nglid.
 Theseki l
l
ingjarsaremadebyaddi ngafewstri
psofpapert
owelstoajarandthen
addi
ngaf ewdr opsofethylacetate.
 Thepaperal l
owsi nsectsinthejartokeepsepar
atedandi
talsopi
cksupexcess
moisture.
 Labelthejarclearl
y.
 Putthef l
yinsectsinsi
de.
Al
coholmet
hod
 Putalcoholi
nacont ai
nerat70%.
 Puttheinsectspeci
mens.
 Whenst ori
nginsect
sinvial
sofalcohol
,cont
ainer
smustbeexaminedperi
odical
l
y
andf l
uidr
epleni
shed.
 Tightseal
soncapsofcont ai
nersshoul
dbeusedt or
educeevapor
ati
onrates.

Fr
eezedr
yingmet
hod
 Larv
al st
agescanbepreser
vedbyfreezedry
ingthem i
navacuum.
 Specimensret
aincol
ourandhai
r(setae),
patt
ersbett
erusi
ngthi
smet
hod.

3.Fl
eas
 Fleasar eext ernal,wi nglessi nsects.
 Fleasar esmal lfl
ightlessi nsectst hatfor mt heor derSiphonapt era.
 Theyar eusual l
ydar kcol ouredwi thapr oboscisorst y l
et.
 Theyar eadapt edt of eedi ngbypi ercingt heski nandsucki ngt heirhost’
sblood
throught heirepi phar ynx.
 Fleal egsendi nst r
ongcl awst hatar eadapt edtogr aspingahost .
 Thei rbodiesar el aterallycompr essedper mitt
ingeasymov ementt hroughthehairs
orf eathersont hehost ’
sbody .
 Theyar eholomet abol ousi nsects(theygot hroughacompl etemet amor phosis)
.
 Thel ifecycl
est agesi ncludeegg, l
arva, pupaandadul tst age.
 Thef i
rstbloodmeal trigger sthemat urat i
onoft heov ari
esinfemal esandt he
dissol ut
ionoft het est i
cularpl uginmal es,copul ati
ont henfoll
ows.
 Fleasnor mallyspeci alisei nonehostspeci esorgr oupofspeci esbutcanof ten
feedandnotr epr oduceonot herspeci es.

Fi
g.5.
13.
3imgAf
lea

Damagecausedbyf
leas
 Fleasareanuisancet otheirhosts.
 Theycauseani t
chingsensat ionwhi chinturncausest hehosttot r
yandremove
thepestbybiting,peckingorscr atching.
 I
nsev erecasesscr atchingcancausewoundst hatbecomei nf
ected.
 Fleabit
escauseasl ightl
yr ai
sed,swol l
enitchingspot.
 Thebiteappear sinclustersorl i
nesoft wobi t
esandcanr emainit
chyandinf
lamed
foruptoseveral weeksandcancauseanaemi ai next
remecases.
 Fleasarevectorsforv i
ral,bacteri
alandr i
ckettsialdi
seasesofani mals.
 Theyalsocausewei ghtlossandr educedmi lkoreggl ayingperformance.
Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
fleas
 Useofi nsect
ici
dessuchasorganophosphatesandpy r
ethroi
dstocont roladul
t
fl
i
es.
 Dir
ecttreati
ngofthebeddi
ngandot herresti
ngplacesusingl
arvicides.
 Regularchangingofol
dbeddingthatcouldbepotenti
all
ycontami nated.
 Restr
ictanimalsfr
om ent
eri
ngaknownf leai
nfestedar
eaorpr oper t
y.

Col
lect
ionoff
leasampl
es
 Gointhefi
eldwher eyouwanttocoll
ectthefl
eas.
 Dragcl
othmet hodcanbeusedt ocoll
ectfl
eas.
 Onehastowal kataf ai
rl
yslowpacedraggi
ngtheclothbehi
nd,
flannelsi
dedown.
 Tokil
landpreservethespecimensonecanuseaki l
li
ngjarmet
hod, al
cohol
methodorfr
eezedr yi
ng.

4.Tampans
 Atampani sanect oparasiteofbot hlivestockandwi ldanimals.
 I
tbelongst ot hefami yAr
l gasidaeandOr nit
hodor os.
 I
tisasof ttickwi t
hal eathery,mammi ll
atedi ntegument .
 I
tcausespar aly
sisandt ampant oxicosis.
 Theyar eapr oblem inpoul tr
yandpi gpr oduct i
on.
 Orni
thodor osspeciesar ef oundwor ldwideinsemi -
ari
dregions.
 Theyar efoundont heskinespeci all
ytheny mphsandl arvalst
agesbutmostoft he
ti
met heyhi deincracksandcr ev i
ces,shedsorunderat reebarkawayf r
om the
host
.
 Adul
tt ampansar enocturnal whichmeanst heyf eedatnight.
 Adul
tdi spersalisli
mi t
edbecauseofi t
shabi toff eedinganddr oppingf
rom i
tshost
whereasl arvaemayr emai nat tachedtot heirhost sforseveraldays.

Fi
g.5.
13.
4imgAt
ampan

Damagecausedbyt
ampans
 Theysuckbl oodcausingsever
ediscomfor
t.
 Bl
oodl ossandsubsequentanaemi acanbesigni
ficantandsubst
ant
ial
l
yaf
fect
weightgainsandeggl ayi
ngperfor
mance.
 Massiveinfestat
ionscancausenumerousfat
alit
ies.
 Aff
ectedbi r
dsarer uf
fl
edwithpoorappet
it
eanddi arr
hoea.

Met
hodsofcont
rol
li
ngt
ampans
 Nat
ural
cont
rol
met
hodbyusi
ngt
ampanpat
hogens,
predat
orsandpar
asi
teswhi
ch
 ar
esuf f
ici
enttocurbtampannumber s.
 Chemicalcontr
olinform ofl
i
ghtspraysonlivestockoruseofdustinsectici
des.
 El
iminatehidi
ngplacesuchascracksandcr evicesbyf i
ll
i
ngthem wi
tht arandpaint
.
 Highpressuresprayi
ngofacari
cidesort
icki
cidesi ncracksandcr
evices.
 Remov ebarkfrom pol
esandperchesbeforeusi ngthem inf
owlhouses.

Col
lect
ionoft
ampansampl
es
 Tampansareat
tract
edbycar bondioxi
de.
 Dryi
cecanbeusedf ort
heircoll
ecti
onort heymaybeshift
edfr
om thesoi
l.
 Tampanscanal
sof l
uoresceunderultr
aviolet.
 Aft
ercol
l
ecti
ngthetampans, putthem i
nal cohol
(70%)orf
ormali
nforpr
eserv
ati
on.

B.I
nter
nal
par
asi
tes
 I
nt ernalpar
asitesarepar asitest hatl i
veinsidethebody.
 Theyar ealsocalledendopar asites.
 Theymayl i
veint heblood, muscl es, l
i
ver,brai
nordigesti
vesyst
em ofanimals.
 Inf arm ani
mal stheimpor tantonesl i
veint hel
iver
,heart
,st
omachandbl ood.
 Theyf eedont heinternalorgansoft heani malcausingdamageanddisease.
 I
nt ernalpar
asitescanbedi videdi nt othr
eegr oups,namelyr
oundworms,
tapewor msandf lukes.
 Exampl esofinternalparasitesi ncl uderoundwor ms, wi
reworms,t
apewor msand
fl
ukes.
 Th eyaredivi
dedaccor di
ngt ot hei rvari
ousl i
fecycl
es.

1.Roundwor
ms
 Roundwor msareinternal parasitesal socal l
ednemat odes.
 Theyareagroupofwor mswi thmor et hanat housandspeci es.
 Theybelongtothegr oupNemal t helminthes.
 Roundwormsar econsi deredt hemosteconomi cal
lydev astatinginternal
parasit
es
ofl
ivest
ock.
 Roundwormsar efoundal l y
earr oundandl i
veinmanysi tesi ntheani mal
.
 Theseareeye,l
ungs, subcut aneous, bodycav it
yandt hegast ro-
intesti
naltr
act.
 Roundwormsofeconomi cimpor tancear eallobli
gatepar asites.
 Theycannotcompl etedev elopmentwi t
houtpar asit
izingtheirhost s.
 Roundwormshav eamor eorlessl ongt ubularform andt heirdigestiv
esy st
em has
twoopenings(mout handanus) .
 Thei
rbodyiscov er
edwi thacut iclewhi chisf l
exibl
e.
 Theyhavenoext er
nal signsofsegment ati
on.
 Themosti mport
antr oundwor m speci esar ewirewor m,abl oodsuckerandbr own
 stomachworm.
 Incasesofsev
erei
nfect
ion,
anani
mal
candi
ebef
oreanysy
mpt
omsar
eobser
ved.

Fi
g5.
13.
5imgAr
oundwor
m

Damagecausedbyr
oundwor
ms
 Roundwormspuncturethesmal
l bl
oodvessel
sandf eedonblood.
 Lar
genumber sofroundwormsthatar
ebloodf eeder
scancauseanaemi
a.
 Reducedgrowthrat
esofanimal
sandl owproductivi
ty.
 Animalswasteawaybecauseofsever
escouring.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
roundwor
ms
 Dosi ngofani malsaf teridentifyingt hecorrectroundwor m speci es.
 Dosi ngallani mal sthreeweeksaf t
erthef i
rstheav yrai
nt okil
l i
nfectivelarv
ae
pickedwi tht her ainf
al l
.
 Dosi ngagai nint hemi ddleoft hesummerandaf t
erthefirstfrostsinaut umn,so
thatani mal sgoi ntot hewi ntercl ean.
 Frequentdosi ngofy oungani mal s.
 Ant helminticscanbeadmi nisteredusi nginject
ions, or
all
yoraspourons.
 Wel lfeedingofani mal sbecauseani malsingoodcondi ti
oncant olerateworm
i
nf estati
ons.
 Areaswher eanimal sar einconst antcloseconf inementshoul dber egularl
y
cleaned, disinfected,manur ecol lectedanddi sposedoft oki l
linfectedeggsand
l
ar vae.
 Past urerotat i
onandpaddockr estingwillhelptobr eakthecy cle.
 Whenpaddocksar eheav ilydunged, manur eshoul dbedi skedorhar r
owedi nt
othe
ground.
 Av oidgrazingani malsi nlow- l
yingwetar easinsummeri fpossible.

Col
lect
ionofr
oundwor
m sampl
es
 Col
lectanimal f
aecal sampl esri
ghtaf
tertheanimal haspassedoutthewaste.
 Putthem inplast
iccont ainersorpl
asti
cbags.
 Cl
earlylabelt
hecont ainerswi t
hanimalident
if
icati
on,dateandplaceofcoll
ect
ion.
 Di
spatcht hecoll
ectedf aecalsamplesincoolboxassoonaspossi bl
etothe
l
aboratory.
 I
dentif
icati
onoft heroundwor mswil
lbedonei nlabs.

2.Wi
rewor
ms
 Wirewormisacommonpar asi
teandoneofthemostpat
hogeni
cnematodesin
ruminants(
sheep,goatandcatt
le).
 Thisparasi
tei
sprevalenti
nthetropi
cal
regi
onspar
ti
cul
arl
ywest
ernandeaster
n
 par
ts.
 Wir
ewormi sscientif
ical
lyknownasHaemonchuscont ort
us.
 Thelar
vaerequiremoi stur
efordev el
opment.
 Hencethereareof t
enmassi veinfest
ati
onsaftert
herai
nsbegin.
 However,t
heycansur vi
veintheirundev
elopedstagesthr
oughthewi
nteri
fther
eis
somemoi stur
ear ound.

Fi
g.5.
13.
6imgWi
rewor
ms

Damagecausedbywi
rewor
ms
 H.cont ort
usi sadeadlybloodsuckingwormt hatcausessev
ereanaemi
a.
 I
tmaycausei nfl
ammat i
onofthemucusmembr ane.
 Const ipation
 Extremeweakness.
 Breat hlessnessandl ossofweight.
 Pall
or( anunheal t
hypaleappearance)
.
 Lethar gy
 Depr ession
 Suddendeat hmayoccur .
 Somet imesi tcauseshyperacutehaemochiosiswhichmayoccurduetoov
er
whel mi ngchal l
engesimposedbymassi veinfect
ion.
 Animal sgetanoedemat ousswell
ingunderthejaw.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
wir
ewor
ms
 Prophy l
act i
cant helminthictreatmentnecessar yt opreventinfecti
oni nendemi c
regions.
 Targetedsel ecti
v etreatmentmet hodsmaybev aluableinreducingt henumberof
dosingi ntervals.
 Thisreducest heper centageofsur v i
vingpar asi
test hatareresistantto
anthelmi nthics.
 Faecal eggcount sareusedt ot rackpar asiteinfestati
onlevels,indivi
dualanimals'
suscept ibil
it
yandant hel
mi nthicef fecti
veness.
 Selecti
v ebr eedingf ormor epar asite-r
esistantsheeporgoat sf orexampl ecull
ing
themostsuscept ibl
eani malsori ntroducingpar asite-
resi
stantbr eeds.
 Careful pasturemanagementt hatinv olv
esi ntensiverotati
onal grazingespeciall
y
duringpeakpar asiteseasons.
 Cleaningi nfestedpast uresbyhay ing,til
li
ngorgr azingwithanon- suscept
ibl
e
species, forexampl e,swi neorpoul tr
y.

Col
lect
ionofwi
rewor
m sampl
es
 Col
lectani
malfaecalsamplesri
ghtaf
tert
heanimal
haspassedoutt
hewast
e.
 Putthem i
npl
asticcontai
nersorpl
ast
icbags.
 Cl
earlylabelt
hecontai
nerswithani
malident
if
icati
on,
dateandpl
aceofcoll
ect
ion.
 Di
spatcht hecol
l
ectedfaecalsamplesi
nacool boxassoonaspossi
blet
othe
l
aboratory.
 I
dent
ificati
onofthewir
ewor mswill
bedoneinlabs.

3.Tapewor
ms
 Thesear eflatt
enedwor mswhi chr esembl eat apemeasur e.
 Tapewor ms( Cestoda)ar egutpar asit
eswhi chcompet eforfoodwi t
ht hehost.
 Taeniasagi nat
aorbeeft apewormi sat y
peofpar asi
tethatspecifical
lyattacks
cattl
eandi susuallyingestedbyt heani mal initseggorcy stform.
 Thet apewor m wi
lltraveltotheintestineswher eitwil
ldev el
opi nt
oanadul t
parasite,
attachesitsel
ft othewallsoft hei ntesti
nesandl i
vefory ears.
 Humanswhoeatunder cookedbeeft hathasbeeni nf
ectedwi thtapewor m cyst
s
canal sobecomei nfected.
 Theadul ttapewormsar efoundint hesmal lint
esti
neoft hehostani mal .
 Tapewor mscangr owf orupt osev enmet resi ntheanimal i
ntesti
nes.
 Diagnosisinliveanimal sisoft
endi ffi
cultandsomet i
mesapostmor tem i
s
necessary.

Fi
g.5.
13.
7imgAt
apewor
m

Damagecausedbyt
apewor
ms
 Heav yi nf
est at
ionsreducefeedintakeorflowofdi
gest
abybl ockingthedi
gest
ive
tract.
 Tapewor msabsor bthenut
rientsthattheani
malneedsforgrowth.
 Sy mpt omsofsev ereinf
ect
ionmayi ncl
udeext
endedbel
ly(orpotbell
y).
 Ret ar
dedgr owth.
 Tot alobstructi
onoft hesmal li
ntest
inesbyheavyworminfestat
ionsmayresul
tin
rapiddeat h.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
tapewor
ms
 Opt i
mum densi t
yofl i
vestock(stockingrate)becauseov erstockingforcesthe
animal st ograzecl osertofaecal materi
al,whichresult
sint heconsumpt i
onofa
hi
ghernumberofi nfecti
velarvae.
 Periodicde- worming.
 Strategicde- wormi ngwhencondi ti
onsar emostf avour
ablef orlarvaldevel
opment
ont hepast ure.
 Separ atinganimalsbyageespeci al
lyinintensi
veproduct i
onsy stems.
 Reduci ngt heeffectsofgast ro-
intesti
nalparasit
esbyassur i
nganadequat epl
ane
ofnut ri
tion.
 Practisingr ot
ati
onal gr
azing.
Col
lect
ionoft
apewor
m sampl
es
 Col
lectanimal f
aecal sampl esri
ghtaf
tertheanimal haspassedoutthewaste.
 Putthem inplast
iccont ainersorpl
asti
cbags.
 Cl
earlylabelt
hecont ainerswi t
hanimalident
if
icati
on,dateandplaceofcol
l
ecti
on.
 Di
spatcht hecoll
ectedf aecalsamplesinacool boxassoonaspossi bl
etothe
l
aboratory.
 I
dentif
icati
onoft hetapewor mswi l
lbedoneinl abs.

4.Fl
ukes
 Flukesar ei nternal par asi test hathav eaf latbodywi t
hanov al orwor m- l
ikef orm.
 Theyhav enoext ernal signsofsegment ationandt heyar er elativelyshor t.
 Mostf lukeshav et wosucker sf orat tachi ngt othehost ,onecl oset ot hemout hand
theot heronv ent ral side.
 Theyhav eabl i
nddi gest ivesy stem.
 Theydonotpossessananusandt heonl yopeni ngi st hemout h.
 Thedi gest ivesy stem i snotl inearasi nmostani mal sbutbr anched, endi ngin
sev eral blindduct s( cal ledcoeca) .
 Mostf lukesar esi mul taneousher maphr odi tes, t
heyhav ebot hmal eandf emal e
reproduct iveor gans.
 Flukesr equi reani nter medi atehostt ocompl etethei rli
fecy cle.
 Inthiscasei ttakest hef or m ofaf reshwat erhar d-shel l
edsnai l.
 Flukesar eusual lyassoci at edwi thf r
eshwat ersour cessuchaspansormar shes.
 Theyoccurmost l
yi naut umnandwi nterwhenani mal sar efor cedt ogr azet he
greeneredgesoft hemar shesasar esul tofl ackofpast ur es.
 Themosti mpor t
antspeci esar eliverflukesandconi calflukes.
 Liverf l
ukesoccuri nt hebi leduct soft hel i
v er .
 Theeggsar epassedi ntot hebi leandar et henexcr et edwi tht hef aecesoft hehost
animal .
 Immat ur est agesi nf ectt hesnai lswher ef urtherdev elopmentt akespl ace.
 Thepar asi tesescapef rom t hesnai l
sandency stont heher baget of ormt he
i
nf ectivest agewhi chi st akeni nbyt hehost .
 Coni cal flukesi nhabi tt her umenofsheep, goat sandcat t l
eandhav easi mi l
arl i
fe
cyclet ot hatofl i
v erf lukes.
 Infectionswi t
hf l
ukesar ecal ledt remat odosi s.
 Theadul tpar asitesdonotcauseanydi seaset othehostbutt hei mmat urest ages
dest royt hemucousmembr anesoft hesmal l i
ntestines, causi ngsev eredi ar
rhoea.
 Diagnosi sdependsont i
meofy earandgr azi nghist oryoft hear eainv ol
v ed.

Fi
g.5.
13.
3imgAf
luke

Damagecausedbyf
lukes
 Suddendeat
hespeci
all
yinsheepduet
oint
ernal
bleedi
ngandl
i
verf
ail
ure.
 Deathmayal sobeduet osuddenreleaseoft
oxini
ntheli
verbybacter
ia
(Cl
ostri
dia)
.
 Dull
ness
 Weakness
 Anaemia
 Lossofappet i
te.
 Painovertheregionoftheli
ver.
 Protei
nleakage.
 Bodygrowt hisreduced,t
her
ei sl
ossofweightandof
tenemaciat
ion.
 Oedemaappearont helowerjaw(`bot
tlej
aw`)
.

Fi
g.5.
13.
8imgTy
pical
sheepwi
thabot
tl
ejaw.

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
flukes
 Strategicappli
cationofant hel
mi nthic.
 El
imi natingthepar asi
tesfrom thehostatt hemostappr opr i
atetimeforeffecti
ve
prev enti
onofpast urecontami nati
on.
 El
imi natingi
nfectedani malsandt reat i
nginfectedanimalswi thaf l
uki
cide.
 I
nf ectionscanbepr ev
entedbynotal l
owinglivestocktoaccesscont aminated
past uresorwaterbodi eswher esnai lsandplant sabound.
 Cont roll
edburni
ngofgr assesandr ushesint hespr i
ngmayr educet henumberof
l
arv ae.
 Reduci ngthepopul ati
onofhostsnai l
sbychemi calorbi
ologicalcontr
ol methods.
 Reduci ngthenumberofsnai lsbydr ai
ningandf encingwat er
loggedareas.

Col
lect
ionoff
lukesampl
es
 Collectanimal faecal sampl esri
ghtaf
tertheani malhaspassedoutthewaste.
 Putt hem inplasticcont ainersorpl
asti
cbags.
 Clearlylabelthecont ainerswi t
hanimalidenti
ficat
ion,dateandpl
aceofcol
l
ecti
on.
 Dispatcht hecollectedf aecalsamplesincool boxassoonaspossi bl
eandsendto
thelabor ator
y.
 I
dent if
icati
onoft hef l
ukeswi l
lbedoneint helaboratory
.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Col
lectanyanimal
par
asi
teofy
ourchoi
ceusi
ngt
hepr
ocedur
est
hathav
ebeen
not
edabov e.

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ivi
ti
es

1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

I
MMUNI
TY

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
e
t
o:

1.Describenaturalandartif
ici
ali
mmunit
y.
2.Discusstheimpor tanceofimmuni
tyto
animals.
3.Describetheroleoflymphnodesinimmuni
ty.
4.Describeimmunecel lt
ypes.

I
mmuni
ty
 Immuni t
yistheabi li
tyofanani mal bodyt oreactt oforei
gnsubst ancessuchas
mi crobesandv ariousmacr omol ecules.
 Itcanbeant ibodymedi ated(humor al),cel
lmedi ated(cell
ular)orboth.
 Immuni t
yisdivi
dedi ntot wo,naturalandar ti
fi
cial.
 Nat uralandarti
ficialimmuni t
yaref urthersubdividedintoact i
veandpassive.
 Act i
veimmuni tyinv olvest heproduct i
onofant ibodiesbyt hebodyitsel
fand
subsequentdev elopmentofmemor ycel l
s.
 Passi veimmuni tyisat ypeofi mmuni tyacquiredbyt hetransferofanti
bodiesfr
om
onei ndivi
dualtoanot herf orexampl efrom mot hertoof f
spring.
A.Nat
ural
immuni
ty
 Naturalimmunityisthei mmuni tythatoccursnaturally
.
 Itdoesnotrequiresensi t
izat
iontoanant igen.
 Naturalimmunityistheabi li
tytoresisti
nfecti
ont hatdoesnotdependonpri
or
experi
enceoft heinvadingor ganism.
 Iti
sagener alandnon- specifi
cresistancetoinfecti
onpossessedbyallheal
thy
organisms.
 Iti
sfur t
hersubdivi
dedi ntonaturalpassiveandnat uralact
ive.

1.Nat
ural
passi
vei
mmuni
ty
 I
tist hei mmunit
yacquiredbythefoetusoroffspringfr
om themothert
hroughthe
pl
acent aandcolostr
um.
 Mat ernalanti
bodiesarepassedthroughtheplacentatothefoet
usduri
ngthethir
d
mont hofgest at
ion.
 They oungani mal maygetanti
bodiesfr
om colostrum whensuckli
ngfr
om the
parent.
 Thi
st ypeofimmuni t
yisshort-
li
vedanditlast
sf orthefi
rstsi
xmonthsofthe
off
spr ing’sl
i
fe.

2.Col
ost
rum f
eedi
ngt
oyoungani
mal
s
 Col ostrum isthef ir
stmi l
kpr oducedbyt hemammar ygl andsi nlatepregnancyand
af ewday saf t
ergivingbirth.
 Col ostrum isthickerthant hemi lkwhichfoll
ows.
 Col ostrum iscrucial f
ornew- bornfarm animals.
 Thenewbor nanimal mustr eceivecolostr
um wi t
hinsi xhour st otwelvehour safter
par turi
ti
onf ormaxi mum absor pti
onofcolostralantibodi es.
 Thei ngestedant i
bodiesar eabsor bedbythei nt
estinesoft heneonat e.
 Theneonat algutisabletoabsor bimmunogl obuli
n( Ig)Gf orhour supt odaysaft er
birth.
 Afteraper i
odoft imet heneonat ecannolongerabsor bmat ernal I
gG( gutclosure).
 Ifaneonat alanimal doesnotr eceiveadequat eamount sofcol ost rum pri
ortogut
closur e,i
twi l
lhav einsuff
icientamount sofmat ernal IgGi nitsbloodt ofightoff
commondi seases.
 Thiscondi t i
onisr eferr
edtoasf ail
ureofpassivetransf er.
 Insomedai ryfarmst heyst orecol ostr
um inrefr
igerat ors(pooledcol ostrum)f or
futur euse.
 Col ostrum istakenf rom differentcows, mixedandr eser vedforf utur
euse.

3.Nat
ural
act
ivei
mmuni
ty
 Nat
ural
act
ivei
mmunit
yisencounter
edthr
oughexposur
etodiseases.
 I
toccur
swhenanani
malisexposedtoali
vepat
hogenordevelopsadisease.
 Theani mal becomesi mmuneasar esultofthepr i
mar yi
mmuner esponse.
 B-cell
sint hebodypr oduceantibodiest hathelpt ofi
ghtagainstthei nvadi
ng
microbes.
 Theadapt iveimmuner esponsegener atedagainstthepathogent akesday sor
weekst odev elopbutmaybel ong-lastingorev enlif
elong.
 Thei ndi
vidualanimal producesitsownant ibodies.
 Theseant ibodiesleadtoi mmunol ogical memor ywhichwi l
lprot
ectt heanimal
againstfutureinfecti
ons.
 I
tissai dtobenat ur
albecauset heimmuni tyisinducednotbydel iberateexposur
e
(suchasv acci
nation).

B.Ar
ti
fi
cial
immuni
ty
 Arti
fi
cial
immunit
yiswhenthebodyisgiveni
mmuni
tyt
oadi
seasebyi
ntent
ional
exposuretosmal
lquant
it
iesofthedi
sease.
 Arti
fi
cial
immunit
ycanbeactiv
eorpassive.

1.Ar
ti
fi
cial
passi
vei
mmuni
ty
 Artifi
cial
passiveimmunityi sanimmedi atebutshort-
termimmuni zat
ion.
 I
tisdonet hroughtheinj
ectionofantibodi
esthatar enotproducedbyt he
recipient
’scell
s.
 Th eseantibodiesaredevelopedinanotheranimal andtheninject
edintoanother
i
ndi vi
dual.
 An ti
serum isthegeneralterm usedforpreparat
ionsthatcontainanti
bodies.
 Th eseantibodiesmaycomef rom thepooledandpur i
fiedbloodproductsof
i
mmuneani mal s.

2.Ar
ti
fi
cial
act
ivei
mmuni
ty
 Arti
fici
al activeimmunityisprotecti
onpr oducedbyi ntenti
onalexposureofan
animal toant igenssoast oproduceanact i
veandl ast i
ngimmuner esponse
(vaccination).
 Theant i
gensi nthevaccinestimulatetheimmunesy stem topr
oduceant i
bodies
andmemor ycell
swhichar especif
icall
ydirectedagai nstt
heant i
gensinthe
vaccine.
 Afterimmuni zati
on,cor
rectant i
bodiesbindtoi nfectiousagentswhi chi
nv adethe
body .
 Thememor ycell
sgeneratear api
dimmuner esponseagai nsti
nfect
iousagents.
 Thei nfectiousagentsarequicklyattackedanddest r
oy edbeforesymptomsoft he
diseasedev el
op.

Thei
mpor
tanceofi
mmuni
tyt
oani
mal
s
 Thei
mmunesy
stem i
smadeupofcel
l
s,t
issues,
prot
eins,
chemi
cal
sandor
gans
 thatwor ktogethertodefendani mal sagai nstmicroorgani
sms.
 Itisthebody ’
sdef enseagainstinfectiousor gani
smsandot herinvader
s.
 Thei mmunesy stem producespr oteinscal l
edantibodiest
hatcanhel pneut
rali
se
i
nf ecti
onsortoxinst hatsomeger mspr oduce.
 Itisnecessaryfort heanimaltodev elopanadapt i
v ei
mmuni tyinthecasethereal
diseasecomes.
 Cal v
eswi thahigheri mmunest atuspr oducemor emi l
kwithahi ghfatandprot
ein
cont entandwillsufferl
essfrom scour s.

C.Vacci
nat
ion
 Vacci
nati
onistheintroduct
ionofweakenedorinacti
veant
igentoananimal
to
i
nvokeimmuner esponse.
 Vacci
nati
onisthemostcostef fect
ivewayofcontrol
li
nganimal
diseases
comparedtochemot herapy
.

Vacci
net
ermi
nol
ogy
i
.Homol
ogousv
acci
ne

 I
tisav acci
nethati
sdevel
opedfr
om t
hesamepat
hogent
hati
scausi
ngt
he
di
sease.
 Forexamplelumpyski
ndiseasev
acci
ne.

i
i
.Het
erol
ogousv
acci
ne

 Iti
sav acci
nethatconf
ersprotect
iveimmuni t
yagai
nstapathogent
hatshar
es
cross-
react
inganti
genswit
ht hemicro-or
ganismsinthev
accine.
 Forexamplemugugacocktail(avaccineforThei
l
eri
aparva)
.

i
i
i.Aut
ogeneousv
acci
ne

 I
tisav acci
nedevel
opedfrom mi
croor
ganismswhichhavebeenf
reshl
yisol
ated
f
rom thelesi
onofthepat
ientwhoistobetreat
edwithi
t.
 Forexamplewart
sincatt
lewhicharecausedbypapi
lomavir
us.

i
v.Pol
yval
entv
acci
ne

 I
tisav accinedev elopedfrom mor ethanonest r
ainorspeci
esofmicro-
organi
sms.
 I
tisnormal l
ypr oducedf orclostr
idi
aldiseases.
 Forexampl eblackleg,botuli
sm, tet
anus,enterot
oxaemiaanditi
scal
leda
quadvalentvaccinebecauset heyarefour.

Ty
pesofv
acci
nes
Tabl
e5.
14.
1Tht
womaj
ort
ypesofv
acci
nes.
At
tenuat
edv
acci
ne Inactivatedv accine
-Kil
ledv accine.
-Weakenedv accine. -Deadori nacti
v ev accine.
-Livev acci ne. -Iti
sexpensi vetopr oduce, (
it
-Iti
seasyt opr oduce( pathogencanbegr owni n r equireschemi cal s,heator
cellculture, embr y onatedeggsorbyuseof radiati
ons) .
experiment alani mal s). -Ithasashor tdur ationofi mmuni t
y.
-Prov i
desl ongl ast i
ngimmuni ty(morethant wo -Requi reboost ers.
years). -Ther eisanaddi ti
onofadj uvantsto
-Itrequiresnoboost ingandadjuvants. maket hev acci
nesmor epowerful.
-Itcanr ev erttobei ngv i
rul
entorpathogenic. -Theycannotmut atet heref
orethey
cannev erbev i
rulent .
-Itrequirescol dchai nf r
om pointofmanuf actur
ing-Requi rescol dchai nf r
om pointof
ri
ghtupt oadmi ni strati
on. manuf actur i
ngr i
ghtupt o
admi nistration.

Vacci
nebr
eakdown
 Vacci
nebreakdowniswhenav acci
nefai
l
stoeli
citanimmuneresponse.
 I
tisevi
dencedbytheanimal
get t
ingsi
ckint
heeventofanexposurewhenithas
beenvacci
nated.
 Fact
orsthatl
eadtovacci
nebreakdownareani
mal andvacci
nef
actors.

Ani
mal
fact
ors
 Pregnantcowsdonotuselivevacci
nes.
 Si
ckani malsshoul
dnotbevaccinat
ed.
 Agemi ghti
nterf
erewi
thint
ernalant
ibodi
esespeci
all
yyoungani
mal
s.

Vacci
nef
act
ors
 Thevaccinemi ghtbeexpi red.
 Administr
ationofthewr ongv accine.
 Thevaccinemi ghtbeexposedt osunlight(
nocol
dchai
nobser
ved)
.
 Wrongpr eparat
ionofv accinemi xt ur
e.
 Wrongr outeofadmi ni
stration.
 Fai
lur
et oboostani nacti
v ev accine.

I
mpor
tanceofv
acci
nat
ingani
mal
s
 Vacci
nat
ioni
sthemostcost
-ef
fect
ivemeansofpr
event
ing,
cont
rol
l
ingandev
en
 eradi
cati
nginfecti
ousdi seases.
 Theyensuresafetyandef f
ici
encyinthepr oducti
onofli
vestock.
 Theyareusedf oreasycont rolofemer gingandexoti
cdiseases.
 Theyhelpinthecontrolli
ngofani malinfecti
onsandinfest
ationsthusi
mprovi
ng
animalhealt
handwel fare.
 Theyreducethesheddi ngofor gani
sm t hatcausefoodbornediseasesi
npeople.
 Vacci
nationsolvesproblemsassoci atedwi t
hantibi
oti
candant helmi
nti
cresi
stance.

Vacci
nat
ionpr
ogr
ammes
Tabl
e5.
14.
3Vacci
nat
ionpr
ogr
ammesofbr
oil
ersandl
ayer
s.
Animal Di
sease Age Route Remar k
Newcast l
e Str
ainForB1or
Broi
ler
s 1-7daysSpr ayingorocculonasaldr
ops
di
sease Lasota
I
nfect i
ous 3-4
Sprayordrinkingwater Str
ainLasot a
bronchiti
s weeks
I
nfect i
ousbursal18-21 Ift
hemat ernal
Sprayordrinkingwater
di
sease day s bodyislow
5-10
day s
Mar ek'
sdisease Dri
nkingwat er
18-21
day s
Layers Mar ek'
sdisease Day1 I ntramuscular
1-7days
Sprayoroccul onasal Ifmesogenic
3-4
Dropsordrinkingwater. Ifl
entogenic
weeks
Ranikhetdisease Sprayordrinkingwater
. Kil
ledvaccineor
8weeks
I
ntramuscularorsubcutaneous mesogenic
16-18
ordrinki
ngwat er. Lasotastrai
n
weeks
I
nfect i
ousbursal40th
Dri
nkingwat er
di
sease week
I
nfect i
ous
3weeks Dr i
nkingwat er
bronchiti
s
I
nfect i
ouscoryza3weeks Dr i
nkingwat er Kil
ledvaccine
EDS- 76 3weeks Spr ayordrinkingwater
16
I
LT I
ntramuscular
weeks

Tabl
e5.
14.
4Vacci
nat
ionpr
ogr
ammeofdai
rycat
tl
e.
Di
sease Ageatf
ir
stdose Boost
erdose Subsequentdose
Footandmouth 4mont
hsandabove1monthaft
erSi
xmont
hly
disease f
ir
stdose
Haemor r
aghic
6mont
hsandabov
e Annual
l
yinendemi
car
eas
septicaemia
Blackquar t
eror
6mont
hsandabov
e Annual
l
yinendemi
car
eas
blackleg
4-8mont
hs(onl
y
Br
ucel
l
osi
s Onceperl
i
fet
ime
femal
ecal
ves)
Onceperl if
eti
meandr equired
Thei
l
eri
osi
s 3mont
hsandabov
e
forcrossbredexoti
ccattle
Ant
hrax 4mont hsandabove Annuallyinendemicareas
1mont haft
er
I
BR 3mont hsandabove Sixmont hly
fi
rstdose
Rabies(
postbi
te Immediatel
yaft
er 7,14,
28,and90t hdayafterfir
st
4thday
ther
apyonl
y) suspectedbi
te dose

Tabl
e5.
14.
5Vacci
nat
ionpr
ogr
ammef
orgoat
s.
Nameofdi sease Pri
mar yvaccination Regularv accinat
ion
Anthrax 6mont hsforkidorl amb Onceannuall
yinendemi careas
Haemor r
hagic
6mont hsforkidorl amb Onceannuall
ybef oreMay
septicaemia
-4mont hsforkidorl ambi f
thedam isvaccinated Befor
eMayandt heboost ervacci
ne
Enterotaexamia
-1weeki ft
hedam i snot af t
er15daysoff ir
stv acci
nati
on.
vacci
nated
Blackquar t
er 6mont hsforkidorl amb Onceannuall
yar oundMay
3mont hsandabov eforkids
P.P.R Oncein3years
andlambs
Footandmout h 4mont hsandabov eforkid Twi ceperyear(Septemberand
disease andlambs March)
Goatpox 3mont hsandabov eforkid Onceannual l
y(December )
3mont hsandabov eforkid
C.C.P.P Onceannuall
y(Januar y)
andlamb

Ly
mphnode
 Lymphnodesar especi al
izedmassesoft i
ssuethataresi
tuat
edalongl
ymphatic
system pathways.
 Thesest r
uctur
esf il
terlymphf l
uidbeforeretur
ningitt
otheblood.
 Lymphnodes, lymphv esselsandotherlymphat i
corgansaidi
ntheprev
ent i
onof
fl
uidbuil
d-upintissues.
 Lymphnodespr otectanani malagainstinfect
ionandmaintai
nnormalblood
 volumeandpressur
einthebody
.
 Lymphnodesmaybef oundinever
yar
eaoft
hebodyexcepti
nthecent
ral
ner
vous
system (
CNS)
.

Fi
g5.
14.
1 Al
ymphnode

Ther
oleofl
ymphnodesi
nimmuni
ty
 Lymphnodesser vet womaj orfunctionsi nt hebody .
 Theyfil
terl ymphandassi stt heimmunesy st em inbui ldingani mmuner esponse.
 Lymphi sacl earf l
uidt hatcomesf r
om bl oodpl asmat hatexi tsbloodv essel
sat
capil
l
arybeds.
 Thereisacl oser elationshi pbet weent hel ymphnodeandl ymphocy tes(T,Band
natur
al kil
lercel l
s).
 Lymphocy tesar ewhi tebl oodcel lsthatf unct i
oni nthei mmunesy stem of
vert
ebrates.
 Therolesofl ymphnodesi ni mmuni tyincl ude:
o E nabl ingcommuni cationbet weenl ymphocy tes.
o Ho usingofl ymphocy t
eswhi char et hei mmunesy stem cells(BandTcel ls)
.
o B- cel l
sai dint hecr eat i
onofant i
bodi est hatar eant igenspeci fi
c.
o Th eyt hent agt heant i
genasani ntruderandl abel itfordestructi
onbyot her
i
mmunecel l
s.
o T- cel ll
y mphocy t
esar eresponsi blef orcel lmedi atedi mmuni ty.
o T- cel l
spar ticipat eint hedest ructionofpat hogens.
o L ymphnodesf i
lterlymphofhar mf ul pat hogenssuchasbact eriaandvir
uses.
o Th enodesal sof i
lteroutcel l
ularwast e,deadcel lsandcancer ouscell
s.
o Th ef i
lteredl ymphf r
om al lareasoft hebodyi sev entuall
yreturnedtothe
bloodt hroughabl oodv essel neart hehear t.
o Re turningt hef l
uidt ot hebloodpr ev ent soedemaort heexcess
accumul ationoff l
uidar oundt issues.
o I ncasesofi nf ection, l
y mphnodesr el easel ymphocy t
esi nt
ot heblood
stream t oai di nt hei dentif
icationanddest ructionofpat hogens.

D.I
mmunecel
lty
pes
 Immunecel l
swor ki
nanumberofway sei
therbycel l
-t
o-cell
contactorthr
ough
secretedsi gnall
i
ngmol ecules.
 Celltocel lcommuni cati
onisfacil
i
tatedbyr eceptorsandligands.
 Recept orsar eprot
einstruct
uresthatmaybeexpr essedont hesurfaceofacellor
i
ni ntracellularcompar t
ment s.
 Ligandsar emol eculesthatacti
vatereceptorswhichmaybef r
ee-
float
ingor
membr ane- bound.
 Thei nnat ei mmuner esponseisthefirstli
neofdef enceandoccur ssoonafter
pathogenexposur e.
 Itiscarriedoutbyphagocy t
iccel
lssuchasneut r
ophilsandmacr ophages,
 cy
totoxi
cnat ur
alkil
l
er(NK)cell
sandgranulocy
tes.
 Thefol
lowingadaptiveimmuneresponseincl
udesant
igen-
speci
fi
cdef
ence
mechanisms.
 Anti
gen-dependentsti
mulat
ionhasvari
ouscellt
ypeswhichar
eTcell
s,Bcel
lsand
macrophages.

1.Bcel
l
s
 Bl y
mphocy tes(Bcel ls)ar eanessent i
al componentoft hehumor alimmune
response.
 Theyar eproducedi nt hebonemar row.
 Bcel l
smi gratetot hespl eenandot hersecondar yl ymphoi dti
ssues.
 That’swher etheymat ureanddi ff
erentiateintoimmune- compet entBcell
s.
 Bcel l
sarer esponsi blef orgener ati
ngant i
bodiesf orspeci f
icanti
genswhi chthey
bindv i
aBcel l
recept ors( BCR) .
 Thisresultsinstimul at i
onofBcel l
proliferati
onandt hef ormati
onofger minal
centres.
 Germi nalcentresar ewher eBcel l
sdifferentiateintoplasmacel lsormemor yB
cell
s.
 Theyar eresponsi blef orsecr eti
ngdi ff
er entclassesofcl onall
yuni queanti
bodies
thatarefoundi nthebl ood.
 Foll
owi ngthepr i
mar yr esponse, asmal l numberofBcel lsdevel
opi ntomemor yB
cell
swhi chexpr esshi gh- aff
initysurfacei mmune- gl
obulins.
 Thesesur viveforal ongerper iodoft imeandenabl ear apidsecondar yr
esponse.

2.Tcel
l
s
 Tcellsaredi stinguishedf rom otherl y mphocy tesbyt heTcel lreceptor(TCR)which
i
snotexpr essedbyBcel lsandnat ural kil
lercel ls.
 Theyar edev elopedf rom hemat opoi et i
cst em cel lsinthebonemar row.
 Tcellsmat urei nt het hymus.
 Therear esev eral typesofTcel lsbasedont heirspeci fi
cf unction.
 Thesecel l
si ncludehel peroref fector ,cytot oxic,memor y,regulator
yandgamma
delt
aTcel ls.
 Tcellswi t
hCD4mol eculesbindpept idesdi splay edonmaj orhistocompat i
bil
it
y
(MHC)I Imol ecul es.
 OnceaTcel lrecogni zesi tsspeci f
icpept ideant i
genpr esentedonadendr it
iccellor
Bcell,theTcel lbecomesact ivated.
 Sucht hatitgoesont opromot eanaspectofani mmuner esponse.
 Theseact ivatedTcel l
sar ecalledhel perTcel ls.
 HelperTcel lsdev elopinoneoft wodi rections, dependi ngont hecy toki
ne
envir
onmenti nwhi cht heyar eact i
v ated.
 Therear etwot ypesofhel perTcel l
s, TH1andTH2cel ls.
 TH1cel lstendt of or m whent hereisal otofst rongst i
mul ationbyt he
phagocy ti
sedant igenandl otsofact ivationoft hei nnatei mmunesy st
em.
 Incontrast,TH2t endt oform weakerandmor epr olongedst imulationwithless
 acti
vat i
onofi nnat emechani sms.
 Onei mpor tantr olet hatTH1cel lsper formi stotravel aroundt hebodyt o
macr ophagest hathav ephagocy tizedt heant i
gen.
 TheTH1cel lsbi ndt othesecel l
sandr eleaseinterf
er on-gamma( IFN-gamma) .
 Inthemacr ophage, t
hiscy t
okineincr easest hefusi
onofl ysosomeswi t
h
phagosomes.
 Thisact iv
ationofmacr ophagesbyI NF-gammai simpor tantfordeal ingwith
sophist i
catedpat hogenssuchast hoset hatcauset uber culosi
s.
 Thesecondr oleofhel perTcel l
sist ohel pBcel l
stor espondt oant i
gens.
 Manyant igenscannotcauseaspeci f i
cBcel ltodivi
dei nt oacl oneofant i
body
secretingpl asmacel l
sbyt hemsel ves.
 Inaddi ti
ont obi ndingt heant i
gen,t heBcel lalsophagocy t
isessomeoft heantigen
anddi splayspept idesonMHCI Imol ecules.
 Anact ivatedhel perTcel lmustbi ndt ot hecellandr eleaseappr opr i
atecytoki
nes.
 Thecy tokinessecr etedarefordifferentt ypesofhelperTcel l
swhi chcanei t
herbe
TH1orTH2.

3.Dendr
it
iccel
l
s
 Dendr i
ti
ccell
sarepr ofessi onalant i
gen-present
ingcell
s.
 Uponexposur eandupt akeofpat hogens, maturi
ngcellstravelt
osecondar y
l
y mphoidorganswher et heybecomepot entTcellacti
vators.
 Dendr i
ti
ccell
sarecent raltothei nit
iati
onofpr i
maryimmuner esponses.
 Theyar etheonlyant i
gen- presentingcellscapableofstimulati
ngnai veTcell
s,
therebyplayi
ngapi votal roleinthegener ati
onofadapt i
vei mmunity.
 Dendr i
ti
ccell
sdiff
eri nt heirabili
tytost i
mulateTcellsandi nthecy t
okinest
hat
theyproduce.
 Dendr i
ti
ccell
salsoi nteractwi ththei nnateimmunesy stem, i
nducingresponses
thatpotenti
all
yaffectt hesubsequentadapt i
veresponse.

4.Nat
ural
kil
l
ercel
l
s
 Naturalki
ll
ercel ls(NKcel ls)areinnat elymphoi dcel
lsthatf unct
ionasbot h
cyt
otoxiceffector sandr egulatorsofi mmuner esponses.
 NKcel l
sdev elopf rom commonl ymphoi dpr ogenitorcellsprimaril
yinthebone
marrow.
 Theyareeducat edt obecomesel f-
tolerantt hroughr ecogniti
onofsel fMHCI
molecules.
 MatureNKcel lsmi gratetot heliver,uterus, thymusandper ipherall
ymphoi dorgans.
 Thi
si swheret heygi v
er i
set otissue- specificandf unctionall
ydisti
nctmat ureNK
cel
lsubsets.
 NKcel l
sexpr essal argenumberofr ecept orst hatdeli
vereitheracti
vatingor
i
nhibi
torysignal s.
 Therelati
vebal anceoft hesesignal scont rol NKcel lactiv
ity
.
 NKcel l
sareact i
vatedf oll
owi ngthedet ectionofabnor malit
iesintargetcell
s.
 Theact i
vati
onofNKcel l
st r
iggersly sisoft argetcellsandt heproduct i
onofa
 numberofcy toki
nesincludi
ngIFN- gamma
 Th epr oducti
onofanumberofcy t
okinesincl
udi
ngIFN-gammaal l
owsNKcell
sto
cont r
ibutetotheactivat
ionoftheadapt ivei
mmuner esponse.
 Th eabi l
it
yofNKcel l
st ospecif
icall
yattackandeli
minatestr
essedcel
l
s,whi
l
e
mai ntaini
ngtoler
ancet onormal andhealthycel
l
ssuggeststhatNKcell
smayhave
therapeut i
cpotenti
alasanti-
canceragent s.

5.Neut
rophi
l
s
 Thepr imaryf unctionofneut rophil
si sthei ngesti
onanddest r
uctionof
microorganismsorot herf oreignpar t
icles( phagocytosi
s).
 Neut r
ophilsar eclassifi
edasphagocy tes.
 Phagocy tosisbegi nswhenaneut r
ophoi l
isf acedwithami croorganism orfor
eign
parti
cle.
 Duringphagocy tosistheneut rophi
l extendspseudopodsar oundt hefor
eign
mat er
ialandengul fit
.
 Digestiveenzy mespr esentint heneut rophi li
cgranulesarereleasedintothe
vacuolewhi chi scont ainingt heforeignpar ticl
esandi ti
sdest royed.
 I
nmostcasesami l
dinf ecti
onenhancest hef uncti
onofneut rophilswhi
leasev er
e
i
nfectionimpai rstheirf unction.

Summar
y
 Immuni t
yistheabi l
it
yofanani malbodyt oreactt
of orei
gnsubstancessuchas
mi cr
obesandv ariousmacr omolecules.
 Itcanbeantibodymedi at
ed(humor al
),cel
lmediated(cel
lul
ar)orboth.
 Th erei
spassiveimmuni t
yandactiveimmuni t
y.
 Ac ti
vei
mmuni tyinvolvestheproducti
onofant i
bodiesbythebodyitsel
fand
subsequentdev el
opmentofmemor ycell
s.

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1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

LEGI
SLATI
ON

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Di
scussl
egalresponsibi
l
iti
esofli
vest
ock
owner
s.
2.Out
li
nenoti
fi
ablediseaseregul
ati
ons.

Ani
mal
Heal
thACT
 Legislat i
oni st hepr ocesst hr oughwhi chal aworsetofl awsaresuggestedbya
gover nmentandmadeof fi
cialbyparliament .
 ACTi sl egi slationpassedbyt hepar l
iament .
 InZimbabwet heAni mal HealthACTf al
l
sunderChapt er19:01andi thasthir
tyfour
sections.
 Animal Heal thACTwasmadet opromot eer adi
cat i
onandpr eventi
onofthespr ead
ofani mal pest sanddi seasesi nZimbabwe.
 TheACTal sopr event stheintroducti
onofani mal pestsanddiseases.
 Sections6t o8r egul atetheimpor tat
ionandexpor tati
onofgoodsandani malsso
astopr eventt hespr eadofdi seases.
 Str
ay ingani mal sf allundersect ion9i ntheAni mal HealthACT.
 Sections12t o14pr ov i
defort heconst r
uct i
onofv eteri
naryfi
xtures.
 Insect ion15and16, t
heMi nistermayor derdestructi
onofwi l
dani malsand
const ructionoff ences.
 Section26i nv olvest heuseofl andfordest ruct
ionanddi sposalofwildanimals.
 Section27encompassest hechangeofoccupat i
onofl andwhenmov ementof
animal si sr estricted
 Section28i sf orof fencesandpenal ti
es.

Legal
responsi
bil
i
tiesofl
i
vest
ockowner
s
 Everyani
mal mustbekr
aal
edatnight
.
 Animalsshoul
dbedippedatani
nterv
alofev
eryweeki
nwetseasonandev
ery
 fort
nighti
ndryseason.
 Vaccinati
ngli
vest
ockagainstdi
seasest
hatareknowntooccuri
nthearea.
 Reporti
ngcasesofdiseaseoutbr
eaktothevet
eri
naryst
ati
onorpol
icestat
ion.
 Treati
ngallsi
ckanimals.
 De-worminganimalsever
yonsetandoff
setofaseason.

Not
if
iabl
edi
seaser
egul
ati
ons
 Anot i
fiabl ediseasei sanyi nfectiousdi seaset hatisr equi
redbyl awt ober eported
togov er nmentheal thof fi
cialswhendi agnosedorsuspect ed.
 Exampl esofnot if
iabledi seasesar eant hrax ,Newcast leandf ootandmout h.
 Ther egul ati
onsgui di
ngnot if
iabledi seasesar easf ollows:
 Donotopencar cassofanani mal thathasbeendi agnosedorsuspect edofa
notifi
abl ediseaset oreducecont ami nat ionoft hegr ound.
 Disposedeadani mals, manur e, beddi ngorot hercont aminatedmat erial
by
cremat ion( preferable)ordeepbur ial.
 Disinfectt heplacewher et heani mal di edusi ngqui ckl ime,formali
norcaust i
csoda.
 Buryani mal carcassesorcont ami nat edmat erialatleast1met r
edeept opr event
scav enger sfrom get ti
ngaccessorcont ami nat i
onoft hegroundwi t
hspor es.
 Mar kt hel ocat i
onwher et hecar casshasbeenbur i
ed.
 Quar ant inet opr eventt hespr eadofdi sease.
 Eli
mi nat ewi thoutdel ayanypot ential infect ioussour cei ftheyareknownt oexistto
breakt hel if
ecy cleoft hedi seasef orer adi cationoft hedisease.
 Cont rol mov ementofani mal st oorf r om r egionswhi chhav ecasesofnot ifiabl
e
diseases.
 Anyper sonhav ingi nt heirpossessi onorundert heirchar geanani mal aff
ect edor
suspect edofhav i
ngoneoft henot i
fiabl edi seasesmusti mmedi at
elynotif
yt he
responsi bleauthor iti
es( vet erinaryorpol icest ati
on) .
 Repor tingdi seaseout br eaks, limitthei rspr eadandmi ni
mizet heeconomi cand
healthi mpact sonani mal sandpeopl e.

Summar
y
 InZimbabwet heAnimal Heal
thACTf al
lsunderChapt er19:01andithasthi
rtyfour
sections.
 ThisACTpr ovi
desfortheeradicati
onandpr eventi
onoft hespreadofani
mal pests
anddi seasesinZimbabwe.
 Not i
fiabl
ediseasesaredealtwithvial
egislationratherthanthr
oughtradi
ti
onal
practicebasedcont r
ol.
 Thisal l
owsacoor dinat
edappr oachtodiseaseer adicati
onacrosstheenti
re
affectedarea.
 Hav i
ngal egalbasisforcontr
ol hel
psensur ecooper at
ionandsuccessful
eradicati
on.

Act
ivi
ty
 1.Visi
tthenear
estv et
eri
nar
ystationorpoli
cestat
ionandenquir
eandmake
coll
ecti
onsoftheAnimalHealthACT, l
egalr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesgover
ningl
i
vest
ock
ownerandnotifi
abledi
seaseregulat
ions.

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2020
Topi
c5

A.Li
vest
ockspeci
es
 Livestockspeci esar edomest i
catedani malsr earedinanagr i
cult
uralset
ti
ng.
 Livestockarer ear edf ormeat ,f
ibr
e, mi
lk,draughtpower , br
eeding
orspor tpurposes.
 Livestockcanbegr oupedintotwobr eedswhi chareindigenousandexot i
cbr
eeds.
 Indigenousmeansnat ivetothear ea.
 Exot i
cmeansf or eignt othearea(non-nativ
e).
 Abr eedi sagroupofani malsoft hesamespeci eswithsimil
arphy si
cal
char acter
ist
ics( coatcol our,hornsorbodyt ype)t hatwil
l pr
oduceanimalswit
hthe
samef eatur
esi fbr edamongt hemsel ves.
 Exampl esofl i
vest ockspeci esincludecattl
e, sheep,goat sandpigs.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofI
ndi
genousbr
eeds
1.Droughtt olerant.
2.Diseaset olerant.
3.Hardy( adapt abletoharshconditi
ons)
4.Goodf ertil
ity
.
5.Theyar eusedf ormanypur poses.
6.Smal l
bodysi ze.
7.Thegr owt hratei sver
yslow.
8.Poorfeedconv ersi
oneffi
ciency
.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofexot
icbr
eeds
1.Theygrowv eryf
ast.
2.Theyhaveagoodf eedconversi
onr
atio.
3.Theyarelessadaptabl
etolocal
env
ironment
s.
4.Theyhavelargebodysize.
5.Theyrequir
emor enutr
ient
s.

I
mpor
tanceofl
i
vest
ock
1.Domest
icconsumpt
ion
 Livest
ockcanberaisedf
ortheproducti
onofausef
ulf
orm ofdi
etar
yprotei
nand
energy.
 Itcanbeconsumedasmeatt hatisbeef,
pork,
mutt
on,chev
onandchicken.
 Livest
ockcanproduceot
herproductssuchasmil
kwhichcanbeprocessedint
o
 dairypr
oductssuchasy ogur
t,cheese,but
terandicecr
eam.
 Eggsarealsoproduct
sofl i
vestockwhichareusuall
yserv
edf
orbr
eakf
astand
theseproduct
saresorichinprotein.

2.I
ncomegener
ati
on
 Livestockisasour ceofincome.
 I
nr uralareascashi ncomer eceivedfr
om l
i
vest
ocksel
l
ingi
susedtopayschool
fees,buycl ot
hes,inputsandf ood.
 Ah uget urnovercanbeobt ainedinlar
gecommerci
alf
armsinv
olv
edinl
ivest
ock
productionandt heirby-
products.

3.Ani
mal
draughtpower
 Liv
estockcanbeusedfordr
aughtpowermainl
yforl
andprepar
ati
onoffiel
dsfor
examplemaizefi
eld.
 Cattl
eordonkey
scanbeusedt opul
lcar
ts,
modeoft r
ansporti
nrural
areas.

4.Manur
e
 Li
vest
ockwastecanbeusedasor ganicfert
il
izer
.
 Manurecanbespreadi
nfieldstoincreasecropy i
elds.
 Li
vest
ockwasteisusedtomakef uel( bi
ogas).
 Manurei
salsousedtomakepl asterforwallsandfloors.
 Manurecanbeusedasaf ueltoli
ghtupf ir
esinruralareas.

Fact
orst
hataf
fectt
hechoi
ceofabr
eed
1.Personalpreference.
2.Avail
abil
it
yofst ockorsemen.
3.Managementandcondi t
ion.
4.Vegetati
on.
5.Naturalenemi es.
6.Topography.
7.Envir
onment al condi
ti
ons.
8.Marketdemandsandf uncti
onal
demands.

Cat
tl
ebr
eeds
1.Therear
ebeefbreedsanddai rybreeds.
2.Beefcat
tl
earerai
sedformeatpr oducti
on.
3.Dair
ycatt
lear
eprimari
lyraisedf ormil
kpr oducti
on.
4.Ther eBosi
ear ndicusandBost aurusbreeds.
5.TheBosindi
cuscattl
etypicall
yhav eapr onouncedhumpont
hei
rshoul
der
swhi
ch
 i
sforenergyst
orageandal
soservest
oincr
easesur
facear
eaf
orheatdi
ssi
pat
ion.
6.Bostaur
uscatt
learehumpless.

Beef
I
ndi
genousbr
eeds
1.Tuli
2.Mashona
3.Nguni
4.Afri
cander(
Afr
ikaner
)
5.Brahman

Exot
icbr
eeds
1.Si
mment al
2.Hereford
3.Sussex
4.AberdeenAngus
5.Beefmast er
6.Li
mousi n
7.Charolai
s

Dai
ry
Exot
icbr
eeds
1.Hol
stei
n-Fr
iesi
an/
Fri
esi
an/
Fri
esl
and
2.Jer
sey
3.Reddane

 Ther
ear
enoi
ndi
genousbr
eedsi
ndai
rycommer
cial
product
ion.

Cat
tl
epr
oduct
s
 Beefcattleprovidemeatwher easdairycattl
eprovi
demi lk.
 Milkishighlynutrit
iousandi tcanbepr ocessedint
odi ff
er entdair
ypr oductswhi ch
i
ncludecheese, yoghurt
, but
t erandice-cream.
 Dairyproductscont aincalci
um whi chcanai di
nbonest rengt heni
ng.
 Olddairycowsar eslaughteredf ormeat ,pri
mari
lytheyar eusedt of orm gr
ound
beef.
 Dairybullcalvesareslaught eredforveal (l
eanmeat )
.
 Tall
ow( fatfrom cattl
e)isusedt oproducewaxpaper ,crayons, margari
ne,paints,
rubber,
lubricants,candles,soaps, l
i
pst i
cks,shavi
ngcr eamsandot hercosmet ics.
 Gelati
neisapr oteinobtainedbyboilingskin,tendons,li
gament s,and/orbonesof
cattl
einwat er.
 Gelati
neisusedi nshampoos, f
acemasksandot hercosmetics.
 Gelati
neisal sousedinf oodasat hickenerforexampl efrui
tgel at
inesand
puddings,candiesandmar shmall
ows.
 Leatherwhichcomesf rom catt
lehidesisusedt omakewal l
ets,purses,f
urni
tur
e,
shoesandcaruphol st
ery .
 Leathercanbemadef r
om t heski
nofsheep, goat sandwildanimal s.
 Cattl
eproducer ichmanur ewhichisusedi nor gani cf
arming.

Fi
g.6.
1.1 Meatf
rom f
arm ani
mal
s.

Fi
g.6.
1.2 Mi
l
kandi
tspr
oduct
s.

Goatbr
eeds
 Themaj
ori
tyofgoat
sinZimbabwearefoundi
nthesmal
lhol
dersect
or.
 Goat
sar
ev al
uedpri
mari
lyformeat
,mil
kandfi
bre.

I
ndi
genousbr
eeds
1.Matebel
e
2.Mashona
3.BoerGoat

Exot
icbr
eeds
1.Saanen
2.Toggenbur
g
3.Angora

Goatpr
oduct
s
 Goat sgi
vehighproteinmeatcall
edchev on.
 Goatmeati swidel
yconsumedi ndev el
opingcount ri
es.
 Goat spr
oducemi l
kwhi chismorenaturall
ydigesti
bleandassi
milat
edthancow
milk.
 Thisisbecausegoat ’
smilkhassmall f
atglobulesizeandhi
ghshortandmedium-
chainfat
tyacidscontent.
 Goatmi l
kcanbepr ocessedint
ov ar
iouspr oductssuchascheese,y
ogurt
,
buttermi
lk,
powderedpr oduct
s,babyformul aandsoap.
 Angoraandsomegoatbreedshaveexcel
lentcoatswhichareusedproducefi
bre.
 Cashmere/
mohairi
sanexampl eoff
ibreproducedbysomegoatbr eeds.
 Goatmanureisagoodsourceofni
tr
ogen, phosphat
e,potashandotherminer
als
dependi
ngonthedietf
ed.

Fi
g.6.
1.3 Chev
on

Sheepbr
eeds
 Sheepbr eedscanbecl assifiedint
odual -purposebreedsorspeci
ali
zedbreeds.
 Adual purposebreedisanani malt hathasacombi nat
ionoft
woormor epurposes.
 Thepur poseofsheepdi ffers;somear ekeptf orwool,someformeat ,
somef or
milkorhidesbutadual purposebr eedcanhav ethecombinati
onoftwoormor e
purposes.
 Sabi/Savesheepisthemostcommonbr eedi nZimbabweandi sfoundthr
oughout
thecount r
y,par
ti
cular
lyi nthecommunal areas.

I
ndi
genousbr
eed
1.Sav
e/ Sabi
sheep
2.Dor
persheep
3.Wil
tper

Exot
icbr
eeds
1.BlackheadPer si
ansheep
2.VanRooy
3.Suffolk
4.Wi l
tshir
ehor n
5. SouthAf r
icanMutt
onMer i
no
6.Corriedale

Sheeppr
oduct
s
 Sheepproduceawi devari
etyofpr oduct
s.
 Li
kecows, sheepproducemilkforconsumpt ion.
 Mil
kisusedt omakecheese, yogurtandv ari
ousotherdai
ryproducts.
 Sheepprovidemeat(lambandmut ton).
 Lambmeati sforanani
mal l
esst hanay earold.
 Muttonmeati sforanani
mal olderthanay ear.
 Sheepproduceswool andismost lyshavedoffduri
nghotweat her.
 Wool i
sprocessedintodi
ffer
entpr oduct
ssuchasshi rt
s,socks,yar
nandt
enni
s
 ballcover
s.
 Wo olisal
sousedasanoilabsorbenti
noi
lspi
ll
s.
 Sheepskinsaret
urnedint
oleatherwhi
chcanbeusedincaruphol
ster
y,cl
othi
ng
andshoes.
 Sheepbones,hoovesandhornsareusedtomakeproduct
ssuchasgelati
ne,t
ape,
brushesandpetfoodi
ngredi
ents.

Fi
g.6.
1.4 Unpr
ocessedwool

Pi
gbr
eeds
 Pigproducti
onisdoneatsmal ltolar
gescalei
nZimbabwe.
 Commer ci
alpr
oducti
onismost l
yassociat
edwithexoti
cbreeds.
 Indigenousbreedsaremostlyfoundincommunal ar
eas.
 Commer ci
alpr
oducti
onismost l
yassociat
edwithexoti
cbreedsandi
ndi
genous
breedsincommunal areas.
 Pigindustr
yboardisresponsi
bleforpigbr
eedi
ngatnationall
evel
.

I
ndi
genousbr
eeds
1.Mukot
a

Exot
icbr
eeds
1.Largewhite
2.Landrace
3.Duroc
4.Hampshire
5.Welsh

Pi
gpr
oduct
s
 Pig(swine)meati scall
edpor k.
 Pigproductsaret hemostwi delyconsumedproductsi
ntheworl
d.
 Pigproductsincludebacon, sausageandporkchops.
 I
nsulinusedf orregul
ationofdiabetescomesfrom swi
ne.
 Pigsprovidevalvesforhumanhear tsur
gery
.
 Otherpigproduct si
ncludesuede( shoesandcl
othi
ng)andgel
ati
ne(f
oodsandnon-
fooduses) .
 Lardisfatfrom pigabdomensandi susedinshavi
ngcreams,
soaps,
make-up,
bakedgoodsandot herf oods.
Fi
g.6.
1.5 Por
kpr
oduct
s

B.Wi
l
dani
mal
speci
es
 Wildanimal speciesar et hoseanimal sli
vingintheirnaturalhabitatwithlit
tleorno
humani nt
er f
erence.
 Wildanimalsar egr oupedi ntoher bi
vores,carni
voresandomni vor es.
 Examplesofwi l
dani malsincludel i
ons,elephants,rhi
nos,buffaloesandl eopards.
 Mostwi l
dlif
especi esar ebecomi ngext i
nctforvariousreasonsbutmai nl
yforthei
r
products(skin,bodies, deriv
ativesandpar t
s).
 Wildanimalsar ealsokeptasexot icpetsandi nzoos( AsiaandEur ope).
 Wildl
if
eproduct sar ev eryexpensi vethatiswhyt heyareillegal
lyhunt ed(poached).
 Thisposeamaj ort hreatt owildanimal speciesli
keelephant sandr hi
noswhi char
e
poachedfort heirtusksori v
ory.
 Wildanimalsbehav iouralpatternsarev i
talindi
catorsofecosy stem heal t
hiness
andthedeeperi mpact sofcl i
mat echange.
 Wildanimal product sincludeivory,skinandgamemeat .

1.I
vor
y/t
usk
 I
vor
yisahardwhitemat eri
alt
hati sfoundinthetusksofelephant
sorhippos.
 I
vor
yisusedinornament sandjewellery.
 Rhi
noshavesimil
arlooki
nghor nsbutt heyar
enotact ual
lymadefrom i
vory
.
 Rhi
noshornsareusedinmedi cineincountri
essuchasChi naandtheFarEast
.
 Rhi
nohornscanalsobeusedt omakedecor ati
veobjectsli
kedaggerhandl
es.

Fi
g.6.
1.6 El
ephant
’st
usk/
ivor
y

2.Ski
n/hi
de
 Ahideorskinistheext
ernal
coveringorintegumentofananimalbodywhichi
s
tr
eatedforhumanuse.
 Theyareusedtomakeshoes, cl
othesandot herfashi
onaccessori
es.
 Leat
herisalsousedinuphol
ster
y,inter
iordecorati
ng,
horsetackandhar
nesses.

Fi
g6.
1.7 Hi
des/
ski
n

3.Gamemeat
 Mostofthewil
dli
fehav
ehi
ghl
ynut
ri
ti
ousanddel
i
ciousmeatwhi
chcanbeusedt
o
makebil
tong.

4.Tr
ophy
 At r
ophyisananimal (
orit shead, skinoranyot herbodypart)t
hatahunt
erkeeps
asasouv eni
r.
 Trophyhunti
ngistheshoot ingofcar ef
ull
yselectedanimals.
 Biggamesuchasr hinos, elephantsandl i
onsunderof fi
cialgover
nmentl
icencear
e
usuall
ythemaintargets.
 Trophyhunti
ngisagr owingi ndustr
yandi slegal.
 Trophyhunti
nghasr estr
ictionswi thspeciesthatcanbehunt ed,wher
eandwhen
thehunti
ngcantakepl ace, andt heweaponst hatcanbeused.

Fi
g6.
1.8 El
ephantt
rophy

I
mpor
tanceofwi
l
dani
mal
s
1.Pr
ovi
sionoff
ood
 Wildanimalscanproducenutr
it
iousanddelici
ousmeatcal
l
edgamemeat
.
 Localpeopleusedtohuntwil
danimalsformeatbutnowadayswi
l
dani
malsar
e
nowconf i
nedtoprotect
edareasandnationalpar
ks.

2.Gener
ati
onoff
orei
gncur
rency
 Wil
danimal
scangener
atef
oreigncur
rencythr
oughsel
l
ingpr
oduct
ssuchasi
vor
y,
hi
desandgamemeattofor
eigncount
ries.

3.Aest
het
icv
alue
 Aestheticval
uemeansappr eciat
ionofwil
dli
fef ori
t sbeaut
y; i
tisper
sonaland
enhancedt hr
oughidenti
fi
cationandunderstandingofwi l
dli
fe.
 Thisissuecanresulti
nwildanimalsbei
ngt hesubj ectofpoetry,l
i
ter
atur
e,artand
musici ncl
udi
ngallani
malst hatl
ivei
nthewi ld.

4.Soci
alv
alue
 Thi
sisanaddit
ionali
mportancetothecommuni tyl
i
vingclosetowi ldani
mal
s.
 Theycanmanaget hewi
ldanimalssurroundingthei
rcommuni t
ies.
 Thi
siscal
ledCommunal BasedNat ur
al ResourceManagement( CBNRM).
 I
tresul
tsi
nimprovedeconomi cbaseforthecommuni t
y,i
nfrastruct
ure
 devel
opmentsuchasbui
l
dingofschool
s,cl
i
nics,
recr
eat
ioncent
resandr
esour
ce
centr
es

5.Ecol
ogy
 Wil
danimal scontributeintheheal thofecosy st
ems.
 Theymaint ai
nbalanceofnat ur ethroughbi o-
geochemicalcycl
es,f
oodchains,
popul
ati
oncont r
ols,poll
i
nation, seeddi spersalandsanit
ati
onthroughscav
enging.
 Forexampl eifcarniv
ores(predat ors)decr easeinnumberthismeansherbi
v or
es
(pr
ey)wil
l eatupmostoft hev egetation.
 Thi
swi l
lresultinnatureimbalancest ructureandfuncti
on.

6.Educat
ional
pur
poses
 Wildanimalsareusedasobj ect
sofst udi
esbyecologist
s,ethol
ogi
stsand
pathologi
sts.
 Resultsareimportanttoscienceandphi l
osophyandservesasabasisfor
speculati
ononhumanpur poses, v
alues,ethi
csanddesti
nies.
 Studentsfrom schoolsanduni v
ersit
iesvisi
tnati
onal
parkstoenhancethei
r
understandingandappreciati
onofwi ldanimals.

7.Recr
eat
ion
 Peoplederi
v epleasure,adv entur
eandenhancedphysical
andment alheal
thfrom
outdooractivi
ti
es.
 Tourist
sinteractwit
hwi ldani malsandt
heirwil
li
ngnesstopayforanactiv
ityi
san
i
ndicatorofthewi l
dli
fev alue.
 Moneypai dbyt ouri
stsbecomest hecommer ci
alval
uetothelocalcommuni t
iesas
wellasthecount r
yatl arge.

Summar
y
 I
nagr i
cult
ure,t
herearev ar
iousindigenousandexot i
cbr eedsoflivest
ock.
 Liv
estockproductssuchasmeat ,milk,
skinorhidescanbepr ocessedintovar
ious
val
ueaddedpr oducts.
 Wildanimalsplayanimportantroleinthehealt
hofecosy stems.
 Wildanimalsbringfor
eigncurrencyinthecountrythroughexpor t
ingtheirpr
oducts
andtouri
stattr
action.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Carr
youtasurveyofli
vest
ockbreedsiny
ourar
eaandt hei
rimportance.
2.I
denti
fythewil
danimalspeci
esinyourar
eaandthei
rimportance.
3.Debateonthei
mportanceofli
vest
ockandwil
danimalsyouhav ei
dentif
iedi
nyour
 sur
vey
s.

Beefpr
oduct
ion
 Beefproducti
onisreari
ngcattl
epr i
mar
il
yfort
heeffi
cientproduct
ionofmeatand
i
scharacteri
sedbycapacityforrapi
dgr
owth,heav
ywel l
-fl
eshedbodyandstock
bui
ld.
 Theaim ofbeefproducti
onistomeetconsumerdemandofgoodandqual i
tymeat
wit
hlessfleshtoboneratio.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofbeefbr
eeds
 I
nZimbabwebeefbreedscanbepart
it
ionedintoi
ndi
genousbr
eedsorexot
ic
br
eeds.
 Theset
wobreedshavedif
fer
entchar
acteri
sti
cshencechoi
ceofbr
eedshouldbe
wi
se.

Di
ff
erentbr
eedsf
oundi
nZi
mbabwe
1.Af
ri Af
cander( r
ikaner
)
 Afr
icander(Afrikaner )i
sanat i
veSout hAfri
canbreed.
 I
tisrearedprimar i
l
yf ormeatpr oduct i
on.
 Thebreedisusual lyredwi thlongl ateral
horns.
 Afr
icandercattleexhi bi
tgoodr esistancetoheat.
 I
thashi ghlevel oftickresistance.
 Afr
icanderbreedsar equiett emper ament .
 Theyhav esatisfactoril
yhighl eveloff ert
il
it
yunderhar
shcondi
ti
ons.
 Maturecowswei ghappr oximat el
y525kgt o600kgandbull
sweigh750kgt
o1
000kg.

Fi
g.6.
2.1 Af
ri
canderbul
l

2.Br
ahman
 TheBr ahmanbreedorigi
natedfr
om Indi
a.
 Brahmanbr eedsarecharact
eri
sedbyalargehumpov
ert
het
opoft
heshoul
der
andneck.
 Theirearsaregeneral
l
ylargeandpendulous.
 Thet hroatlatchanddewl aphav eal ar
geamountofexcessski n.
 Theyal sohav emor ehi ghlydev elopedsweatgl andswhichenablethem toper spi
re
mor ef r
eely
.
 Averagewei ghtofbul l
sis700kgt o1000kgandcowswei gh450kgt o650kg.
 Thecal vesar esmal latbirth,weighing27kgt o30kg.
 Calvesgr owv eryrapidlyandweanatwei ghtscomparabletootherbreeds.
 Theyar eunusual l
yt hri
fty,hardyandadapt abletoawider angeoffeedandcl i
mat e.
 Theyqui ckl
yr espondt ohandl i
ngt heyreceivebeitgoodorbad.
 Amaj ori
tyoft hebr eedar el i
ghttomedi um greyincol
our.
 Matur ebull
sar enor mal l
ydar kerthancowsandusual lyhavedarkareasont he
neck, shoul
der sandl owert highs.
 Brahmansar eheatt olerant.
 Theshor t,t
hi ck,glossyhai rcoatoft heBrahmanr efl
ectsmuchoft hesun'sray s,
addingt oit
sabi l
it
yt ogr azeint hegl ar
ingmi ddaysunwithoutsuff
ering.

Fi
g.6.
2.2 Br
ahmanbul
l

 Anabundanceofl
ooseski nontheBrahmancont ri
butetoi
tsabi
li
tytowit
hst
and
warm weat
herbyincr
easingthebodysurfaceareaexposedtocooli
ng.
 Brahmanshavesweatglandswhichgivesthem theabil
i
tyt
osweatf r
eel
ythr
ough
thepor
esoftheskin.

3.Bonsmar
a
 TheBonsmar ahasbeensci entif
icall
ybr edandst r
ictl
ysel
ectedf oreconomical
productionint heext ensivecat tlegr azi
ngr egi
onsofSout hAfrica.
 Thebr eedhasauni for mredbr owncoat .
 Theymat ureear l
y.
 Lowbi rt
hwei ghtt her eforeeasi ercal vi
ng.
 Theyhav ewel ldev elopedudder swi thadequatemi lk.
 Excell
entf erti
litywithshor tinter-calvi
ngcondi t
ions.
 Theyhav eabet tertemper ament .
 Theyar eadaptt omostcl imat i
ccondi t
ions.
 Theyar et i
ckt olerant .
 Theyhav eexcel lentcar cassandmeatqual it
y.
 Averagewei ghtf ormal esr angesf r
om 540t o900kgandf emaler angeis240to
600kg.
 Theyhav eshowngoodr esul t
sf orcalvingpercentage,weight
sofhei f
ersaswellas
veldandf eedlotadapt abil
ity.
 I
thasbeenst rictlysel ect
edf orgr owth,fert
il
it
yandf unct
ionaleffi
ciency.

Fi
g.6.
2.3 Bonsmar
abr
eed

4.Mashona
 Mashonacat tleor i
ginat edf rom theShonapeopl eoft heeasternpartofZimbabwe.
 Thi
sbr eedi smai nlyrear edf ordraughtandmeatpr oducti
on.
 Theyaredoci let emper amentwhi chal lowseasyhandl i
ng.
 Thebreedi susual l
ybl ackorr edandmostoft hem ar epoll
ed.
 Theyarest rongandst ur dy .
 Cowshav esmal lteatsandv eryli
ttl
euddert issue.
 Theyarehi ghlyadapt edt ol ocalenv ir
onment s.
 Theyhav easi gnifi
cantdegr eeofdi seaser esistance.
 Theyarer esistantt ohi ght emper ature, t
icksandf lies.
 Theyhav etheabi li
tyt omai nt ai
nr eproduct i
veef f i
ciencyinsemi -
ari
dAfri
can
cl
imate.
 Theyhav ev eryl owmai nt enancer equirement sandt heyarehighlymobil
e.
 Theyhav eear lycar cassmat uri
tyandhi ghdr essingper centage.
 Cowshav egoodmot her i
ngabi li
ty.
 Theyarer elati
v elyhighlyf ertil
e.
 Theyaresel ect i
v egrazer st hatalsohav etheabi litytobrowse.
 Bodywei ghtr angesf ormat uremal esandf emal esar e350kgt o600kgand260t o
400kg,respect ively.

Fi
g.6.
2.4 Mashonabr
eed

5.Nguni
 Nguni originat edf rom Sout hAf ri
cat heyaref oundi nSwazi l
and, Mozambi queand
Zimbabwe.
 Theyar eusedf ordr aughtpower .
 Theyar ebecomi ngpopul arasabeefbr eedundergoodmanagement .
 Nguni cat t
lesur vi
v einhar shcl imat i
ccondi t
ions.
 Theyar edi seaset olerant .
 Bul l
swei ghbet ween500kgt o700kgandcowswei gh320kgt o440kg.
 Cal vesweani ngwei ghti s175kg.
 Thebul lshav ewel ldev elopedr oundedcer vio-thoracichumpswhi charemuscul ar
rathert hanf atty.
 Thecowshav esmal lalmostnon- existenthumps.
 Theyhav et hickpi gment edski nscov er
edwi thf i
neshor thairofdiff
erentcol our
mi xtures( bl ack,whi te,r ed, brown, cream) .
 Theyhav el ongpr oduct iv elives,cowsmaypr oducet encal vesintheirl
ifetime.
 Nguni cat t
lear el esspr onet ody stociabecauseoft heirslopingrumps, smal l
uterusandl owbi rthmass.
 Theyar eexcel lentf orager s(grazeandbr owseonst eepsl opesandi nthi ckbush
ali
ke) .
 Finishedcar cassesdr essoutatr oughly180kgt o220kg.
 Nguni fattenwel lonnat ural grazingaswel l
asi nt hef eedlot.
 Thehi st orical dev elopmentoft heNguni hasr esultedinabr eedwithgood
temper amentandmot her ingabi l
ity.
Fi
g.6.
2.5 Nguni
breed

6.Tul
i
 Tul
iisapureAf r
icanSangabr eed.
 Tul
ibreedischaracterisedbyhighf ert
il
it
y.
 Theyarehardy.
 Theyadapttoheatandnut r
it
ional str
ess.
 Theyaremedium- si
zedani malswi thaneatcompactf r
ame.
 Theyhavesleekandgl ossshor t-
hairedcoatv ar
iesi
ncolourf
rom si
lvert
hrough
gol
denbrownt or i
chred.
 Theyhaveagoodmot heri
ngabi l
it
y .
 Tul
imeathasr el
at i
velylowfat(justsuffi
cienttogiv
eagoodmar bli
ng).
 Theyhaveexcell
entbeefqual it
ies.
 Theyaredocil
einnat ure.
 MostoftheTulicattl
ear enaturall
ypol l
ed.

Fi
g.6.
2.6 Tul
iher
d

7.Aber
deenAngus
 TheAberdeenAngus( Angus)i saScot t
ishbr eedofsmal lbeefcattle.
 I
torigi
natedf rom count iesofAber deenshi reandAngusi nnor t
h-easternScotland.
 TheAngusi snat ural
lypolledandsol i
dbl ackorr ed( uddermaybewhi te).
 Cowst y
picallywei gh550kgandbul l
swei gh850kg.
 Theheadi ssmal li
nsi zewi thaslightlypr otrudingf oreheadandashor tsnout.
 Theyareadapt abletoal lweathercondi tions, theyt hri
v eunderallconditionswitha
mini
mum mai nt enance.
 Theyhavef i
nequal it
yf l
eshandhi ghdr essi ngper cent age.
 Theyaredoci l
ei nnat ure.
 Theyarenat urallypol l
ed,nodehor ningi sr equired.
 Theyhaveagoodpel vicstructur
ef oreaseofcal v
ing.
 Theyhaveagoodmot heri
ngabi li
tywi t
hst rongi nstinct.
 Theyhaveear lymat urit
y,goodf ertil
i
tyandst ayabil
ity( acow’scontinuingabil
ityto
bearcal
ves).
 Theymat ureear li
ert hanot hernativeBritishbr eedssuchast heHer eford.
 Thecattl
ehav elargemuscl econt entandar eregardedasmedi um-sized.

Fi
g.6.
2.7 Aber
deenangus

8.Sussex
 TheSussexdescendedfr
om t
hehornedr
edcowsinsouther
nEngland.
 Theyi
nhabitdensefor
est
softheWealdl
andofSussexandKent
.
 Theywer ebr edf ortheirspeedi nmov ingacr ossterri
tory.
 TheSussexi samedi um si zedcowwi thasmoot hdarkr edcol ouredcoatwith
whit
et ailswi tches,incol dercl i
mat estheycangr owat hi
ckercur l
iercoat.
 TheSussexcowmeasur esappr oxi
mat ely135cm att hewi thersandwei ghs585kg
andthebul l145cm and950kg.
 Sussexcowsar ethrif
ty,long- l
ivedcattle.
 Theyar efairlyeasyt ohandl ebecauseoft hei
rhistoryasdr aughtanimals.
 Theyeasi lyadaptt odifferentmanagementcondi ti
ons.
 Sussexcal vesar esmal latbi rthhav i
nganav eragewei ghtof30kgt o40kg.
 Thecalv esmat ureear lywi thahi ghper centageofsal eablemeat .
 Sussexbr eedsmai ntainthei rconditi
onev enonpoorqual it
yf eedandt heyar
e
knownf ort heirnon- selectivegr azi
ng.
 Theyhav epi gment edski nandahi ghnumberofsweatgl andshencebecomi ng
heattolerant.
 Theyar edr oughtt olerant.

Fi
g.6.
2.8 Sussexbul
l

9.Her
efor
d
 TheHer efor
di saBr i
tishbr eedofbeefcat tlet hator i
ginatedint hecountyof
Herefordshire,int heWestMi dl
andsofEngl and.
 I
tisdar kr edtor edory el
lowwi thawhi teface, crestanddewl ap.
 Theyhav eshortt hickhor nst hatt ypical
lycur vedownatt hesidesoft heheadbut
ther
ei sapol ledst rain(Pol l
edHer eford).
 Maturemal eswei ghupt o800kgwhi lemat uref emal eswei ghar ound550kg.
 Theyar emuscul ar,moder atet olongi nlengt hofsi de, adequatei nl
engthofleg,
l
argeinsi ze,tri
m andsmoot h.
 Theyar ewel ldev elopedi nt heregionsofv aluabl ecut s,back,loi
nandhi ndquart
ers.
 Thecat tleareknownf orthei rvigourandf or agingabi lit
y.
 Theyhav ehighlongev it
y,manyf emal esli
veandpr oducecal vesbey ondtheageof
15year s.
 Bull
sar ecapabl eofr emai ningpr ofitabl
eatst udtot heageof12ormor e.
 Herefordsar egener all
ydoci leandf astgrowi ngcat tl
ewi t
hgoodbeefqual i
ty.

Fi
g.6.
2.9 Her
efor
dbr
eed

Beefpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy stem isauni onorcombi nati
onofthr
eemai ncomponent
swhi
ch
ar
einputs,conv er
sionprocessandout puts.
 Therear
et hreeproductionsy stemswhicharecommoni nZi
mbabwe.
 Theseproductionsy st
emsi ncludeint
ensive,semi
-i
ntensi
veandext
ensiv
e.
 Thesesystemsar edetermi
nedbyfact
orsli
keseasonalf
luct
uationsinquali
tyand
quanti
tyofthev el
d.
 Howev er
,incommer cial
beefpr
oducti
oncatt
lereachsl
aughteratay oungerage.
 Underpenf att
ening,
animal
saremarketedatayoungerage,usuall
yafterpen
fat
teni
ngori ntr
oducti
onint
opastur
es.

a.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thesear esy stemswher ecat tl
ehavet hefreedom t oroam outdoorsandhav ean
autonomydi etselecti
on( t
hroughgrazing)andwat erconsumpt i
on.
 Extensivepr oducti
oni smainlypracti
cedincommunal ar
easormar gi
nallands
wheret herei svastland.
 Thenut ri
tional v
alueorveldv ari
eswithseasonal fluctuati
ons.
 Thev el
di smor enutri
ti
ousi nrai
nseasonandal lthenut ri
entsaccumulat
edinr ai
n
seasonar el ostindryseason.
 Animalsst ayi ngoodcondi ti
onforaboutt hreet ofourmont hs.
 Thisleadt ol owproductioncostsandl owout puts.
 Breedsr ecommendedundert hissystem i
ncl udeBor an,Brahman,Tul
i,Nkoneand
Mashona.

b.Semi
-I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thesearesyst
emswher ecattl
eareexposedtoacombi nati
onofbothintensi
ve
andextensi
vehusbandrymethods.
 I
ntensi
veandextensiv
emet hodsareei
therusedsimult
aneouslyorvar
iedin
accor
dancewithchangesincli
mati
cconditi
onsorphysiologi
calst
ateoftheanimal
.
 Thecostismoderatehencemoderateproduct
ion.
 Recommendedbr eedsareBeefmaster,
Bonsmar a,
BrangusandSimbrah.

c.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thesearesystemswher ecatt
lear
einconf inementandar eful
l
ydependanton
provi
sionofbasicneedssuchasf ood, shel
terandwat eronadai lybasi
s.
 Cattl
egrazeeit
heri ndrylandori
rr
igatedpast uresort heyarerearedunderzer
o
grazi
ngusuall
yref err
edtoaspenf at
tening.
 Thecostsofthispr oduct
ionsyst
em arev eryhighl eadingtomor eoutput
.
 I
tisusuall
ypracticedincommer ci
albeefpr oduction.
 Recommendedbr eedsareAngus,Heref or
dandSi mment al.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngapr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Thisisthemosti mportantf act
or.
 Potenti
alprofit
abil
it
yofthedi ff
erentsystemsofpr
oducti
onshouldbeconsidered.
 Considerfuturemarkettrendsr at
herthanbasewit
hestimati
onsofcur
rentmar ket
st
atus.
 All
theot herfactor
swillaffectprof
it
abili
tyoft
hechosensyst
em toanextent.

2.Ef
fi
ciencyofpr
oduct
ion
 Prof i
tabil
ityofbeefpr oduct i
onwillbedet erminedbyt heeff
ici
encyofproducti
on.
 Theef fi
ci
encyofpr oductioncanbemeasur edi nter
msofcal v
ingrat
e,weaningr at
e
andmassi nrelati
ont ocostofpr oduction.
 Al owweani ngratewi ll
depr esstheprof i
tabili
tyofweanerproduct
iontoagr eater
ext entthanasy stem ofmar keti
ngatanol derage.
 Weani ngrateshoul dbe75per centorabov etodoweanerpr oduct
ionwithnormal
suppl ement aryfeeding.
 Iftheweani ngrateislesst han65per centanypr oduct
ionsyst
em isl
ikel
ynott obe
viable.
 Sy stemsi nvolvi
ngbr eedingmakegr eaterdemandsonmanagementandr equir
e
great erexperti
set hanbuy ing-i
nandgr owi ngout .
 Iftheef fi
ciencyislowoptf orbuying-insy stems.

3.Nat
ural
regi
ons
 Innatural r
egionIVandVt hei ncidencesofdr oughtmakesi tdi
ffi
cul ttorunlarge
breedingher ds.
 Intheser egionssl aught erstocki spr eferr
edt oweanerpr oducti
on.
 Thisisbecauset hebr eedingher dformsasmal lerproporti
onoft het otalher
d.
 Forexampl e75%oft hecar r
y i
ngcapaci tyshoul dber eservedtobr eedingherdand
reari
ngofsl aught erst ock.
 Ther estshoul dber eser vedf orf i
nishingbought -stockdependingont heseason.
 Intheot hernatural regionst her eisnor estri
ctiononchoi ceofpr oduct ionsystem.
 Youngst ockproduct ionsui tinar easwher eveldcannotbeusedt oachi evehigh
slaughtermassandgr adeswi thoutconsi derablesuppl ementaryfeedi ng.

4.Ot
herent
erpr
isesont
hef
arm
 Wher ebeefunitisasecondaryenterpri
se, effi
cientmanagementofcat t
lecouldbe
l
imi t
edbyl ackofti
me.
 Ont heotherhand,wheregraincropsar epr oduced,thegraincouldbeasourceof
cheapf eed.
 Th esefarmswi l
lbebestsui
tedf orf
atteningofsl aughterstockorbought-
in
systemsunl essbeeft
ogr ai
nratiomakesi tuneconomi c.
 Th eprofi
tabil
i
tywil
ldependont herelati
vecostofhomebr edfeeder
sbought-i
n
feedersandweaner s.
5.Si
zeofl
and(
car
ryi
ngcapaci
ty)andext
entofdev
elopment
 Theweanerpr oducti
onandbuy i
ngi nsy stemsinvolvefewerherdst hansystemsof
breedingandsel li
ngstockespeciallywhencar ryi
ngcapaci t
yislesst han500
l
ivestockuni ts(LU).
 Weanerpr oductionandbuy i
nginsy stemsneedl esspaddockingandwat er
developmenthencel essov erheads.
 Thismakest hesesystemsmor esuitableonsmal l f
arms.
 Therei sincreasedsuper vi
siononsmal lfarmswhi chresul
tsinhighweani ngr at
es
l
eadingt ohi ghchancesofweanerpr oduct i
onsuccess.
 I
nt heear lystagesofdev elopmentbuy i
ngi nsyst
emsar ebet
terast heyrequirel
ess
i
nfrastructurecompar edt obreedingsy stems.
 Abov e500LUst hedif
ferencesinher dnumber srequi r
edunderdifferentsystems
decreasesandbecomel essi mpor t
antf actori
ndeci di
ngonpr oductionsystems.

6.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 Plantedpast
uresincr
easet hecarryi
ngcapacityoft
hefar
m andwident
hechoice
ofproducti
onsystemst obeconsi der
ed.
 Th eeconomical
lyopti
mum sy stem ofproduct
iononapropert
yhavi
ngpastur
eswil
l
varydependingontheov er
allcarr
yingcapacit
y,t
herat
ioofvel
dtopast
uresand
whetherornotgraincanbef edeconomi cal
lytoani
mals.

7.Pr
edat
ors
 I
npr edatorpr
oblem areaswher
ecalfl
ossesarehigh,i
tisbet
tertobuy-
inat
rel
ati
velymaturestagesorhavesl
aughterst
ockwithrel
ati
vel
ysmal lbr
eedi
ng
herds.
 Thereisneedtouseabr eedwi
thhi
ghmot her
ingabil
i
tytocareforthecal
ves.

8.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Per
sonalpref
erenceshoul
dnotover
ri
desoundeconomicconsider
ati
onsor
l
imi
tat
ionsoffarm.
 However,
peoplearemotiv
atedt
owor khar
derf
orsyst
emst heyli
keandpref
er.

Managementpr
act
icesi
nbeefpr
oduct
ion
1.Dehor
ning
 Ther
ear
etwomet
hodsusedt
odehor
ncat
tl
enamel
yhoti
ronandchemi
cal
met
hod.
i
.Hoti
ronmet
hod
 Theironisheat edbygas,f
ireorelectri
city.
 Theelectri
ci
tyandgasar eprefer
redast heyproduceaconst antheat.
 Theironisheatt oadullgl
ow.
 I
tisappliedwi t
hcircul
armotionfor3-5seconds( nottwisti
ngmot i
on).
 Guil
l
ot i
nedehor nercanbeusedf i
rstifthebaseoft hehornist oowidef ort
hei
ron.
 Forfull
y-
grownhor nsasur
gicalwireorsawandl ocalanaesthesiaareused.
 Toreducebl eedingyoucanusehy drogenper oxi
deandt rytodoi ti
nwi nter
.
 Thedehor ni
ngwoundsshoul dbecheckedr egul
arl
y.

I
I.Chemi
cal
Dehor
ning
 Thisi
sdoneusingcausti
nsti
ck/sodi
um di
oxi
deorsomebr andi
ngli
qui
d.
 Thisisdonewithi
ntwodaysofbirt
h.
 Fi
rstyouhavetocli
pall
thehai
raroundthehornzone.
 Thismethodisnotcommonlyusedbecauseanimalsar
eli
kelyt
orubofft
hel
i
qui
d
ontootherpart
softhebodyandcauseskinburns.

2.Weani
ng
 Iti
st hegradualreplacementofbreastfeedi
ngwi t
hot herfeedsandway sof
nurturi
ng.
 Thisisdonef ormanyr easonsbutalsoasamanagementt ool :
a.Tor emov ethel act
ati
onburdenoncows.
b.Tosepar ateani malsi
ntodif
ferentagegr oupsf orf
eedi ng/suppl
ementati
on.
c.I thelpsinveldmanagementbycont roll
ingtheher dsi ze.
 Ingener alweaningisdoneatsi xt
oni nemont hsofagewhent here’
sadequate
food.
 Insituati
onswher epossi bl
e,l
ateweaningespeci al
lyinpoorv eldi
sbenefici
ali
n
ter
msofcal fgrowth.
 Therear eweaningwhi chcanbeusedandt heseincludest ockademet hod,
compl eteseparati
on, useofnoseplatesandexchangeofcal f
-cowherds.

I
.St
ockademet
hod
 I
nthismet hod,cal
vesarepennednextt othei
rdamsf ortwoweeksormore.
 I
nthest ockadeareathecalvesar etr
ainedtotakesupplement
aryf
eed.
 Thi
smet hodisconsi
deredex pensiv
ebecausehayandsuppl ementar
yfeedmust
beprovided.
 I
ttakeslongbef or
ethecalvesandcowsset tl
edown.
 I
tistraumatictothecal
v esandi susedonl ar
geranches.

I
I.Compl
etesepar
ati
on
 I
ncompl et
eseparat
ion,cowsarelef
tintheori
ginalpaddockbutthecalv
esare
takentoafarr
emovedpaddock.
 Th eymaybemixedwitholderhei
fer
s,whichwil
ltrai
nthem totakesupplement
ary
feed.

I
II
.Exchangeofcal
f-
cowher
ds
 Thisinvol
vesexchangingcowsandcal
vesfrom di
ff
erenther
ds.
 Problemsassociatedwit
hthismet
hodisthatsomecowswi thst
rongmat
ernal
i
nstinct
smayf osterthecal
ves.
 Ho wever,
iti
slesst r
aumati
c.

I
V.Useofnosepl
ates
 Aspeci allyconstr
uctedplateisfi
ttedont hecalf’snoset oprev
entitfr
om suckli
ng.
 Thisallowst hecowsandcal vestoremai ntogetherf orqui
tesomet i
mebefore
separation.
 Thismet hodislesstraumatic.
 Theplat esareremov edaftersevent ofourteenday s.
 Theweaner smaybeputi ntofoll
ower s.
 Thepr obl em wi
ththi
smet hodi sthatsomecal veslearntosucklewit
htheplates
on.
 Thismet hodisthoughttobeabout90per centeffi
cient.

Fi
g.6.
2.10 Acal
fwi
thanosepl
ate.

3.Cast
rat
ion
 Itistheremovalorinactivat
ionoft hetesticl
es.
 Itisthemeansofcul l
ingorprevent i
nginferi
ormal eanimal sfrom br
eedi
ng
(repr
oducing).
 Itisalsodonetoinducedoci li
tyinmal eani mals.
 Castratesareeasyt ofeed,l
essf ighti
nginpenshencet heyspendmor et
ime
feeding.
 Castratestendtopr oducetenderandf attermeatatmat ureage.
 Itisalsodonetopr eventthestrongundesi rabl
ef l
av ourinmeat .
 Castrati
onisusuallydonesi multaneouslywi t
hdehor ni
ng.
 Castrati
onmet hodsi ncl
udebur dizzo’
sforcepsmet hod, kni
femethodand
elastrat
orri
ngmet hod.

I
.Bur
dizzo'
sfor
cepsmet
hod
  Thismet hodinvol
vespull
i
ngdownt estesandhol di
ngthesper mati
ccordsbetween
thejawsoft hefor
ceps.
 Th ejawsarethenclosedandthengiveajerktocompletelyseverthecords.
 Th i
sisthemostsui t
ablemethodforbeef,
itisfastandbloodlessandrequir
es
someski ll
.
 Itcanbedonet obullswhicharet
wot othreemont hsofage.

Fi
g.6.
2.11 Bur
dizzo

I
I.Kni
femet
hod
 Thi
sinv olvesincisi
onofthescrotum bottom partandpul
lingoutthetest
es.
 Thenrubbi ngt hekni
feagai
nstthesper mati
ccor dsunti
ltheybreak.
 Thi
smet hodcanbeusedatanyst age.
 I
tisil
legal tocastrat
eanyanimal thatismorethan12mont hsoldwit
houttheuse
ofanaest hesia.
 Thi
smet hodi sslowandrequi
resski l
ledpersonnel.
 I
talsorequi restheuseofchemi calstotr
eattheopenedwounds.

I
II
.El
ast
rat
orr
ingmet
hod
 Thi
smet hodshouldbeusedi ncat
tlewhicharet
hreeweeksoldandbelow.
 Anelastrat
orri
ngisplacedabovetheneckofthescrot
um suchthatt
esti
clesar
e
bel
owt hering.
 Theringwillst
opbloodflowandafteraperi
odofti
me, scr
otum andt
esti
clesdr
op
off
.
 Themet hodismorepainfulandsl
ow.

Fi
g.6.
2.12 El
ast
rat
orr
ingmet
hod

4.Vacci
nat
ion
 I
tistheadmi
nistr
ati
onofanti
genicmat er
ial(
avacci
ne)tosti
mul
ateani
ndi
vi
dual
'
s
i
mmunesy st
em todev el
opadapti
veimmuni t
ytoapathogen.
 Vacci
nescanpreventorameli
orat
einfect
iousdi
sease.

I
.Essent
ial
vacci
nat
ionsi
nbeefpr
oduct
ion
a.Quar
terev
il
/Bl
ackl Mal
eg( i
gnantoedema)

 Vacci
nateyoungstockatweaning,si
xmont
hsorear
li
er.
 Repeatat12monthsanday earlat
er.
b.Cont
agi
ousabor
ti Br
on( ucel
l
osi
s)

 Vacci
nat
eallweanedheif
ersatweani
ng.
 Nottobegi
ventopregnantcows.

c.Campy
lobact
eri
osi
s(Vi
brosi
s)

 Vacci
nat
ecowstwoweekspostcal
vi
ngandtwotothr
eeweeksbef
orebul
l
ing.
 Vacci
nat
ebul
lsatei
ghtweeksandf
ourweeksbef
orebul
l
ing.

I
I.Occasi
onal
vacci
nat
ionsi
nbeefpr
oduct
ion
 Anthr ax–annual vaccinati
ons.
 Parat yphoi
d–v accinatesevent otendayoldcalvestwiceatweekl
yint
erv
alsand
repeatannual l
yfor3y ears.
 Co l
ibacill
osi
s–v accinateinlastsixweeksofpr egnancy.
 Ro t
aandcor onaviruses–v accinatecowssixweeksandt hreeweeksbef
ore
calving.
 Bo t
ul i
sm –Vaccinat etwiceini
ti
all
yandr epeatannuall
y.

I
II
.Opt
ional
vacci
nat
ions(
endemi
car
eas)
a.Ri
ftv
all
eyf
ever

 Vacci
nat
einOct
ober
/Nov
emberannual
l
yal
lani
mal
sov
er6mont
hs.

b.Lumpyski
ndi
sease

 Vacci
nat
einJanuar
yannual
l
yal
lani
mal
sov
er6mont
hs.

c.FootandMout
hdi
sease(
FMD)

 Nouniv
ersalFMDv acci
ne.
 FMDvaccinesmustclosel
ymatchthestr
ainoft
hei
nfect
ingst
rai
n.
 Not
if
yVeterinar
ydepart
mentserv
ices.

5.Pr
egnancydi
agnosi
s
 I
tisobser v
ingandpalpati
onofcowst ocheckiftheyarepregnantatsi
xtoten
weeksaf t
erremovi
ngt hebul
l(endofbull
ingperi
od).
 I
tispossibletodopregnancydiagnosi
s(PD)usingpalpati
onfrom 35daysof
pr
egnancy .
 PDi sdoneasamanagementt oolfort
hefoll
owingreasons:
a. Itenabl
escul
lingandselecti
onofempt ycowswhi charethenfat
tenedand
 soldt herebyreduci nggr azingpr essure.
b.I tenablessel ectivef eedingoft hebr eedingcowsaccor di
ngt opr egnancy
status.
c.I tenablest hef armert odet ectandel i
mi nateinfer t
il
it
ypr oblemsor
reproduct iv
edi seasesi ncowsandt hoset hatcanbet racedbackt othebul
l.
d.I tcanbeusedt oi dentifyphy si
cal abnormal it
iesi nthef emal es'gonads.
e.I talsohel pstopr ev entslaught erofpr egnantcows.
f.I tl
eadst oani ncreasei nf uturecalvingr ates,whi ch,meanst haty ougetan
i
ncr easei n,herdf erti
li
tyov erti
me.
g.I tshor t
enst hecal vingseasoni fthebr eedingseasonwasl ongandl atebr
ed
cowsar ecul l
ed.
 ThePDi sdonebyaVet eri
nar yper sonorsomeonewel l experienced.
 Alargedi screpancybet weenPDr esultsandcal v
ingr atespoi nttopr oblemsl i
ke
contagiousabor ti
on.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofbeefani
mal
sfr
om bi
rt
htomar
ket
ing
 Ther
earet
hreeclassesofbeefani
mal
swhi
chi
ncl
udecow-
cal
fst
age,
weaner
st
ageandheif
erorsteerst
age.

1.Cowsandcal
ves
 Dur i
ngt hecal v i
ngseasont hecowsshoul dbecheckedr egul
arl
yfordystoci
aand
retainedaf terbirt
h( placenta).
 Alsoensur ethatcal v esareaccept edbyt hei rcows, especi al
lyi
nthecaseoff i
rst
calf-
cows.
 Thecal fmustdr inkthef ir
stmi l
kcal l
edcol ost rum.
 Thiswi llhelpt hecal ftoboosti tsimmunesy stem.
 Useacal v
ingpaddockt hatislesst han100hect ares,andshoul dhavehandli
ng
facil
iti
es.
 Aftercal vi
ngt hemov ementoft hebr eedingher dshoul dbesucht hattheymov eto
thenextpaddock.
 Theher dsshoul dnotbechangedpaddocksondi ppingday s.
 Adequat eplanni ngandpr eparationcanr educecal floss, whi
chulti
matelymeans
mor epr ofitforthepr oducer.
 Usingpr ovenmanagementt echni queshel psensur easuccessf ul
calvi
ngseason.
 Wi t
hint hef i
rstmont hsf ewmont hs, ther
ear ecer t
ainact ivi
ti
eswhichshouldbe
donet ot hecal f
.
 Thesei ncludedehor ning,castr
at i
on, weighi ngandwei ghi ng.
 Wei ghingi sdonef rom bi r
thupt ot heweani ngst ageusi ngscalesorwei ghbands.
 Identifi
cationofcal vesmustal sobedoneusi ngearnot ches,eart
agsandt att
oos.
 Aftersixmont hsdippi ngandcont roll
ingofi nternal parasitecommences.
2.Weaner
s
 Whenbeefcal vesr eachei ghtmont hs,t
heyar ecalledweaner s.
 Weaner scanbeputi nt hemar ket(
sold).
 Afterweaning, theweaner sarepenf at
tenedorv eldf inishedwiththeuseof
supplement s.
 Theai mist oincr easethewei ghtoftheweaner sby180- 2500gramsperday.
 Proteinandener gysuppl ement sar
eused( normally2- 3kgofcr ushedmaizeper
dayperweaner ).
 Rat i
onedsuppl ement ssuchasur ea,oilcakesandcubescanal sobeused.
 Suppl ementslikeur eaar everydangerousandmustnotbef edalonebutshoul
dbe
mixedi ncrushedmai ze(tenpartsofmai zetoonepar tofurea)andmixed
thoroughly.
 Itmustbegi v
en500gt o1kgperweanerperday .
 Weaner scanbef edwi t
hpoul t
rymanur easagr oundspr ay.
 Weaner sarewei ghedweekl ytochecki ftheyar egai ningwei ght.
 Iftheyreachslaught erweighttheymustbesl aught eredandsol dasweaners.
 Theymayal sobekeptatt hefarm ashei f
ersorst eer s.

3.Hei
fer
sandst
eer
s
 Agr oupoft hebr eedingher dcanbesel ectedf ormt hebesthei fer sbutt he
remai ni ngonesar epanf attenedort heycanf inishint hepast ureorv el
d.
 Veldf inishingr equiressmal leramount sofconcent rates(highener gyandhi gh
protei n).
 Thisr educest hecostofpr oduct iont ot hef armerandi susual l
ydonei nsummer .
 Thecat tlefat t
enedshoul dwei gh250kgt o500kgbodymass.
 Drymat tergi vent otheseani mal si s3kgperdayperani mal forhei f
ersand4kgf or
steer sbutt heconcent r
at eshoul dbekeptat20%ofdr ymat terf orbot hst eersand
heifer s.
 Wei ghtgai noft heani mal sdependsont hest agesoft heseasont hereforeitis
recommendedt ogiv edifferentr ationsatv ar i
ousst ages.
 Inear lysummer( Oct-Nov )feedshoul dbear ound0. 5kgt o0.6kg/ day ,midsummer
(Jan- Feb)t heyshoul dbegi v en1. 0kgt o1.2kgperdayandi nl atesummer( Mar-
April)t hef eedshoul dbear ound0. 7kgt o0. 8kgperday .
 Thel iv eav er agemassf orslaught ershoul dbear ound400kgt o550kgbutt hiswi l
l
varywi thage, sexandbr eedoft hecat tl
e.
 Penf at t
eningi sfeedingani mal swi thhi ghener gyandhi ghprot eindietf ora
prescr i
bedper i
odoft ime.
 Thef eedusual lycontains12%t o13%cr udepr ot ei
n, 10to11mJ/ kgener gyand
adequat ecal cium andphosphor ouspl ust raceel ement sandmi nerals.
 Feedi ngi sdoneunderconf inement ,thatis, i
nf eedingpensandt hisreducesl ossof
ener gyi nmov ement .
 Penf inishingenabl escat tlet oattai nslaught ermassear li
er.
 Past ur ef i
nishingi ssimi lartov eldf i
nishingexceptt hatofusingt hev el
d, pastures
arenowused.
 Theuseofhi ghener gyandhighprotei
nfeedassupplementsi sstil
lusedbutata
reducedamount .
 Su pplement aryi
sonl ydoneafteranassessmentandweighingofani mals,
otherwi selackingelement sl
ikephosphorouswill
besupplement ed.
 I
npast urefinishi
ngt hereisl
esssupplementaryener
gyfeedgivent oanimalsand
protei
ni sobtainedfrom thepasturel
egumes.
 Pa st
ureshav edisadv ant
agesofmet abol
icdisor
dersl
ikel
ami nit
is,r
umenstasis
andaci dosisar erarelyencounter
ed.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.I
dent
if
ythecommonbr
eedst
hatar
esui
tabl
einy
ourar
ea.Just
if
yyouranswer
.

Br
eedsofSheepi
nZi
mbabwe
 Majorit
yofsmallruminant
sinZimbabwei sfoundi nsmallhol
dersector
.
 BreedsofsheepinZimbabwear eclassif
iedunderi ndi
genoussheep,exoti
csheep,
dual-
purposebreedsandspecial
izedbreedsf orcrossbreedi
ng.
 Sma l
l r
uminant
sar eval
uedpri
mar il
yforthepr oducti
onofmeat,milk,
skinsand
fi
ber.
 They oungoneofasheepi scall
edal amp.
 Mu t
tonismeatofasheepwhi chi smoret hant woy ear
s.

1.TheSabi
/Sav
esheepbr
eed
 Sabisheepi st hemostcommoni ndi genoussheepi nZimbabwe.
 I
tisfat-
tailedwi thahai r
ycoat.
 Thei
rcolourmayr angef r
om blackt hroughallshadesofbrownt opurewhit
e.
 Theearsr angef rom almostnon- existenttoquitebigdependingwit
hthefamil
y.
 Theyhav eawi de,swingingfat-
tailwhi chf
unctionasaf oodreserv
einperi
odsof
nutr
it
ional st
ress.
 Sabisheepar esmal landrelat
ivelygr owslow.
 Savesheepar ehar dyandpr oductiv
eunderadv ersecondit
ions.
 Theyarer esistanttomostl ocaldiseases.

Fi
g.6.
3.1 Sabi
sheep

2.Bl
ackheadPer
sianbr
eed
 TheBlackheadPersi
ansheepori
ginat
edintheari
dregi
onsofeastAf
ri
ca.
 Bothsexesofthi
st y
peofbreedar
epolled.
 Theyhaveawhi t
ebody,bl
ackheadandneckwi t
hthetwocolour
ssharpl
y
di
sti
nguished.
 Theyhaveaf atrump, shortl
egsandcompactconf ormation.
 Theyareraisedmai nlyformeatpr oducti
on.
 TheBlackheadPer siansheepar ewelladaptedtothei
rlocalcli
mat es.
 I
tishardyanddi seaseresist
ant.
 Theyaretoleranttodryness,heatandl owlevel
sofmanagement .
 Theewesar ehav eagoodmot heringabili
ty.
 Theyproducear ound50kgofmi l
kintheirl
actat
ionperi
od( approximatel
y84day
s)
andthemi l
kcont ai
nsar ound5.9%f at.

Fi
g.6.
3.2 Bl
ackheadPer
sian

3.Dor
perbr
eed
 Dorperi saSouthAf r i
canmut tonbr eeddevelopedf r
om theDorsetHor nbreedand
Black-
headedPer sianbr eed.
 Thisist hemajormut tonbr eedi nZimbabwe.
 Therear ebl
ack-headandwhi te-headDorpers.
 Thebr eedwasdev elopedf orthear i
dextensiveregionsofSouthAf r
ica.
 Thebr eedshowsexcept ional adaptabi
li
ty,
har di
ness,reproduct
ionratesand
growth.
 I
thasgoodmot heringabi l
i
ties.
 Thisbreedisferti
le, hornlesswi thgoodbodyl engt
handashor tli
ghtcoveri
ngof
hairandwool .
 Dorpersmat ur
eear l
y .
 Gestationperi
odofewesi sappr oximatel
y147day s.

4.Wi
l
tperbr
eed
 Thisbreedwasdev el
opedi nZimbabwef r
om acr ossofWit
shireHornramswi t
h
BlackheadPer sianewes.
 TheWi lt
iperhasi mpr ovedmut tonconformat i
onandmi l
kproduct
ioncompared
withtheBl ackheadPer sian.
 I
thasnol ocali
zedf at-t
ailr
egion.
 Mat ur
eeweswei ghbet ween55kgt o70kgl iv
emass.
 Lambsr eachsl aughterf i
nishataround38kg.
 YoungWi l
tpersdev el
opshor twool wint
ercoatt hati
sshedinspri
ng.
 Thismakest hebr eedbet t
ersuitedtograssseedar east
hanotherexot
icbreeds.
 Wi l
ti
persheephav ethreemai ncolours(black,whit
eandabr owni
shdun).

5.Sout
hAf
ri
canMut
tonMer
inobr
eed
 Thi
sisadual pur
posebreed.
 Theypr
ovidebothwoolandmut t
on.
 Sout
hAfricanMuttonMerinoi
shugeandhasagoodmutt
onconfor
mation.
 Ewesweighbetween60kgand90kgandr amsbet
ween100kgand112kg.
 Theewesarehighlyfer
ti
leover100per centl
ambingiscommon.
 Thesesheephavegoodmi lkproducti
onandwi debreedi
ngseason.
 ThefaceandlowerlegsoftheMut t
onMer i
noarebareofwool
.
 Thi
smakest hem sli
ght
lymoret ol
eranttolongergr
asscondi
ti
ons.
 Woolyiel
dsarelow,about4kgto6kg.

Fi
g.6.
3.3 Sout
hAf
ri
canMut
tonMer
inobr
eed

6.Cor
ri
edal
ebr
eed
 TheCorr
iedal
ebreedwasdev el
opedi nNewZealandandAustr
ali
a.
 TheCorr
iedal
esheepareveryhardyandstronganimal
s.
 Theyar
ewel l
suit
edtoalmostallcli
mates.
 Theyar
elongliv
edanimalsandar edoci
lei
nt er
msoftemperament.

Fi
g.6.
3.4 Cor
ri
edal
ebr
eed

 I
tisaf air
lyfertil
ebreed.
 Theyar elar
gef r
amedandpl ainbodi edandhav ebroadbody .
 Bothramsandewesar egener allypolled.
 Theyar eusuallywhiteincol ourwi thwhi t
ef aceandbl ackpoints.
 Theirnoseandhoov esar eblack.
 Eweshav epl entyofmi lk,suffi
cienttosuppor teventwins.
 Matureeweav er
agewei ghti
s68kgwhi l
eramsar enormall
yar ound90kg(
some
ramsmaywei ghupt o135kg) .
 TheCor ri
edalesheepar edual -
pur poseani mal s.
 Theyar erai
sedandv aluedf orbot hwool andmeatpr oduct
ion.
 Thebr eedproducesal ongst aplewhi chmayr each100mm.
 I
tproducesl ust r
ouswool withawel l
-defi
nedcr i
mp.

7.Suf
fol
kbr
eed
 TheSuf folksheepar ev erystrongandhar dyani mal
s.
 Theyar eraisedmai nl
yf ormeatpr oducti
onbutt heyalsoproducegoodwool
.
 Suff
olkshav ebl ackfacesandl egs.
 Theirframei slargeandt heyareusuallyhighlymuscular.
 Bothramsandewesar eusual lypoll
ed.
 Suff
olkbr eedhasanout standingmut t
onconf ormation.
 Averagel i
vebodywei ghtoft hemat ureramsi sbetween110kgand160kg,for
ewesi tvariesfr om 80kgt o160kg.
 Lambsar ef astgr owi
ngandewesar efai
rl
yf ert
il
e.
 TheSuf folkbear samoder atelengthofstrongwhi t
ewool .
Fi
g.6.
3.5 Suf
fol
kbr
eed

8.Dor
setHor
nbr
eed
 TheDor setHor nisoneoft hepar entbreedsoft heDor perbreed.
 I
thasachi ev edwi depopul arityi
nSouthernAf ri
ca.
 DorsetHor nsheepar elargesi zedanimals.
 Theyhav est ockywhi tecolor edfacewithat hi
ckcr eamyf l
eece.
 Theyhav edi st
inctivepinknose.
 Bothramsandewesar egener all
yhornedandr amshav elarge,spi
ral
l
edhor ns.
 Theyhav ev erygoodbodyl engt handmuscl econformat i
onforproducinga
desir
ablecar cass.
 Fl
eeceoft heDor setHor nsheepi sst
rong, cl
oseandf r
eefrom darkfi
ber.
 DorsetHor nbr eedsar everyhar dyandst ronganimal s.
 Theyareabl et othriveindiv ersecondit
ionsandusual l
ydowel lonmostt y
pesof
pastur
e.
 Theyarev erydoci leanimal s.

Fi
g.6.
3.6 Dor
setHor
nbr
eed

 TheDorsetHornisalongwel
lset
-upsheepnotedfori
tsf
ert
il
it
y.
 I
tishi
ghlysuscepti
blet
opneumoniaandlungworm.

9.VanRooy
 Thisisaf attail
edsheepdev elopedi nSouthAf r
icabySenat orJ.CVanRooy .
 Iti
sapr oductofwhi teBlinkhaarAf rikanerram crossedwi t
hRamboul l
etewes.
 TheVanRoyi scover
edwi t
hst rongchal ky-
whitebr i
stl
yhair.
 Ithasagoodf ramewi t
hsoundboneandi ssli
ghtlybiggerthanthePer si
an.
 Ithasbroadear sandmedi um si zesemi -ci
rcul
ardewl ap.
 VanRooyi sadaptabletoawi der angeofcondi ti
onsf orexampl etheysurvi
ve
periodsofadv ersenutr
ient.
 Iti
sf er
til
e(threelambsi ntwoy earsispossi bl
e).
 Th eewesar egoodmot hersandgener al
lymakeasat isf
actorybasisfor
crossbreeding.

Fi
g.6.
3.7 VanRooybr
eed

Sheeppr
oduct
ionsy
stems
 Aproducti
onsy st
em isaunionorcombi nat
ionoft
hreemaincomponentswhi
ch
ar
einputs,conversi
onprocessandoutputs.
 Therear
ethr eety
pesofsy st
emsi nsheepproduct
ionwhi
chareext
ensiv
e,
i
ntensi
veandsemi -
int
ensi
vesystem.

A.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thesear esy st
emswher esheephav ethef r
eedom t or oam outdoorsandhavean
autonomydi etselecti
on( t
hroughgrazing)andwat erconsumpt i
on.
 Extensiveproducti
oni smainlypract
icedincommunal areasormar gi
nall
ands
wheret hereisvastland.
 Thenut ri
ti
onal v
alueorveldv ari
eswithseasonal fluctuations.
 Thev el
di smor enutri
ti
ousi nrai
nseasonandal lthenut rientsaccumul
atedi
nrai
n
seasonar elostindryseason.
 Animalsst ayingoodcondi ti
onforaboutt hreetofourmont hs.
 Thisleadtol owproductioncostsandl owout puts.

Adv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vesy
stem
1.Sheepfeedonnat ur
al v
eget at
ionandhaveplent
yofchoice.
2.Sheepselectthepast
ur etheywant.
3.Herdi
ngthef l
ockprotectsthem fr
om thef
tandpredat
ors.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vesy
stem
1.Control
ledbreedi
ngmaybediff
icul
t.
2.Sheepar eexposedtopar
asi
teanddiseases.
3.I
ncreasedchancesoflossandthef
tsifnotherded.
4.Noteasyt oident
if
yandtr
eatsi
ckanimals.
5.Offtakeislow.

B.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Thesearesystemswher esheeparei
nconfinementandareful
l
ydependenton
provi
sionofbasicneedssuchasfood,shel
terandwateronadail
ybasi
s.
2.Thecostsofthisproduct
ionsyst
em ar
ev er
yhighleadi
ngtomoreoutput
.

Adv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vesy
stem
1.Sheepareprot
ectedfr
om harshenv i
ronment,t
hiev
esandpredator
s(toacer
tai
n
ext
ent).
2.Thefarmercanengageinotherfarm act
ivi
ti
esathomesincethesheepar
e
confi
ned.
3.Contr
oll
edbreedi
ngcanbeachi eved.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vesy
stem
1.Ani nappropri
atesy
stem f
orl
argefl
ock.
2.Carryingoffeedsandwateri
sveryl
abourint
ensi
ve.
3.Sheepar elimit
edtoeati
ngonl
ywhatisprovi
dedanddeni
edabi
l
ityt
osel
ectown
feeds.

C.Semi
-i
ntensi
vesy
stem
 Thesear esystemswher esheepar eexposedt oacombi nati
onofbot hi
ntensi v
e
andext ensivehusbandr ymet hods.
 Intensiveandext ensivemet hodsareei t
herusedsi multaneouslyorv ari
edin
accor dancewi thchangesi ncli
mat i
ccondi tionsorphy siol
ogical stateoftheani mal.
 Thecosti smoder atehencemoder ateproduct ion.
 Thi ssystem ismost lypracti
sedbyagr o-past orali
sts.
 Rel i
esoncommunal l
andf orgrazi
ng,suppl ement edwithcropr esi dues,grazedon
farmlandaf t
erhar vest.
 Flocksar emov edinthedr yseasoninsear chofwat erandgr azingpast ure,leaving
someani malsbehi ndtopr ovi
demi lkforthoser emai ni
ngont hef arm.
 Product i
onlev elsarehigherthaninpast oral sy
st emsbecauset hesheephav ea
mi xeddiet.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngasheeppr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Ther
ear eanumberoffact
orswhi
chdet
ermi
net
hechoi
ceofpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
andtheyaredi
scussedbel
ow.

1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Thisisthemosti mportantf act
or.
 Potenti
alprofit
abil
it
yofthedi ff
erentsystemsofpr
oducti
onshouldbeconsidered.
 Considerfuturemarkettrendsr at
herthanbasewit
hestimati
onsofcur
rentmar ket
st
atus.
 All
theot herfactor
swillaffectprof
it
abili
tyoft
hechosensyst
em toanextent.

2.Pr
edat
ors
 I
npredat
orprobl
em ar
easlambl
ossesar
ehigh.
 Ther
eisneedtouseabreedwi
thhi
ghmotheri
ngabi
l
ityt
othei
rlamb.
3.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Per
sonalpref
erenceshoul
dnotover
ri
desoundeconomicconsider
ati
onsor
l
imi
tat
ionsoffarm.
 However,
peoplearemotiv
atedt
owor khar
derf
orsyst
emst heyli
keandpref
er.

4.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 Thisincr
easesthecarryi
ngcapacit
yofthef ar
m andwi densthechoi
ceof
producti
onsystemstobeconsidered.
 Theeconomi cal
lyopti
mum system ofproducti
ononapr opert
yhavi
ngpastur
eswi
l
l
varydependi
ngont heoveral
lcarr
yingcapacit
y,therat
ioofv el
dtopast
uresand
whetherornotgraincanbefedeconomi cal
lytoanimals.

5.Nat
ural
regi
ons
 Nat
ural
regi
onI
VandVi
sbestsui
tedf
orsheepandgoatpr
oduct
ion.

Managementpr
act
icesofsheep

1.Dehor
ning
I
.Hoti
ronmet
hod
 Dehorningisthepr ocessofremov ingfullygrownhor nslivestock.
 Theironisheat edbygas, f
ireorelectri
city.
 Theelectri
cit
yandgasar eprefer
redast heyproduceaconst antheat.
 Theironisheatt oadul lgl
ow.
 I
tisappl i
edwi t
hcircularmotionforthreet ofiveseconds( nottwist
ingmot i
on)
.
 Guil
l
ot i
nedehor nercanbeusedf i
rstifthebaseoft hehorni stoowidef ort
hei
ron.
 Forfull
y-gr
ownhor nsasurgicalwireorsawandl ocalanaesthesiaareused.
 Toreducebl eedingyoucanusehy drogenper oxideandt rytodoi ti
nwi nter
.
 Thedehor ni
ngwoundsshoul dbecheckedr egularl
y.

I
I.Docki
ng
 Docki
ngistheint
enti
onalremovalofpartofanani
mal'stai
l.
 Docki
ngimprovesthehealthandwelf
areofsheepandl ambs.
 I
tprevent
sfecalmatt
erfrom accumulat
ingonthetai
landhindquar
ter
soft
he
ani
mal.
 Docki
ngf
aci
li
tat
esshear
ing.
 Docki
ngmakesi
teasi
ertoobser
vet
heewe'
sudderanddet
ectpot
ent
ial
probl
ems.

I
II
.Cast
rat
ion
 Itistheremovalorinactivat
ionoft hetesticl
es.
 Itisthemeansofcul l
ingorprevent i
nginferi
ormal eanimal sfrom br
eedi
ng
(repr
oducing).
 Itisalsodonetoinducedoci li
tyinmal eani mals.
 Castratesareeasyt ofeed,l
essf ighti
nginpenshencet heyspendmor et
ime
feeding.
 Castratestendtopr oducetenderandf attermeatatmat ureage.
 Itisalsodonetopr eventthestrongundesi rabl
ef l
av ourinmeat .
 Castrati
onisusuallydonesi multaneouslywi t
hdehor ni
ng.
 Castrati
onmet hodsi ncl
udebur dizzo’
sforcepsmet hod, kni
femethodand
elastrat
orri
ngmet hod.

I
V.Kni
fe
 Thi
si seff
ecti
vefrom t
hreeweeksonwar ds.
 Ashar pkni
fe/r
azorshouldbeusedandi thastobesteri
l
izedinboi
lingwateror
ant
isepti
csoluti
on.
 Ano peni
ngshouldbemadeatt hebott
om partoft
hescr ot
um sothatther
eisno
bagofbloodformingaftercast
rati
on.
 Bothtesti
cl
esshouldbegent l
ypull
edoutandt hewholescrot
um dippedinan
ant
isepti
csoluti
on.
 Applyawoundr emedyandf lyr
epell
ents.

V.Bur
dizzo
 Thismet hodi smostef f
ecti
vewhenl ambsar emuchol der ,
atleastt hreemont hsof
age.
 Iti
nvolvescr ushingt hesper mat iccordt hrought hescr otal skinbyt heuseof
specialpi ncersofpat enteddesi gn.
 Theext ernal surfaceoft hescrot um isnotdamaged, butt heinternal bl
oodsuppl y
i
scutof fwi ththesev eri
ngoft hesper mat iccord,thuscausi ngt het esti
clesto
wit
heraway .
 Thet echni quei sdonebydr awi ngt het esticlesdownt ot heendoft hescr otum.
 Thecor doft hef i
rsttesticl
eist hendr awnt othesideoft hescr otum andcaught
betweent hej awsoft heBurdizzowhi chi st henlockedandhel df orsomeseconds.
 Thesamepr ocedur eisthenadopt edf ort hesecondt esticlebutont heot hersi
de
ofthescr otum.
 Caremustbet akent oensur ethatt hebr uisemar ksoft het wosepar at
ebi t
esofthe
i
nstrumentdonotmer georov erlap.
 Ift
heymer georov erlapitcouldcauset hewhol eoft hel owerscr otum todi eand
 eventuall
ydropof fleadingtoeasyent
ryforscr
ew- worm orbact
eri
alinfecti
on.
 Theoper atorshouldal soensur
ethatt
hejawsoft heinst
rumentarenott ooclose
tothebodyast hereisadangerofcatchi
ngandi njur
ingtheanimal
'spenisinside
thebodywal l.
 Useoft heBur di
zzomet hodofcast
rat
ionensuresminimum opportunit
yf or
secondarydiseasei nfecti
on.

VI
.El
ast
rat
orr
ingmet
hod
 Thismethodi sf avouredpar t
icul
arlywher elabouri sexpensi veandscarce.
 I
tisquickandnost eri
li
zati
onordi sinfect i
oni srequi r
ed.
 Aspecialapplicatorisusedt of i
tat i
ghtr ubberr ingar oundt hetopofthescrotum
andabovet het esti
clesthuscut ti
ngof ft hebloodsuppl y.
 Thelowerhal fofthescr otum shrivelsawayand, ifleft
,willusuall
ydropoffafter
about10or12day s.
 Therubberr i
ngmustbeappl iedwhent helambi sv eryy oung,prefer
ablytwoto
thr
eedaysol dwhi letheski nofthescr otum isst i
llverysoft.
 Woundofy oungani mal sheal ef
fectively.
 Thetechniquei stodr awthet esti
clesdowni ntot helowerendoft hescrotum wi
th
onehand.

Cl
assesofsheep

1.Lambs
 Lambsmor tal
ityusual l
yoccur swi t
hinthef i
rstthreedaysafterbi
rth.
 Thel ambmustsuckassoonaf terbir
thaspossi bl
e,beforebodytemper atur
e
startstodecl i
ne.
 Ver yweakl ambswi llhav et obehel dupt otheuddert osuckf orthefi
rsttwoor
threefeeds.
 Iti
spar ti
cularl
yi mpor tantf orthelambt ogett hecolostr
ums.
 From threeweeksol d,thel ambi sincreasinglyabletomakeuseofsol i
df ood
(grassorconcent r
ates).
 Concent rateshoul dbeav ailableatallti
mesandf r
om twot othr
eeweeksofage,
i
nt akeshoul dbecomesi gnificant.
 Oncet hel ambshav eat tainedabout12kgl ivemassandar econsumi ngmor ethan
200gconcent rateperdayt heymaybeweaned.
 Theyshoul dber earedonconcent rateplusroughageunt i
lsi
xorsev enweeksol d.
 Clean,freshwat ershoul dbeav ail
ableatalltimes.
 Lambst ober ear edformeatmaygost r
aightintot hefeedl
ot.
 Thosel ampsr etainedf orbr eedingmustputoutonpast ureorveld.
2.Ramsandewes
 Int her am, puber t
yisat t
ainedsl ightlylaterthani ntheeweandatasomewhat
higherbody -mass.
 Hai rbr eedsr eachpuber tyatorbef oreaboutsi xmont hsofagebutewesmat urea
bitear lier.
 Nor mal l
y ,youngr amsar enotusedunt ilatleast12mont hsol dandt henonl yi fthey
arewel l grown.
 Inmostf l
ocks, ramsar enotconsi der edmat ureenoughf orful
luseunt iltheyar e18
to24mont hsofage.
 Tor ealisemaxi mum gr owt hofr amsandl ambs, t
heyshoul dbefedadai lyfeed
i
nt akeofabout3%oft heirbodywei ghtandusual lyalltypesofgr assesandpl ant s
makef oodf orsheep.
 Theyshoul dbef edaccor di ngtot heirnut r
ientr equirement s,ageandwei ghtand
stageorl evel ofproduction.
 Gener allysheepr equireener gy,protein, vi
tami ns, minerals,fi
breandwat er.
 Themostcommonpr oteinsuppl ement saresoy bean, cottonseed,sunflowerand
i
nt ermedi atesour cesl i
kel egumehay swhenhar v
estedi ntheearlytomi d- bloom
stage.
 Mi neral ssuchasphosphor us,
magnesi um, cobal tandcopperamongot her sshoul d
alsobei ncor poratedintot herationei therinat racemi xori nli
cks.
 Fibr eisi mpor t
antt okeepr umenf unct ionpr oper l
ybyi ncreasingrumi nationand
salivation.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Car
ryoutasur
veyofi
dent
if
yingt
hemut
tonsheepbr
eedsav
ail
abl
einy
ourar
ea.

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For
m 6(
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el)/Ani
mal
Sci
ence
Cont
ent

 Engage 0
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 Topi
cs

 Act
ivi
ti
es

1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

PORKANDBACONPRODUCTI
ON

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Describethecharacteri
sticsofpi
ganimal s.
2.Selectporkandbaconbr eedswhichsuitthelocalenv
ironment.
3.Describeproductionsystemsofpor kandbaconani mals.
4.Discussfactorsthatinf
luencethechoiceofapr oduct
ionsy st
em.
5.Describemanagementpr acti
cesofporkandbaconani mals.
6.Justif
yfeedr equi
rement sfordi
ff
erentclassesofporkandbacon
animals
7.Identi
fyproductsthataffectpi
gproductqual i
ty

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Por
kandbaconar eproduct sofpi
gs.
 Pi
gproducti
onisoneoft hebigindustr
iesi
nZi mbabwe.
 Commercialpi
gproductionisbasedonexot i
cbreedswhil
ecommunal
pig
pr
oduct
ionisbasedoni ndigenousbreeds.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofpi
gbr
eeds
1.Mukot
abr
eed
 Theseareblack,hardyandl ongnosedpigs.
 Theycansurviveandr eproduceonlowpr otei
n,energyandhighfibr
e.
 I
thasenlar
gedcaecum wher eel
aborat
ehi ndgutfer
ment at
ionoccursmaki
ngi
t
abl
etostri
veonhi ghf i
brousdietscompar edtootherpigs.
 Maturemaleswei ghupt o110kgwhi l
efemal esarearound60kg.
 Theyhav elargeshoul dersthatar eundesirable.
 Theyhav eanexcel l
entmot heringabili
ty.
 Thei
rfeedconv ersionratioi
st hesameast hatofexot icbreeds.
 Thecoloursr angef rom reddishbr owntobl ackandwhi teorspotted.
 Theyreachpuber tyat120day s.
 Thei
rfleshi sfir
m anddar k.
 Fatdepositionislargelysubcut aneousandt herefor
ef acil
it
atestri
mmi ngtogiv
ea
cl
eanwhi tecar cass.
 Wa t
erconsumpt ionisv eryl
owf orexampl e6l i
tresperweeki sadequate.
 Theyarehi ghlydiseaser esi
stant .
 Theyarewel l
adapt edtohar sht ropi
calenvironmenti nt er
msofheatst ress,
di
seaser esistanceandi nadequat enut
ri
tion.

Fi
g.6.
4.1 Mukot
abr
eed

2.Lar
gewhi
tebr
eed
 Thebr eedor i
ginatedfrom Brit
ain( Yor kshi
re).
 I
tisawhi tepigwi t
hadi shedfaceander ectear s.
 Theyhav estr
ongerst rai
ghtlegs.
 I
tisal argebreedcapabl eoffastgr owt h.
 Theyhav egoodf eedconv er
sionr atio( FCR).
 Theyal sohavegoodl engthandar epr oli
fi
cbr eederswi t
h12t
o18pi
glet
s.
 Largewhi tepigshav egoodl eancar cass.
 Mat ur
el argewhiteswei gharound500kg.
 Largewhi tesowshav egoodmot her ingabili
ty.
 Theyhav eheavyshoul derswithincr easedf atthickness.

Fi
g.6.
4.2 Lar
gewhi
tebr
eed

3.Landr
acebr
eed
 Thisbreedor i
ginatedf r
om Denmar k,SwedenandNor way.
 I
tisawhi tepigwi thdroppi ngearsandast r
aightface.
 I
thasal ongbodywi thli
ghtshoul der s.
 Alandracebr eedwasmai nlydevelopedf orbacon.
 I
thasext ralumbarv ertebraeandt hereforeanext ralengthsuit
abl
eforbacon
producti
on.
 I
tiseasilysubjectedt oinjurywithlegshencehi ghst andardofmanagementis
requi
red.
 I
thasgoodf astgr owthr ateandgoodFeedConv ersionRat i
o.
 I
thasl essbackf at.
 Sowshav egoodmot heringabi l
i
tybet tert
hanl argewhi te.
 Theyhav ehighpr oli
fi
cacyanddoci l
ity.
 Whenconf inedt oconcr etefloor,t
heyshowconsi stentlameness.
 Thi
sbreedoriginat
edinAmer i
ca.
 Thecoloursr
angef r
om li
ghtgoldent odarkredormahogany .
 I
thastremendousgr owthpotenti
al.
 I
thastenderandsof tmusclescompar edtootherbreeds.
 ADurochast helowesti
ncidenceofst r
essandmor tali
ty.
 Sowshav egoodmot her
ingabili
tyandanav erageli
tt
ersizeofabout10pi
glet
s.
 Theyhavegoodf eedconversi
onr at
io.
 Theyhavefair
lystr
onglegs.
 I
tismainlyusedasat er
minal si
reincrossbr
eeding.

Fi
g.6.
4.3

4.Dur
ocbr
eed
 Thi
sbreedoriginat
edinAmer i
ca.
 Thecoloursr
angef r
om li
ghtgoldent odarkredormahogany .
 I
thastremendousgr owthpotenti
al.
 I
thastenderandsof tmusclescompar edtootherbreeds.
 ADurochast helowesti
ncidenceofst r
essandmor tali
ty.
 Sowshav egoodmot her
ingabili
tyandanav erageli
tt
ersizeofabout10pi
glet
s.
 Theyhavegoodf eedconversi
onr at
io.
 Theyhavefair
lystr
onglegs.
 I
tismainlyusedasat er
minal si
reincrossbr
eeding.

Fi
g.6.
4.4 Dur
ocbr
eed

5.Hampshi
rebr
eed
 Thi
sbreedor igi
natedi nsouthernEnglandandUni tedStat
es.
 I
tisabl ackpigwithawhi tebel
taroundt heforequart
ers.
 I
tisalongpi gwithdr oppingears.
 Thesepi gshavegoodmeatqual i
tywithexcell
entleanmeat.
 Theyalsohav eaveragef eedconv er
sionr at
ioanddail
ygain.
 Theyhav egoodmot heri
ngabi l
i
tyandhi ghlyprol
i
fic.

Fi
g.6.
4.5 Hampshi
rebr
eed

6.Wel
shbr
eed
 Thesizesarebetweenlandraceandlargewhi te.
 I
tisawhi t
epi gwithdr
oopingears.
 I
tisverysimilart
olandr
acehencedi f
fi
culttoidentif
y.
 Howev er
,itdoesnotperf
orm aswellasthel andraceinmostaspect
s.
 I
tisasmal lbreedandisusedforcrossbreeding.
 AWel
shi
sahar
dbr
eedt
hatsur
viv
esunderpoormanagementsy
stems.

Fi
g.6.
4.6 Wel
shbr
eed

Pi
gpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy st
em isaunionorcombi nat
ionoft
hreemai
ncomponent
swhi
ch
ar
einputs,conver
sionprocessandoutputs.
 Therear
et hreeproduct
ionsyst
emswhi charecommoninZimbabwewhi
char
e
i
ntensi
ve,semi-i
ntensi
veandextensi
vesy st
ems.

A.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Extensiv
epr oducti
onismai nlypract
icedincommunal ar
easormargi
nal l
ands
usinglocal breeds.
 I
nt hi
spr oduct ionsystem,thepigsrangefreel
yandt heycaneatanyt
hingwhich
(scavenging)i savail
ableandpalatable.
 Thesy stem r unsatlowpr oducti
oncostsandpr oduceslowoutput
s.
 Mostoft hepi gsdieduetopoormanagement .
 Breedrecommendedundert hissyst
em isMukot a.

B.Semi
-I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 I
nsemi -
int
ensiveproductionsyst
em, pigsareconfinedandfedinbacky
ard.
 Theyar efedwithkitchenwaste,vegetablesandby -
product
s.
 Thereismi nimalmanagement .
 Thissystem ischaracter
isedbylowpr oductiv
ityandhighmor t
ali
ty.
 Thesy stem consi
stsofindigenousandcr ossbreedofexoti
cs.
 Productivi
tyishi
ghcompar edwithextensiveproducti
onsystem.

C.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 I
ntensi
veproduct
ionsystem i
sacommer cial
pr oducti
oninvol
vi
ng50ormor
epi
gs.
 I
trequi
resmoreinputsanditproducesmor eout put
s.
 I
trequi
resmoresophisti
catedhousingwithadequat espace.
 Pi
gmanagementi spracti
cedtooptimizeoutput .
 Thi
sproducti
onsystem consi
stsofhigherperformingexoti
cbreeds.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngapr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Theav
ail
abl
einputsandt
het
ypeofpr
oduct
ionsy
stem shoul
dgi
veaf
armermor
e
out
put
sorprofi
ts.

2.Ef
fi
ciencyofpr
oduct
ion
 Theeff
ici
encyofproducti
oncanbemeasur edi
nter
msoflit
tersi
ze,weaningr
ate,
massforageinrel
ati
ont ocostofpr
oduct
ion.
 I
faproducti
onsystem hasalowweaningandlowli
tt
ersi
ze,theef
fi
ciencywil
lbe
ver
ylow.

3.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Oneshoul dchooseapr oducti
onsyst
em whichiseasytomanageanimalswit
h
avail
ableresources.
 Personalpreferenceshoul
dnotoverr
idesoundeconomicconsider
ati
onsor
l
imitati
onsoff arm.
 Howev er,
peopl earemotiv
atedtoworkharderf
orsystemstheyli
keandpref
er.

Managementpr
act
icesofdi
ff
erentcl
assesofpi
gs

A.Pi
glet
s
 Managementst art
satbi r
thbycountingsowt eats.
 Pigletsshoul
dbewei ghedsoonafterbir
thandt heidealwei
ghtisabout1.3kg.
 Thef oll
owingactivi
ti
esshouldbedonesoonaf terbirt
handtheyincl
udenav el
di
ppi ng,pr
ovisi
onofwar mth,
ironi
njecti
on,castrat
ion,ey
etoothremovaland
colostrum f
eeding.

1.Cast
rat
ion
 Pigsarecastrat
edt opreventt
heperpetuati
onofgeneticall
yundesi
rabl
eanimals
andt oi
mpr ovethemeatqual i
tyofmalepigsforthemar ket.
 Ca st
rat
eshav egotaf ast
ergrowthrateandbettercar
cassqualit
ythanthatof
i
ntactanimals.
 Ac astr
atedmalepigi scall
edabarr
ow.
 Ca st
rat
edanimal sareeasiert
ohandle.
 Castrationshoul dbecar r
iedoutbet ween10t o21day spost -partum.
 Earlycastrati
onr educest rauma.
 Whenapi gletislesst hanaweekol d,itisdi ff
iculttolocat etestesandaf t
er21
dayst herewi l
l beex cessi
v ebleeding.
 Opencast r
ationi stheonl ymet hodusedwhencast ratingpigs.
 Thisisbecauseot hermet hods( burdizzoorel astrat
or )cannotbeusedduet ot
he
natureoft het esti
cleswhi char eclosel yattachedt ot hebody .
 Ensurest ri
cthy gienewhencast r
ating, di
sinfectthescr otum andut ensi
ls.
 Makeani ncisionont heskint i
llyouseeapi nkishmembr ane, cutthroughthe
membr aneandpr esst hetesticl
es.
 Cutsper mat i
ccor dcl oset othebody ,cutabr uptl
yt oav oi
dexcessi v ebl
eedingand
dresst hewound( heali
ngoi l
,Stockhol mt ar,ey eandwoundpowder ).

Fi
g.6.
4.7 Ty
pical
pigcast
rat
ion

2.Nav
eldi
ppi
ng
 Navel di
ppinginv
olvesthedi si
nfectionofumbil
icalcor
daft
erbir
th.
 Theumbi l
i
calcordisdisi
nfectedwi thaniodi
nesoluti
onoranyothersui
tabl
e
di
sinfectantt
opr eventbacteri
alinfecti
on.
 Thecor dshouldnotbecutbutr atherencour
agedtodryanddropbyensur i
ngcl
ean
drybeddingatallthetimes.

3.I
roni
nject
ion
 Ani roni nject i
onshoul dbeadmi ni
st er
edataboutt hr
eedaysaf t
erbirt
h.
 I
roni nj ect ionisv it
al becausesow’ smi lkhasv eryl
itt
leir
onandt herei
salsoli
ttl
e
transf erofi rondur i
ngpr egnancyt opigl ets.
 I
rondef iciencycausesanaemi a,poorappet it
eandgr owthrat
e.
 Admi nist eri r
onor all
yort hroughi njection.
 Or aladmi nistr
ationisdonebyusi ngcl eanr edsoil
sorpastesthatcanbesmear ed
ont het eat s.
 Exampl esofi roninjecti
onsi ncludedexi ron,f
err
oussulphat
e,gleptosi
lorfer
ojex
(10%) .

4.Ey
etoot
hremov
al
 Pigletsarebornwithei ghtsharpteet
hwhichcancausedamaget ot
hesow’
sudder
andi tresul
tsi
nsow’ sr efusalt
osuckleheryoungones.
 Cu tthetipoftheeye-
t oothwithsharptoot
hplier
sorsidecut
ter
s.
 Don otcli
ptheteet
ht oocl osetothegums.
 Eyet oothshouldberemov edthreedaysaft
erbir
th.

Fi
g.6.
4.8 Ty
pical
remov
alofpi
gletey
e-t
oot
h
5.Pr
ovi
sionofwar
mth
 Newl ybornpi gl
et sarev erysensi tivetocolddraughts,wetbeddingandf l
oorsas
wellassuddenchangesi nt emper at
ure.
 Pigl
et sarebor nwi thverylittl
ebr ownadi posetissuewhi chyiel
dsheatenergyand
verylit
tl
ehai rcov er,t
herefor etheyr equir
eanar ti
fi
cialheatsource.
 Thef armerhast oensur ethatt her eisadequatewar mth.
 Heatcanbesuppl i
edusi nginfraredl amps( el
ectri
cit
y)inthecreeparea.
 Assistpigletstof indthecr eepar ea.
 Thecr eepar eat emper atur
eshoul dbebet ween26° C-35°C.
 Thet emper atureismeantt opr ev enthypothermia.
 Beddingal sopr ovideswar mt ht ot hepigl
etshencepl entydrybedshouldbeused
andwetbeddi ngshoul dber emov ed.

Fi
g.6.
4.9 I
nfr
aredl
i
ght

B.Gi
l
ts
 Gil
tsshouldbeselectedatfivetosixmonthsofageanditshoul
dbebasedon
backfatthi
cknessvisualassessment .
 Boarandsowmeal shouldbef edat3kgto4kg.
 Gil
tsaresoimportanttopigpr oduct
ionbecauset
heyar
et akent
obreedwit
hboar
s
formoreproducti
on.

C.Weani
ng
 Weaningisthegradualint
roductionofsol
idfeedt
opi gl
etsandwithdrawingt
he
supplyofsow’smilk.
 Thereareseveral
met hodswhi chareusedinweaningandtheseincludeuseof
cages,far
rowreari
ngpens, conventi
onalmethodandmul t
i-
suckl
i
ngmet hod.

1.Useofcages
 Pigletsar
etakenfr
om rear
ingpenst oweanercages.
 Inthismethod,pi
glet
sarecleanerbecausedunganduri
nepassest
hrought
he
slates.
 Ca gesareexpensi
vetoest
ablish.

2.Far
rowi
ngr
ear
ingpens
 Aft
erreari
ng,
weaningi
sdoneinthesamecage.
 Thefarr
owingcr
ateisbr
oughti
ntothecageaweekbef
oref
arr
owi
ngandr
emov
ed
 aweekaf
terf
arr
owi
ng.

Fi
g.6.
4.10 Far
rowr
ear
ingmet
hod

 Atweani
ngthesowisremov edfrom thecage.
 Thi
smethodhaslessstresshencepigsgrowbetter
.
 Thi
smethodischeapercomparedtot heuseofcages.

3.Conv
ent
ional
met
hod
 Aft
erfur
rowing,
pigl
etsarerearedinaseparat
epen.
 I
nthismethod,t
hereisbett
erut i
l
isati
onofspaceanddi
seasecont
rol
sincepi
gs
ar
eplacedaccordi
ngtotheiragegr oups.

Fi
g.6.
4.11 Conv
ent
ional
met
hod

4.Mul
ti
-suckl
i
ngmet
hod
 Sowsthathavefar
rowedatthesametimear
eputinthesamepen.
 Ther
eisformati
onofapool ofweaner
satweani
ngandthesecomf
ortoneanot
her
.
 Thi
smet hodr
equir
eslesscapit
al.

D.BoarandSow
 Youngboar sandsowsneedcar efulhandling.
 Iftheyar ebr oughtf rom ot herfarmst heyneedqui ethandl i
ngandobser vati
on
whi l
stset tli
ngi ntot henewenv i
ronment .
 Theyal soneedt obede- wor medandgi venamanget reatmentorspr ay
.
 Theyshoul dbeal lowedt ocommuni catewi t
hot herpi gsi nadj acentpens.
 Theyshoul dbegi v en2kgt o2.5kgof( 12%t o13%cr udepr otein)f eedofsowand
boarmeal intwor ationsdai ly.
 Theboarandsowsmustbekeptf i
tbutnotf at
.
 Whent heyar el esst han8mont hstheyshoul dbegi ven2. 5kgf eedandwhent hey
aremor et han8mont hst heyshoul dbegi ven2kgoff eedonadai l
ybasis.
 Ov erfeedi ngtheboar sreducest hesemenv olumeandt hequal i
tyofservice
decreases.
 Boar sbecomet ooheav yf oruseongi ltsandt heywi llbesl uggi sh, l
azyand
reductioni nlibido.
 Ov erf
eedi ngsowr esul t
si nthedev elopmentofaf atl ay erwhi chmakest heir
concept ionr atet or educe.
 Non- pregnantsowswhi char enotser vicedtheyar ecal leddr ysows.
 Sowswhi char epr egnantar ecal l
edpr egnantsows.
 Whensowsar eser vicedt heymustgot hroughapr ocesscal ledpr egnancy
diagnosis.
1.Pr
egnancydi
agnosi
s
 Aftertheeggsar efertil
isedi nt hefall
opiant ubes,theembr yosmov earoundt he
twohor nsoft hewombt obecomeequal l
yspaced.
 Atday10or11, t
hepr egnancyst artssignalli
ngbutaf ai
lureatthisti
mewi l
lretur
n
tooest r
usonasl i
ghtl
ydel ayedcy cleof22t o26day s.
 Implantati
onoft heembr yocommencesdur ingday12t o14andami ni
mum off i
ve
embr yosarer equi
redf orpr egnancyt ocont inue.
 Ift
hepr egnancyf ai
lsatt hist i
met her eturntooest rusisdelayedto23to38day s
becausepr egnancyhasal readyst arted.
 Pregnancydi agnosisisdoneusi nganul trasoundmachi ne.
 Whenasowi sscannedusi ngthismachi ne,itpr
oducesaposi ti
veresul
tift
hesow
i
spr egnantornegat iv
er esultifthesowi snotpr egnant.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Chooseaproduct
ionsyst
em ofy
ourchoi
ceanddevel
opabudgetonhowy
ouar
e
goi
ngtorunyourpigpr
oduct
ion,
clear
lyj
ust
if
yingy
ourchoi
ce.

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Abreedisagroupofanimalswithinaspeci esthathasacommonor iginand
cer
tainsi
mil
arphysical
charact
eristi
cs,whichar eeasi
l
ydist
ingui
shable.
 Therearemanytypesofgoatbreedsf oundi nZimbabwe.
 Chevonismeatfr
om goats.

1.Angor
agoatbr
eed
 Or
igi
nat
edi
nthedi
str
ictofAngor
ainAsi
a.

Fi
g.6.
5.1 Angor
agoat
s

 Angoragoatsar egener all

ysmal lert
hanot hergoat s.
 Bothsexeshav ehor nswhi char eusuallycurved.
 Theyhavelong, droopingear s.
 Theyhavethickandcur lycoat(mohai r)whichi ssimilartosheepcoat.
 Maturemale( buck)wei ghsupt o95kgandmat urefemal e(doe)wei
ghupto50kg.
 Theyaremor esuscept ibletodamagef rom internalparasit
esthansheep.
 Theyareextr
emel ydeli
cat eatbirthalt
hought hemat uregoatisafai
rl
yhardy
ani
mal.
 Angoragoatsbr eedseasonal l
yandt heirgestati
onper i
odisaround145to150
days.
2.Mat
abel
egoatbr
eed
 Thisbreedismost l
yfoundi nthesouthernpar tsofZimbabwe.
 I
tisalargeframedani mal.
 Matureweightcanr eachupt o50kgf ormal esandf emalesweighbet
ween35kgt
o
40kg.
 I
tisadual purposebreed( meatandmi l
kpr oducti
on).
 I
thasmul ti
plecoloursrangingfrom whitethroughbr own,mixedtobl
ack.
 Doescangi vebirt
htosingles,twinsandt r
iplet
s.
 Theyareadapt edtolocalconditi
ons.
 Gestat
ionperiodisbetween145t o154day s.
 Theyreachsexual maturi
tyat18mont hsofage.

Fi
g.6.
5.2 Mat
ebel
egoat
s

3.Mashonagoatbr
eed
 Mashonagoati sasmal l f
ramedbr eed.
 I
tishighlyproli
fic.
 Theyar etol
erantt olocal diseases.
 Thebr eedisfoundi nt henor thernpar tsofZi mbabwe.
 Maturewei ghtis30kgand35kgf orfemalesandmal esrespecti
vel
y.
 Theircolourrangesf rom whi te,mi xedtobl ack.
 Theyreachsexual mat urit
yatsev enmont hsbutt heyhavear el
ati
vel
ysl
owgr
owt
h
rat
e.
 Theyar emainlyr ear
edf orchev on.
 Theyhav egoodpot entialforsel ectiontoi
ncr easepr
oductiv
ity.

Fi
g.6.
5.3 Mashonagoat

4.Boergoatbr
eed
 Boergoatsor i
ginatedfrom Sout hAfrica.
 Theyarewel ladaptedt othesout her
npar tsZimbabwewher econdi ti
onsar
emor
e
orl
esst hesameast henorthernpartsofSout hAfr
ica.
 I
tisalargeframedbr eedwi thawhi t
ebodyandabr ownneckandhead.
 Adultf
emal ecangr owupt o60kgandmal esupto70kg.
 I
tiskeptmai nlyformeatpr oduct i
on.
 Thebreedhasv erystockybody ,well-
muscl edandstrongbones.
 Theyhav ependulousear sandpr omi nenthorns.
 Theyarev er
ypr ol
ificbreedandt heycanki dthreet
imesi ntwoy ears.
 Theyhav e50%chanceofgi vi
ngbi r
tht otwinsand7%oft ri
plet
s.
 Theyarev al
uablef ormeat ,
mi l
kandski nbuthasbeenpr omotedf orit
smeat
potent
ial.
Fi
g.6.
5.4 Boergoat

5.Toggenbur
gbr
eed
 Toggenbur goriginatedfrom Swi t
zer
land.
 Theircolourv ariesfrom brownt ochocol at
ewithwhitemar ki
ngs.
 Whitemar ksmay beoneachsi deofthef acefr
om theey estothemuzzl
e,t
heedge
oftheear s,ther umpandt het ai
l.
 Thelegsar ewhi tefrom thekneesandhocksdownwar ds.
 Thi
sgoatbr eedmaybehor nless.
 Themal esusual lyhavelongerhai rt
hant hefemales.
 Theiraveragewi therheightis65cm to75cm.
 Adultbuckav eragewei ghtis65kgandt hatofdoesis50kg.
 Thebr eedi snotv er
ycommoni nZimbabwe.

Fi
g.6.
5.6 Toggenbur
ggoat

Goatpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy stem i
sauni onorcombinat
ionofthr
eemaincomponent
swhi
ch
ar
einputs,conversi
onprocessandoutputs.
 Goatsarerearedunderfoursystemswhicharetet
heri
ngsy
stem,ext
ensi
vegr
azi
ng
sy
stem,int
ensi v
esy st
em, semi-
int
ensi
vesystem.

A.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem/
browsi
ngsy
stem
 Thi
siscommonl ypracti
cedinranchingareasandcommunal areaspart
icular
lyi
n
l
owr ai
nfal
lareaswher ether
ei sabundantgrazi
ngwithl
itt
lecroppi
ng.
 Dur
ingtheday ,goat
sar eherdedandgr azeonnatur
alvegetat
ionand/orbrowseon
shr
ubsorfeedoncr opr esi
dues.
 Dur
ingthenightthef l
ockispenned.

Adv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Goatsf eedonnat ur
alveget
ationandhaveplent
yofchoice(t
heyar
eabl
etosel
ect
pastureoft hei
rchoi
ce).
2.Herdingt hegoatsprot
ectsthem fr
om t
heftandpredat
ors.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Cont
roll
edbr
eedi
ngmaybedi ff
icul
t.
2.Thecommunalsyst
em exposesgoatst
oint
ernal
,ext
ernal
par
asi
tesandot
her
di
seases.
3.I
ncreasedchancesofl
ossandthef
tsi
fnother
ded.
4.Noteasytoident
if
yandtr
eatsi
ckanimal
s.
5.Offtakei
slow.

B.Tet
her
ingpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Tetheri
ngproducti
onsystem iswhenananimalisfast
enedtoafixedobj
ectusi
ng
aropeorchainsoast oreduceitsrangeofmovement.
 Thi
si sthemostcommonsy stem usedbysmall
holder
s(wit
hlessthan0.
4Haof
l
and)inZi mbabwewhoownl essthan10goatsperfamil
y.
 I
nthissy st
em, t
hegoatsaretiedtoapeg,tr
eeorshrub.

Theadv
ant
agesoft
ether
ingpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Reducedani
malst
ray
inganddest
ruct
ionofnei
ghbours’
crops.
2.Goatscanbeti
edi
nanyplacewheret
herei
spastureorinthef
iel
dsaf
tercr
op
harv
est.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
ether
ingpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Grazi
ngisl
imit
edandgoatsareusual
lyunder
fed.
2.Goatsarer
arel
yprovi
dedwit
hadlib(shoul
dbealwaysav
ail
abl
e)water
.
3.Goatseasi
l
yfallpr
eytost
ray
/maddogs( notver
ycommonthough)
.

C.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 I
nthi
ssy stem,amoder atenumberofgoatsarekept .
 Goat
sar epermanentlyhousedandf eedisprovided.
 I
tisasystem ofchoicef ordai
rygoatsinsomepar t
sofZimbabwe.
 I
tisr
ecommendedf orhi ghl
andareassuchast heEast er
nHighl
andswherel
and
ar
eacanbeasl owas1acr eperhousehold.
 Thefoddercoul
dbegr ownonf arm orcol
lect
edf rom communalareas.

Adv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Goatsar eprot
ectedfrom har
shenvi
ronment,t
hievesandpredat
ors(
toacer
tai
n
extent)
.
2.Theher dsman/farmercanengageinotherf
arm acti
vi
ti
esathomesincet
hegoats
areconf i
ned.
3.Control
ledbreedingcanbeachiev
ed.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Ani
nappr
opr
iat
esy
stem f
orl
argef
locks.
2.Carr
yingoffeedsandwat
eri
sveryl
abouri
ntensi
ve.
3.Goatli
mitedtoeati
ngonl
ywhati
sprovi
dedanddeniedabi
l
ityt
osel
ectownf
eeds.

D.Semi
-i
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 I
treli
esoncommunal landf orgr
azi
ng,supplement edwi
thcropr
esidues,grazedon
far
mlandafterhar
vest
.
 Animalsar
eal l
owedtogr azedur
ingthedayf ol
lowingar
otati
onsystem.
 Duri
ngthenightani
malsar ehousedforsecurit
yandsupplement
aryf eedi
ng.
 Theycanalsofeedcul
tivatedorimpr
ovedpast ures.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngagoatpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thereareanumberoffactor
st oconsiderwhenchoosi
ngagoatproduct
ion
syst
em.
 Thefactor
sincl
udecul
ture,t
radit
ion,
landsizeandnumberofgoat
samongot her
fact
ors.

1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Onehastoconsiderthepot
enti
alpr
ofi
tabi
li
tyoft
hechosenproduct
ionsystems.
 Theavai
labl
einputsandthety
peofproducti
onsyst
em shoul
dproduceoutputsor
prof
it
s.

2.Ef
fi
ciencyofpr
oduct
ion
 Afarmerhastochooseapr oduct
ionwhichi seff
ici
ent.
 Theeff
ici
encyofproducti
oncanbemeasur edinter
msofl it
tersi
ze,weaningr
ate,
massforageinrel
ati
ont ocostofproduct
ion.
 I
faproducti
onsystem hasalowweani ngandl owli
ttersi
ze,theef
fi
ciencywil
lbe
ver
ylow.

3.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Aproduct
ionsystem shoul
dbechosenaccordi
ngtotheavai
lableresour
ces.
 Per
sonalpref
erenceshouldnotov
err
idesoundeconomicconsiderati
onsor
l
imi
tati
onsoffarm.
 However,
peoplearemot i
vat
edtoworkharderf
orsystemstheylikeandpref
er.

4.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 I
nar
easwher
ether
ear
epl
ant
edpast
ures,
iti
smor
eli
kel
ytohav
eahi
ghcar
ryi
ng
 capacit
y.
 Inareaswheret her
earenat
uralpastures,
iti
smor el
ikel
ytohavealowcarr
ying
capacit
y.
 Innatur
alregionIVandVtheincidencesofdroughtmakesitadv
isabl
etodogoat
andsheepr eari
ng.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofgoatani
mal
sfr
om bi
rt
htomar
ket
ing
 Ther
ethr
eecl
assesofgoat
swhi
char
eki
ds,
doesandbuck.

A.Ki
ds
 I
tisv eryessent i
al t
hatnewbor nki dsconsumecol ostrum,assoonaspossibleafter
bir
th.
 Colostrum cont ainsant ibodiest hatwi l
lhelppr otectthekidasitdevelopsi
tsown
i
mmunesy stem.
 Anaddi tional practi
ceatbi r
ththatenhancest hehealthoft henewbornkidi
st o
giveinjecti
onsofi rondext ranandv it
ami nsAandD.
 Ther earev ariousmet hodst hatar edonet oy oungkidswhi chi
ncludehoof
tri
mmi ng, dehor ning,castrati
onandv accination.
 Kidscanbegi venmi l
kthreet i
mesperday .
 Acr eepf eedorst art
ergr ainalongwi t
hhi ghqual it
ypasturegrassorhayshouldbe
madeav ailablet okidsatt woweeksofage.
 Weani nggener all
yoccur satt hreemont hs.
 Weani ngcanbeast ressfuleventi naki d’slifebutisnecessaryfortheheal
thofthe
doe.
 Afterweani ng, util
izether ecordst oselectt heani malsfitt
obekepti nthef
lockfor
replacement sandst artmanagi ngt hem fort hatpurpose.

B.Dehor
ning
I
.Hoti
ronmet
hod
 Their
oni sheatedbygas,f
ireorelect
ri
city.
 Theelectr
ici
tyandgasareprefer
redast heyproduceaconstantheat .
 Their
oni sheattoadullgl
ow.
 I
tisappli
edwi t
hcircul
armotionforaboutfiveseconds(nottwist
ingmot i
on).
 Gui
ll
otinedehornercanbeusedfirsti
fthebaseoft hehornistoowi deforthei
ron.

Fi
g.6.
5.7 Hoti
rondehor
ningmet
hod
 Forful
l
y-gr
ownhor nsasur
gical
wir
eorsawandl ocalanaesthesi
aareused.
 Toreducebleedi
ngyoucanusehydrogenper
oxi
deandt rytodoitinwint
er.
 Thedehorni
ngwoundsshouldbecheckedregul
arl
y.

C.Weani
ng
 I
tisthegradualreplacementofbreastf
eedingwithotherfoodsandwaysof
nur
turi
ng.
 Thi
sisdonef ormanyr easonsbutasamanagementt ooli
tisdone:
 Toremov ethelactati
onbur denondoes.
 Toseparateanimalsint odif
fer
entagegroupsforfeeding/
suppl
ementat
ion.
 Tohelpinveldmanagementbycont rol
li
ngtheherdsize.

 Weani ngshouldbedonewhent hekidsarehundr

eddaysoldonaverage.
 Themostcommonweani ngmet hodingoat
siscomplet
eseparat
ionoftheki
ds
andt hedoes.
 Kidsshouldbev accinatedagai
nstpulpyki
dney(PK)j
ustbefor
eweaningtoavoi
d
stressinducedpulpykidney.

Weani
ngmet
hods
 Choi
ceofweani
ngmethodshouldbeabl
etomini
miset
raumat okids.
 Weani
ngmethodsi
ncl
udestockademethodandcompl
eteseparat
ion.

I
.St
ockademet
hod
 I
nthismet hodki
dsarepennednexttothei
rdoesforabouttwoweeksormore.
 Ki
dsaret r
ainedt
otakesupplementar
yfeedinthestockadear
ea.
 Thi
smet hodisconsi
deredexpensi
vebecausehayandsupplementar
yfeedmust
beprov
ided.

Fi
g.6.
5.8 St
ockademet
hod

 I
ttakeslongbefor
etheki
dsanddoesset
tl
edown.
 I
tistraumati
ctotheki
dsandisusedonl
arger
anches.

I
I.Compl
etesepar
ati
on
 I
nthi
smet
hodt
hedoesar
elef
tint
heor
igi
nal
penbutt
heki
dsar
etakent
oaf
ar
 pen.

Fi
g6.
5.9 Compl
etesepar
ati
on

D.Cast
rat
ion
 Thisisthecutti
ngorcr ushingoft hespermaticcordssot hatt
heanimal cannot
mat eproducti
velywit
ht hefemales.
 I
tisani mportantmanagementt ool i
nthatitprev
ent suncontr
oll
edbr eeding,
i
nbreedingandt akesawayt heodourthat’sassoci
atedwi thi
ntactbucks.
 Ma l
ecast r
atesarethereforeagoodsour ceofuntaintedandnon-smel l
inggoat
meat .
 Therearethreemai nmet hodsofcast rat
ionusedi ngoatswhichincludest he
rubberri
ng,knif
e/ r
azorandbur dizzomet hods.

I
.TheRubberr
ingmet
hod
 Therubberr i
ngsareusedwi thi
nthefir
sttwoweeksofl if
e.
 Anelastr
atorisusedt ostret
chandapplyther i
ngov ert
hespermati
ccor
ds.
 Whenusingt hismethod, makesurethatbothtesti
clesaredr
awntothel
owerpart
oft
hescr otum andtheringisputoverthespermaticcords.
 Thescrotum willshr
ivel
anddr opoffafewweeksl ater.
 Openwoundst hatmayr emainaft
erthescrotum hasdroppedshoul
dbetreat
edby
woundremedi es.

Fi
g.6.
5.10 Rubberr
ingmet
hod

I
I.Kni
fe/
Razor
 Thismethodi seffect
ivefrom t
hreeweeksonwards.
 Ashar psteri
l
isedknif
e/razorshouldbeused.
 Steri
li
sat
ioncanbedonebyusi ngboili
ngwaterorantisepti
csoluti
on.
 Anopeningshoul dbemadeatt hebott
om partofthescr ot
um sothattherei
sno
bagofbloodf ormingaftercast
rati
on.
 Bo t
htesti
clesshouldbegent l
ypull
edoutandcut .
 Thereafterdipthewholescrotum inananti
septi
csolutionandflyrepel
lent
s.

I
II
.Bur
dizzo
 Thebur di
zzoisusedtosqueezethesper
mati
ccordssothataft
ersomeday
sthe
testi
cleswit
her,
buttheoutersur
faceoft
hescrot
um isnotdamaged.
 Th i
sismosteffect
ivewhenthekidismoret
hanthreemonthsold.
Fi
g.6.
5.11 Bur
dizzomet
hod

E.Vacci
nat
ions
 Effecti
v epreventionofent er otoxaemi a,pulpyki dney ,bl ackleg,tetanusandot her
cl
ost ri
diali
nfectionsi sachi evedt hroughv accinat ion.
 Previouslyunv accinat eddoesshoul dbegi venani nit
ial cour seoft wovaccine
i
njectionsaboutf ourt osixweeksapar twhent heyent ert hebr eedingfl
ock.
 Anannual boost erfollowsaboutsi xweeksbef or el ambi ng.
 Thispr e-ki
ddingboost eralsoensur espassi v epr otectionofki dsupt o16weeksof
age.
 Kidsbor ntov accinat eddamsshoul dr ecei
v eaf irstsensi t
izerdoseatabout8t o12
weeksol d,f
ollowedbyasecondboost eratleastf ourweeksl ater
.
 Doescanbei mmuni sedusi ngav accinecont ainingki lledK99E.col i
,administer
ed
atthesamet imeascl ost
ridialvaccinat i
on.

I
.Buck
 Themal egoatiscall
edabuckandacast ratedbuckiscal l
edawet her.
 Bucksr eachpubertyatfourmonthsofage.
 Maturebuckscanobt ai
nmostoft heirnutri
ent sf
rom pasture.
 Yearli
ngandt wo-year-
oldbuckshavegr eaternutri
entrequir
ement ssincet heyare
sti
llgr
owi ng.
 Bucksneedt obei ngoodbodycondi ti
on, withabodycondi t
ionscor e(BCS)gr eat
er
than3bef orethebreedingseason.
 Thisisbecausef eedint
akemayber elat
ivelylowduri
ngt hatti
me, resul
ti
ngi n
weightloss.
 Whenev erbuckscannotmeetnut ri
ti
onal needsf r
om pasture,supplement ati
onis
necessar y
.
 Wecansuppl ementusinghay ,
grai
nandsi l
ageamongot hersupplement s.

I
I.Does
 Thef emalegoati scal
ledadoe.
 Thedoecanr eachpuber tybetween4t o12mont hsofagedependi ngont hebr
eed,
l
ev elofnutri
ti
onandov eral
lheal
thst atus.
 Under -
feedi
ngcanl owerchancesofget t
ingpregnantandhav ingkids.
 Doespr oducemi lkaft
erhav i
ngki ds.
 Puber t
yisreachedwhent hefemal eexhibitsherfir
stheatandov ulat
ion.
 Thegest ati
onper i
odoft hedoer angesbet ween145t o152day s(5mont hs)on
average.
 Doesal someeti tsnutr
iti
onalrequirement sfr
om nat ur
alpasture.
 Pregnantandl actat
ingdoesr equiremor enutrientssoastomeett herequir
ement
s
forthekid.
 Thereforeiti
sr ecommendedt osuppl ementpr egnantandlactati
ngdoes.
Act
ivi
ty
1.Chooseanygoatbr eedofyourchoiceandill
ust
rat
ehowy ouaregoingtost
arty
our
goatproduct
ionenterpri
se,i
nter
preti
ngyourchoi
ceofbreed,ar
eachosenand
fact
orsyouaregoingt oconsi
deront hechoi
ceofyourproduct
ionsyst
em.

Dai
rypr
oduct
ion
 Dairybreedsar ecatt
let hatarebr edpr i
mar i
lyformi lk.
 Milkisawhol esomef oodandi tcontainsmi nerals,vitaminsandot hernut r
ient
s.
 I
nZi mbabwe, BosTaur us( imported)br eedsar eusedi ncommer ci
al milk
production.
 Thesebr eedsper f
orm wel li
ncoldar easandwar mtr opicalar
eas.
 Dairybreedsusedi nZimbabwei ncludeHol stein(Fri
esi anorFriesl
and),Jerseyand
RedDane.
 Thesebr eedswer echosenbecauset heypr oducemor emi lkt
hananav eragecow
andt heyperform welli
ncol dareaandwar mt r
opical areas.
 Farmer swhoar edoingv alueadditionpr efermi lkthati shighinbutter
fatbecauseit
i
spr ofit
ablethroughmaki ngcheese, i
ce-cream andy oghurts.
 Healthwi sepeoplepref ermi l
kwi thlowf at.
 Milkismeasur edinkilogr amsbecausei tcont ainssol i
ds.

Dai
rybr
eedsf
oundi
nthecount
ry
1.Hol
stei
n/Fr
iesi
anBr
eed
 TheHol steinFriesianbr eedwasor igi
nall
ydev elopedi nNet herlandsi nthePr ovi
nce
ofFri
esl andandNor t
hernGer many .
 Inal
l dairybreeds, Holsteini
st hebiggestbreed.
 Thebr eedhast hel argestpopul ati
onofalldairybr eedsinZi mbabwe( about80%) .
 Thebr eedhasal argebodyf r
ame.
 Matur ecowswei ghar ound500kgt o700kgandmat ur
ebul l
swei ghov eratonne.
 Theyconsumemor efeedandhav ecapacit
yt oconv er
tfeedt omi l
k.
 Theypr oduceanav erageof25kgofmi l
kperdaywi thbutterfatof3. 4%t o3.5%.
 Thecol ourpatterni sv ar
yingproporti
onsofbl ackandwhi tebutsomet imest hey
canber ed.
 Thecowsar egener al
lydocileandeasyt ohandl ebutt hebul lsareshor tt
emper ed.
 Theydowel lineithercol dcli
mat eorwarm climat esbuti nv eryhotar eastheydo
notthrivewel l
.
 Thebr eedconst it
ut esabout80%t o85%ofdai r
yani mal sinZi mbabwe.
 Aver
agebi rt
hwei ght32kgt o35kg.

Fi
g.6.
6.1 Hol
stei
nFr
iesi
an
2.Jer
seyBr
eed
 Thebr eedwasdev elopedont heIslandofJerseythelar
gestChannel Isl
ands.
 Jersey sar ev er
yner vousandr eactquickl
ytobot hgoodandbadt reatment.
 Jersey scol ourincludesv ariousshadesoff awnei t
herwithorwi t
houtwhi t
e
mar kings.
 Thehor nsar eincli
nedf orward,curveinsi
de,r
ef i
nedmedium lengt handtapered
towar dst het i
ps.
 Theyhav el argeey es.
 Theyar efairlystaturedani mals.
 Mat urebul lswei ghar ound500kgt o700kgandmat urecowswei ghbet ween350kg
to750kg.
 Theypr oducel essmi l
kbecauset heyaresmal l
.
 Theypr oduceadai lyav er
ageof18kgwhi chisr i
chinbutter
fat(4.5%).
 Jersey sper form betterunderZi mbabwecondi t
ionsthanFri
esiansduet ohigh
ambi entt emper atures.
 Averagewei ghtofmat ureJerseysi s386kg.

Fi
g.6.
6.2 Jer
seybr
eed

3.RedDanebr
eed
 Theyaredualpurposebr eed( r
aisedforbot hmil
kandmeat )
.
 Theyarefai
rl
ytoleranttohar shconditi
onsl i
keweather,
ticksanddiseases.
 Theyproduce15kgt o18kgofmi l
kondai lyaver
age.
 Themi l
kcontai
ns3. 6%to3. 8%ofbut terf
at .
 Theyhaveasolidredcol our
.
 Thecowshav egoodsi zedandwel ldevelopedudders.
 Averagebodyweightofcowsandbul lsis660kgand1000kgr espect
ivel
y.
 Thecowsar everyfert
il
e.
 Calv
ingint
ervali
s13mont hsorl ess.

Fi
g.6.
6.3 RedDanebr
eed

Dai
rypr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy stem isaunionorcombi nati
onofthreemai
ncomponentswhi
ch
ar
einputs,conv er
sionprocess,
andoutput s.
 Therear
et hreeproductionsyst
emswhi charecommoni nZimbabwe.
 Theseproductionsy st
emsar ei
ntensi
ve,semi-i
ntensi
veandext
ensi
ve.

a.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Extensiveproducti
onismai nl
ypract
icedincommunal ar
easormarginal
lands
wheret herearepoorvelds.
 Thenut ri
ti
onalvalueorveldvari
eswithseasonalf
luct
uati
ons.
 Thev el
di smor enutr
it
iousinrai
nseasonandal lt
henutr
ient
saccumulatedi
nr ai
n
seasonar elostindryseasonhenceani mal
sstayingoodcondi
ti
onforaboutthree
tofourmont hs.
 Thisleadtol owproducti
oncostsandl owoutput
saswel l
.

b.Semi
-I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stems
 Catt
legrazeoutinthevel
dont
hei
rowninthemorni
ngandtheyar
epannedint
he
af
ternoon.
 Thecostunderthisty
peofapr
oduct
ionsy
stem i
smoderat
ehencemoderat
e
pr
oduction.

c.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stems
 Catt
legrazeei
therindryl
andorirr
igat
edpasture.
 Thecostsofthisproduct
ionsy
stem arever
yhighleadi
ngt
omor
eout
put
.
 I
tisusuall
ypracti
cedincommer ci
aldai
ryproduct
ion.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngapr
oduct
ionsy
stem

1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Thisisthemosti mportantf act
or.
 Potenti
alprofit
abil
it
yofthedi ff
erentsystemsofpr
oducti
onshouldbeconsidered.
 Considerfuturemarkettrendsr at
herthanbasewit
hestimati
onsofcur
rentmar ket
st
atus.
 All
theot herfactor
swillaffectprof
it
abili
tyoft
hechosensyst
em toanextent.

2.Ef
fi
ciencyofpr
oduct
ion
 Profi
tabil
it
yofbeefpr oducti
onwillbedeterminedbytheef
fi
ciencyofproducti
on.
 Theef fi
ci
encyofpr oducti
oncanbemeasur edinter
msofcalvingrat
e,weaningrat
e
andmassi nrel
ati
ont ocostofproducti
on.
 Alowweani ngrat
ewi ll
depresstheprofi
tabil
i
tyofweanerproduct
iontoagr eat
er
extentthanasy st
em ofmar keti
ngatanol derage.
 We aningrateshoul
dbe75per centorabovetodoweanerpr oduct
ionwithnormal
supplement ar
yfeeding.
 I
ftheweani ngrateislessthan65percentanyproduct
ionsy
stem i
sli
kel
ynott
obe
vi
abl
e.
 Syst
emsi nvolv
ingbr eedi
ngmakegr eaterdemandsonmanagementandrequi
re
gr
eaterexperti
sethanbuy ing-
inandgrowingout.
 I
ftheeffi
ciencyislowoptf orbuyi
ng-i
nsy st
ems.

3.Nat
ural
regi
ons
 I
nnat ural r
egionIVandVt heinci
dencesofdroughtmakesi ti
nadvisabl
etorun
l
argebr eedingherds.
 Dairycattlefarmsdowel l
incoldareasandinZimbabwet heyaremost l
yfoundin
Midlandsar eas.
 I
nt hedr oughtproneareasiti
sadvisabl
etocommi tforexampleonl y75per
centof
thecarryingcapacit
ytobreedingherdandreari
ngofslaughterstock.

4.Thef
arm car
ryi
ngcapaci
ty
 Smallfarmshaveincreasedsupervi
sioncompar edtolar
gefarms.
 Feedistheimport
antf act
orthatdeterminescarry
ingcapaci
ty.
 Iti
sadv i
sabl
etokeepdai rycat
tl
ewi thinther
equiredcar
ryi
ngcapaci
tyt
oreduce
str
essont heani
mal s.
 Str
essedcowswi l
l perf
orm poorl
yint ermsofconcepti
onratesandmil
kpr
oducti
on.

5.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 Plantedpast
uresincr
easet hecarryi
ngcapacityoft
hefar
m andwident
hechoice
ofproducti
onsystemst obeconsi der
ed.
 Th eeconomical
lyopti
mum sy stem ofproduct
iononapropert
yhavi
ngpastur
eswil
l
varydependingontheov er
allcarr
yingcapacit
y,t
herat
ioofvel
dtopast
uresand
whetherornotgraincanbef edeconomi cal
lytoani
mals.

Managementpr
act
icesofdai
rycows

1.Cul
l
ing
 Culli
ngofdai
rycowsr efer
stother
emov al
ofnon-
product
ivecowsfrom t
heher
d
forsaleonhooforslaughter
.
 On eshoul
dconsiderthefoll
owi
ngfact
orswhencul
li
ngdairycal
ves:

i
. Cowspr
oduci
ngl
owmi
l
kyi
eld.
i
i. Cowswithchronicdiseaseforexampl emasti
ti
s.
i
i
i. Cowswit
hpoorf erti
li
ty.
i
v. Cowswit
hdamagedudderorbl i
ndteatsorcowswi t
hpermanentphysi
cal
i
mpair
ment.
v. Ol
dcows.
v
i. Cowswhichexperiencedseri
ouscalvingdi
ffi
cult
iesi
ntheprev
iouscalv
ingorcows
whi
chexperi
encedonaf t
erbir
thret
ent i
on.

2.Weani
ng
 Weaningofdai r
ycalvesisdiffer
entf rom beefcalves.
 Weaningi tisthegradualreplacementofbr eastf
eedingwit
hot herfoodsandways
ofnurturing.
 Thi
si sdonef ormanyr easonsbutasamanagementt ooli
tisdone:
i
. Tor emov ethelact
ationbur denoncows.
ii
. Tosepar ateanimalsintodi f
ferentagegr oupsforf
eeding/supplement
ati
on.
i
ii
. I thel psinveldmanagementbycont r ol
li
ngtheherdsize.
 I
ndai r
yani malscalvesareremov edf rom t
heirmot her
sassoonast heyar
eborn
andplacedi ncalfhouses.
 Theyar egi venmi l
kinthosecal fhousesandi nZimbabwet heHender sonmethod
i
swi delyusedwhenf eedi
ngt hecal ves.
 Generallyweani ngisdoneat6- 9mont hsofage.

Compl
etesepar
ati
onmet
hod
 I
nt hismethodthecowsarelef
tintheori
ginal
paddockbutthecal
vesaretakent
o
afarr emovedpaddock.
 Th eymaybemi xedwithol
derhei
fers,
whichwill
trai
nthem t
otakesuppl
ementar
y
feed.

Fi
g.6.
6.4 Cal
vescompl
etel
ysepar
atedf
rom t
hei
rmot
her
s

Vacci
nat
ion
 I
tistheadmi
nistr
ati
onofanti
genicmat er
ial(
avacci
ne)tosti
mul
ateani
ndi
vi
dual
'
s
i
mmunesy st
em todev el
opadapti
veimmuni t
ytoapathogen.
 Vacci
nescanpreventorameli
orat
einfect
iousdi
sease.

1.Essent
ial
vacci
nat
ions
a.Quar
terev
il(
mal
i
gnantoedema)Bl
ackl
eg
  Vacci
nateyoungstockatweaning,6mont
hsorear
li
er.
 Repeatat12monthsanday earlat
er.

b.Br
ucel
l
osi
s/CA

 Vacci
nat
eallweanedheif
ersatweani
ng.
 Nottobegi
ventopregnantcows.

c.Campy
lobact
eri
osi
s(Vi
brosi
s)

 Vacci
nat
ecows2weekspostcal
vi
ngand2to3weeksbef
orebul
l
ing
 Vacci
nat
ebul
ls8weeksand4weeksbef
orebul
l
ing

2.Occasi
onal
vacci
nat
ions
 Anthr
ax–annual v
accinati
ons.
 Parat
y phoid–vaccinate7t o10dayoldcalvestwiceatweekl
yint
erv
alsandrepeat
annuallyfor3years.
 Coli
bacill
osis–v acci
nateinlast6weeksofpr egnancy
.
 Rotaandcor onav i
ruses–v accinat
ecows6weeksand3weeksbef orecal
vi
ng.
 Botul
ism –Vacci natetwiceini
ti
all
yandrepeatannuall
y.

3.Opt
ional
vacci
nat
ions(
endemi
car
eas)
a.Ri
ftv
all
eyf
ever

 Vacci
nat
einOct
ober/
Nov
emberannual
l
yal
lani
mal
sov
er6mont
hs

b.Lumpyski
ndi
sease

 Vacci
nat
einJanuar
yannual
l
yal
lani
mal
sov
er6mont
hs

c.FootandMout
hdi
sease(
FMD)

 Nouniv
ersalFMDv acci
ne.
 FMDvaccinesmustclosel
ymatchthestr
ainoft
hei
nfect
ingst
rai
n.
 Not
if
yVeterinar
ydepart
mentserv
ices.

Pr
egnancydi
agnosi
s
 I
tisobserv
ingandpalpati
onofcowst ocheckiftheyarepregnantatsi
xtoten
weeksaft
erremovi
ngt hebul
l(endofbull
ingperi
od).
 I
tispossi
bletodopregnancydiagnosi
s(PD)usingpalpati
onfrom 35daysof
pr
egnancy.
 PDisdoneasamanagementt oolfort
hefoll
owingreasons:
i
. I tenabl
escul
lingandselecti
onofempt ycowswhi charethenfat
tenedand
 soldt herebyreduci nggr azingpr essureandt hemoneygai nedf rom thecull
cowscanbeusedt obuywi nterf eedoft heonespr egnant.
ii
. I tenablessel ectivef eedingoft hebr eedingcowsaccor di
ngt opr egnancy
status.
i
ii
. I tenablest hef armert odet ectandel i
mi nateinfer t
il
it
ypr oblemsor
reproduct iv
edi seasesi ncowsandt hoset hatcanbet racedbackt othebul
l.
i
v. I tcanbeusedt oi dentifyphy sical abnormal it
iesi nthef emal es'gonads.
v. I talsohel pstopr ev entslaught erofpr egnantcows.
vi
. I tl
eadst oani ncreasei nf uturecal vingr ates,whi ch,meanst haty ougetan
i
ncr easei n,herdf erti
li
tyov ertime.
v
ii
. I tshor t
enst hecal vingseasoni fthebr eedingseasonwasl ongandl atebr
ed
cowsar ecul l
ed.
 ThePDi sdonebyaVet eri
nar yper sonorsomeonewel l experienced.
 Alargedi screpancybet weenPDr esultsandcal v
ingr atespoi nttopr oblemsl i
ke
cont
agi ousabor ti
on.

Cl
assesofdai
ryani
mal
sfr
om bi
rt
htomar
ket
ingofpr
oduct
s

1.Cal
ves
 Newl ybor ncal vesr equi respecial attentionf r
om t hef armer ,t
her ear ev ari
ous
practiceswhi chshoul dbedonet oi ncreasechancesofcal fsur vi
val .
 Oneshoul dmakesur et hatthecal fisbr eat hing.
 Iftherewasadi ffi
cul tbirthonemustcl eart henoseoft hecal fforanyobst r
uction
drainmucusf r
om t het hroatofthecal fbyhangi ngi tupsi dedown.
 Dryingoft hecal fandcow’ snavel dippingi sdonei n20%i odinesol uti
ont oav oid
entrancesofbact eriaint othebodyoft heani mal .
 Checki ngofabnor mal i
tiessuchasumbi lical hermi t
, abnor mal teatsandcl eft.
 Makesur et hatthecal fhasr eceivedcol ost rum sincei thelpsthecowt oboosti ts
i
mmunesy stem againstmanydi seases.
 Thecal fmustbehousedi naniceshel tert opr otecti tf r
om hashenv ir
onment al
condi tions.
 Othermanagementpr acticeswhi char edonei ncludev accination, dehorning,
dipping, cast r
ati
onandr emov alofsuper numer aryteat .
 Dehor ningshoul dbedoneonl yift hehor nbudsar ef eltont hecal fbecausei tisnot
commoni ndai r
ypr oduct ion.
 Dippingcommencesat3mont hsofage, super numer aryteatsi scutbef or
eone
mont hwi t
hasci ssorandt r
eatthewounds.
 Cast rat i
oni sdonet ot hesel ect
edt easerbul lsusingar ubberring.
 Mal ecal vescanal sobeusedt omakev eal; vealismeatf rom calvesofal lagesand
wei ght s.
2.Dai
rycows
 Car eofdai rycal vesbegi nsbef or ecal ving, thecowsar et ransferr
edt ocal vi
ng
paddockswhi chhav ebeenr est edadequat elyandar ewel lgrazed.
 Thesepaddocksar el ocat ednearhomest eadar eaorof ficesf oreasymoni tor
ing
andobser vingoft hecows.
 Itiswi set oi ntroduceconcent ratefeedi ngsot hatthecowadaptt ot heconcent rate
bef orecal ving.
 Obser v ecowsf requent lyforsignsofcal vingandassi stthecowi ncaseofdy stocia,
dy stoci ai sthedi ffi
cul tingi vi
ngbi rt
hoft hecow.
 Ifthecowi sgi vingbi rthi nanor mal way ,obser vationi sdonef rom distance
conf irmi ngal lthest agesofcal ving.
 Dur ingear l
ylact ationsuppl yhighnut rientsdensi tycompr i
singof60%concent rate
and40%r oughage.
 Thi sisdonet opr omot ehighmi lkproduct i
onoft hecowsPeakmi l
ky i
eldis
attained42day saf tercal vi
ng.
 Att hisst age, itisencour agedt opr omot egoodheal thoft hecowi nor derto
shor tent heut er i
nei nv olutionphase.
 Obser v eheatoft hecowst wiceadaydur i
ngt hemor ningandl ateint heaf t
ernoon.
Usual lythecowsonheatar eartifi
ciall
yi nsemi nated.
 Dur ingmi d-l
act ation, suppl yameal compr ising50%concent r
ateand50%r oughage.
 Goodheal thf ort hecowt obemai ntainedsoast odi scour ager apiddecl i
neofmi l
k
yield.
 Dur ingl at elact ation,suppl yfeedwi t h40%concent rateand60%r oughage.
 Indr ycows( usual ly60day sbef oret henextcal vi
ng)al lowt hecowst ogood
grazi ng.
 Feedadi etcompr isi
ng85%r oughageand15%concent rate.
 Prepar et hecowf orthenextl act ati
onbymai ntainingaposi ti
veli
v emassgai n.
 Allowt hecowt or ecov erfrom lactat i
onst ress.
 Promot et her egener at i
onofuddert issuesandt hei ncreasei nalveoli,i
ny oung
growi ngcows.

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngmi
l
kpr
oduct
ionandqual
i
ty

1.Hor
monesandst
imul
i
 Theejecti
onofmi l
kresultsfr
om anervousstimul
usthatananimalassociat
eswith
mil
ki
ngorsucklingact i
vit
y,suchasmanual massageoftheudderteats,
suckli
ng,
orsi
ghtandsmel lofthecalf.
 Themi l
ki
ngmachi neitsel
fcanalsostimulat
etheref
lex.
 Theneuralst
imulusreachest hecent
ralnerv
oussystem andcausestheposter
ior
 l
obet or eleaseoxy tocin.
 Oxy t
ocinr eachest hemammar ygl andandmy oepi t
helial cell
s,andcont ractionof
thesecel l
sf orcesmi lkfrom t heal veolii
nt otheductsy stem.
 Milkthenf lowsf reelyintot hel argerduct sandci sterns.
 Adrenalini nhibit
smi lkejectionpr imaril
ybyr educingbl oodf l
owt othegl andsot hat
suffi
cientconcent r
ationsofoxy tocincannotr eacht her ecept orsont he
my oepithelialcells.
 Therefore, mor eoxy tocini nt hebl oodoft hecowi ncreaset hepr oducti
onand
quali
tyofmi l
kpr oducedbyt hecows.
 Hormonesl i
kepr olact i
n,somat otropin,placental l
actogen, gl
ucocor ti
coids, thyr
oid
hormonesandov ari
anst eroidsi ncreasesmi lkproduct ionandt heyalsoi ncreases
component sli
kecar bohy dratesandpr oteinsint hemi lkpr oducedhencei ncreasing
milkqual i
ty .
 Otherhor monesl i
kepr ogest er onehav eanegat i
v eeffectonmi l
kpr oductionhence
l
owmi lkpr oduct i
onandl owmi l
kqual it
y.
 Poorheal thl eadst or educedmi lkappet iteandhencel essmi l
ky iel
d.
 Iftheani mal i
sst ressedouti tpr oducel essmi lkbecausemor enutrient
sar e
channelledt ot hebr ains,suddendr yi
ngof fofanimal sal soaf fectmi l
kyieldand
quali
tyinanegat iveway( lowmi lkproduced) .
 Somebr eedspr oducemor emi lkwhi lstsomepr oducel essf orexampl eHol stei
n
producemor emi lkthant heJer sey

2.Di
etandf
requency
 Lactat
ingcowsr equirehighqual it
yfoodsot hatmorenutri
entsar echannel
ledto
milksynt hesis.
 Therefore, wellfeddai r
ycowspr oducemor eandqualitymi
lkt hanthosedairycows
whichar ef edpoorqual i
tyfeed.
 Inthemi lkingpar lour,
itisrecommendedt oputsupplementswhi chareli
kedby
cowssot hattheywi ll
relaxandenj oyt hefeedwhi l
ebeingmilked.
 Milki
ngmustbedoneear l
yinthemor ningandl at
eintheaft
ernoonsoast ogive
ti
met ot heani mal t
osy nthesi
semor emi l
k.
 Ift
hef requencyi stoomuch, t
hemi lky iel
dwillbelowandpoori nqualit
yduet o
damageduddert i
ssuesandal veoli
.

3.Di
seases
 Diseasessuchasketosis,retainedplacent
a, metr
it
is,mast i
tis,mil
kfever
,di
spl
aced
abomasum, andl
amenesswi llreducetheproduct
ionandqual it
yofmilkindai
ry
cows.
 Thesediseasescausepain, stress,anaemiaandanor exial
eadi ngtopoor
producti
onofmi l
kbyourcows.
 Toa voi
dt hesedi
seases,t
her ei sneedtopracti
cegoodhy giene.
 Thereisneedofstri
ctl
yobser vati
ononourdai r
ycowsf orsympt omsofanyofa
rel
ateddiseasesoast oprev entthespreadofthedi seasetot hewholeherd
4.Hy
giene
 Goodqual i
tymi l
ki sessent ialforpr oduct ionofgoodqual it
ydai rypr oduct s,t
aste
andf l
av our ,f
reef rom pat hogensandl ongkeepi ngqual it
y.
 Goodqual i
tyrawmi l
kmustbef reef rom debr i
sandsedi ment ,f
reef rom of f
fl
av our s,lowi nbact erialnumber s,nor mal composi ti
onandf reeofant i
bi oti
csand
chemi cal residues.
 Inor derf ormi l
kt oreacht hepr ocessorandul timat elytheconsumerst illingood
condi tion, anumberoft hingsmustbeobser vedr ightfrom t hef ar
ml evel t
othe
processi ngf actoryandt her eaftert ot heret ai
lersandconsumer .
 Hy gieneont hef armr equirest hatt hemi l
ker shandsandcl ot hesar ecleanandhe
orshei si ngoodheal th.
 Themi l
kingmachi neandmi l
kst orageequi pmentsuchasmi lkchur nsar ekept
cleanandar eingoodcondi ti
ont hati swi thoutcr acksordent swhi char edi ff
icul
tto
cleanandcaneasi lyhar bourbact er i
a.
 Immedi atelyaftermi l
king, t
hemi lkmustbecool edpr eferablyt o4° C.
 Mi l
kcool edont hef ar m orcool ingcent r
emaybet ranspor tedi nmi lkcansori n
bulkt anker s.
 Ont hecow, t
hef armermustf ol l
owpr opermi lki
nghy gi
ene; mast i
tiscowsshoul d
bemi l
kedl astandt hei rmi l
kdi scar ded.
 Mi l
kf rom cowst reat edwi thant i
bi oticsshoul dnotbemi xedwi thmi lkfrom healt
hy
cows.
 Mi l
kwi thant ibi
ot i
cswi llaffectconsumer s’ healthaswel lasspoi l
ingact ivit
yof
l
act i
cst arterculturesusedi ncheeseandy oghur tpr oduction.

5.Mi
l
kingmet
hods
 Ther
earetwotypesofmi
l
king,
whi
char
etheuseofmi
l
kingmachi
nesi
npar
lour
s
anduseofhands.

i
.Mi
l
kingpar
lour
 Amilki
ngparlouri
saplaceorareadesignedf
ormi l
ki
ngani mal
sonaf arm.
 Ami l
ki
ngpar l
ourhasnecessaryequi
pmentwhichallowformilki
ng.
 Ther
earediff
erentmil
ki
ngpar l
oursandtheyi
ncludeabreastl
ayout,
tandem par
lour
andHerri
ngboneparl
our.

i
I.Abr
eastl
ayout
 Cowsstandsi
debysideinastal
lwithagatet
hefrontandachai
nattherear.
 Toent
erthestal
lthecowwalksacrosst
hemilker
’sspace.
 Aft
ermil
kingt
hefrontgat
eisopenedandthecowl eav
esbyaspeci
alpassage.

Fi
g.6.
6.5 Abr
eastl
ayoutpar
lour
 I
tisuseful
forthefl
oorofthestal
ltober
aisedsome250-400mm abovethel
evel
ofthefl
oorareaofthemil
ker.
 Thi
smakest heuddermoreaccessibl
etothemil
keranddiscour
agethecowfr
om
mov i
ngduri
ngmi l
ki
ng.

Adv
ant
ages
1.Thecowcanbefedwhil
stbei
ngmi l
ked.
2.Vet
eri
nar
ytr
eatmentandart
if
ici
ali
nseminat
ioncanbecar
ri
edouti
nthest
all
s.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Mor elabourtot hemilkerthatisstoopi
ng.
2.Dif
ficulttoorganiseast eadyflowofanimalsintot hestal
lasthecowshavetowalk
acrosst hemilker’
swor kingspace.
3.Alargeamounti fpipi
ngi srequir
edt omakest all
s.
4.Themi lkerhast otrav
el upwardsfrom theclustertothemilkli
newhichhastobe
positi
onedov erheadandt hi
scanr esul
tinvacuum f l
uctuat
ionsandmilkcl
oggi
ng.

Tandem par
lour
 Stall
sar earrangedinli
neononeorbot hsidesofapi t1.
3m to1.8m wi deinwhich
milkerswor k.
 Thef looroft hepiti
s0. 8m to0.9m bel
owt helevelofthest
all
st oallowthemi l
ker
towor kwi t
houtstooping.
 Eachst alli
sar ect
angularcrateof2.4m by0.8m andhasanent ryandent ryand
exitpoi ntont oanaccesspassageont hesideawayf rom t
hemi lker.
 Thecowsdonotcr osst hemilker
’sspacewhenent eri
ngorleavingat andem
parlour.
 Thel ayoutcannotbeusedf ormor ethanfourstall
sbecausethedi stancebetween
unitsis2. 4m.
 Doubl et andem withfourstall
soneachsi deandoneuni tperstallcanmi l
kupto
cowsperhour .

Fi
g.6.
6.6 Tandem par
lour

Adv
ant
ages
1.Ther
ei slesslabourasthepi tal
lowsthemilkertowor
kinwit
houtstooping.
2.Cowsar emi l
kedi ndi
vi
duall
yasi nabreast
edl ay
outsoasl
owmi lkerdoesnot
hi
nderthepr ogressoftheher dingener
al.
3.Theindiv
idual cr
atesall
owf orthecowstobegi veni
ndi
vi
dualat
tentionandif
desi
redbyt heowner ,i
ndiv
idualfeedi
ng.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Thedistancebetweencows’ udderismaximum requir
ingunnecessarywalkingby
themilker.
2.Requir
esmor epi
pingandspacest her
eforebuil
dingandinstall
ati
oncostarehigh.
3.Extr
awor kisrequi
redwhenopeni ngandcl osi
ngthegatetoeachcr at
ebut
howeveraut omati
cvacuum operatedgatescanov er
comet his.

Her
ri
ngbonepar
lour
 Thisist
hemodi f
ieddoubl
etandem wit
houtfor
mal st
all
sinwhichcowsst
andatan
angleofabout30oonbothsidesofthepi
tinwhichthemilker
sworks.

Fi
g.6.
6.7 Her
ri
ngbonepar
lour

 Cowsaremovedinandoutinbatcheswhenentryandexitgat
esar eopened.
 I
ntheparl
ourthecowsover
lapeachothersothatthedi
stancebetweenmi l
king
poi
ntsi
sminimalat0.
9m.
 90cowscanbemi l
kedperhouri
nanei ghtuni
tparl
ourofonest al
lperuni
t.
 I
naswingoverparl
ouruptoseventycowsperhourcanbemi lked.

Adv
ant
ages
1.Theparl
ourisdesignedtor educewalki
ngdist
anceforthemi
lkerbyali
gni
ngt
he
cowsatanangletot hepit.
2.Requi
reslesspi
pingt her
eforelessexpensi
vetobui
l
dandconst r
uct.
3.Thedesignmaximisesef f
iciencyi
ntermsofcowsmi l
kedperhour.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Requir
eswellt
rai
nedandeffi
cientmilkersmor et
hantheothersyst
ems.Iti
s
di
ffi
cultt
ogi
veeachcowi ndi
vidualattent
ion.
2.Cowshav et
oleaveandenteri
nbat chessot hati
fther
eisoneslowmilkeri
nthe
bat
chshewilldel
aythewholebatch.

Rot
arypar
lour
s
 Car
ri
edouti
narotar
yplat
for
m.
 Thr
eemaint
ypesavai
labl
earer
otar
yabr
east
,rot
aryt
andem andr
otar
yher
ri
ngbone.

Fi
g6.
6.8 Rot
arypar
lour
s

Adv
ant
ages
1.Rotaryabreasti
sthesi
mpl
estandmostcommontype.
2.Encouragesslowcowsontotheplat
for
m.
3.Mayhav ef r
om 6-
40ormor
est al
l
sandoper
ati
oni
susuall
ybyonemant
oabout12
stal
ls.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Heavymaintenancecostsarerequi
red.
2.Needstwomenf oref
fecti
veoperat
ion.
3.Hi
ghy i
eldi
ngcowshav etot r
avelar
oundthepar
lourmor
ethanoncebef
orebei
ng
mil
kedout.

Handmet
hod
 I
ncommunal areas,mil
kingisdoneatasmal l
scal
ehencehandmi l
ki
ngi sused.
 Themi l
kismilkedinaluminium buckets,plast
icj
arsandmetalj
ars.
 Aft
ermi l
ki
ng,themilkisstoredinclaypot sspeci
fi
cal
lydesi
gnedformilkstor
age.
 I
ncommer ci
almilkproducti
on,mi l
ki
ngi sdonebymi l
kingmachi
nes.
 Themi l
ki
ngmachi neismadeupofv ari
ouscomponent swhi
chwor ktogether
di
rect
ingthemi l
ktothebul kstoragetanks.

Fi
g.6.
6.9 Handmi
l
king

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Ifther
ear eanymi
lki
ngcowsatyourschool,
goandl ear
nhowtohandmi
l
kand
clearl
yjusti
fyt
hemeri
tsofmachi
nemi l
kingoverhandmi l
ki
ng.

Sheepbr
eeds
 Therearet
hreedair
ysheepbreedswhi char
eEastFriesian,Lacaune,
andAwassi.
 Iti
smostcommont ocr
osstheLacaunewi t
ht heEastFr i
esian.
 Lacaunesheepareavai
l
ablei
nl essernumbersandhav eal i
mi t
edgenepool.
 Crossi
ngtheAwassiwit
htheEastFr i
esianyi
eldsanotherbreedofdairysheep
call
edtheAssaf
.

1.EastFr
iesi
anbr
eed
 TheEastFr
iesi
anisconsi
deredt
obetheheavi
estmi
lki
ngbreedofsheepint
he
worl
d.
 Theaver
agemilkproduct
ionoft
heEastFr
iesi
ani
sabout300-360l
i
tresofmil
k
 duri
nga220t o240dayl act
ati
onperiod.
 EastFri
esi
ansareeffi
cientl
ambpr oducer
s.
 Matureewescangi v
ebi r
thtomorethantwol ambseachlambi ng.
 Evenyearl
i
ngewesar ecapableofproducing200%lambcr ops.
 EastFri
esi
ansaredocileandadaptwelltoint
ensiv
eparlourmi l
kingsyst
ems.
 Theydonotfarewellinhotcli
matesandar enotsuit
abl
ef orextensi
ve
managementsy st
ems.

Fi
g.6.
7.1 Eastf
ri
esi
ansheep

2.Lacaunebr
eed
 TheLacauneisaFr
enchbreedofdair
ysheep.
 Lacaunehasbeenr
igor
ouslysel
ect
edfori
mprovedmi
l
kpr
oduct
ion.

Fi
g.6.
7.2 Lacaunesheep

 LacaunemilkisusedtoproduceFr ance'
sfamousRoquef or
tcheese.
 I
tistheonlybreedwhosemi l
kcanbeusedt omakeRoquefortcheese.
 TheLacauneisahar dybreed.
 Theygivebir
thtofewerlambsandpr oducelessmil
k.
 Milki
shigherinfatandprotei
n,giv
ingbet t
ercheeseyi
elds.
 TheLacaunehasv eryli
tt
lewool,onitshead, l
egsandagoodpor t
ionofit
sbel
l
yis
bare.

3.Awassi
breed
 TheAwassi i
saf at-
tai
ledsheepthatori
ginatedi nt
heMi ddl
eEast.
 Awassiproduceslargemi l
kquanti
tybutlesst hanEastFri
esi
anbreeds.
 I
tisahardybreed,havingev ol
vedunderarid,nomadiccondit
ions.
 I
tproducescarpetwool .

Fi
g.6.
7.3 Awassi
sheep

4.I
cel
andi
cbr
eed
 TheIcel
andi
cbr eedi
srai
sedfordair
ypurposes.
 I
celandi
csproducesl
essmilkthantheot
herdair
ybr
eeds.
 Theyarehar
dy .
 Theyhavegoodudderconformati
on.
 Forthesmal
lfar
m cheesepr ocessor,I
cel
andicsmaybeagoodchoi
ce.
 Theyareal
sobettersuit
edtogr assbasedproducti
onsy
stemst
hanotherwhi
ch
wouldhavemuchhi ghernut
rit
ionalr
equir
ement s.

Fi
g.6.
7.4 I
cel
andi
csheepbr
eed

Fact
orst
hataf
fectt
hechoi
ceofabr
eed
1.Personal preference.
2.Pri
ceoft hebr eed.
3.Mil
ky ield
4.Mil
kcomposi tion
5.Bodyconf ormat ion
6.Docil
ityandgr owt hrate
7.Avail
abi l
ityofst ockorsemen.
8.Managementandcondi t
ion.
9.Vegetation.
10.
Natural enemi es.
11.
Topogr aphy .
12.
Envir
onment al conditi
ons.
13.
Marketdemandsandf uncti
onal
demands.

Di
arysheeppr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy stem isauni onorcombinati
onofthr
eemaincomponentswhich
ar
einputs,conversionprocessandout puts.
 Therear
ethr eetypesofpr oducti
onsystemswhichareext
ensi
vegr
azingsyst
em,
i
ntensi
vesy stem andsemi -i
ntensi
vesystem.

A.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thisiscommonl ypract
icedinmostcommunalar
easparti
cul
arl
yinlowrai
nfal
l
areaswheret hereisabundantgrazi
ngwi
thl
it
tl
ecroppi
ngactiv
iti
esandint
he
ranchingar
eas.
 Du ri
ngtheday ,sheepareherdedandgr
azeonnatur
alveget
ati
onand/orbr
owseon
shrubsorfeedoncr opresi
dues.
 Bu tatni
ghtthef l
ockispenned.

Adv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Sheepf
eedonnat
ural
veget
ati
onandhav
epl
ent
yofchoi
ce.
2.Sheepsel
ectthepast
uretheywant.
3.Herdi
ngthefl
ockprot
ectsthem f
rom t
hef
tandpr
edat
ors.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Control
ledbreedi
ngmaybedi ff
icul
t.
2.Thecommunal syst
em exposessheeptointer
nalwor
ms,
ext
ernal
par
asi
tesand
otherdi
seases.
3.I
ncreasedchancesoflossandt hef
tsifnother
ded.
4.Noteasyt oident
if
yandtreatsi
ckanimals.
5.Offtakeislow.

B.I
ntensi
vesy
stem
 I
nthi
stypeofasyst
em, sheepar
epermanent
lyhousedandf
eedi
spr
ovi
ded.
 Thei
nputsi
nthi
ssystem aremoreaswel
lastheoutput
s.

Adv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Sheeparepr ot
ectedfrom har
shenvir
onmentandf r
om thi
evesandpredat
ors(t
oa
cert
ainextent)
.
2.Theherdsman/ farmercanengageinotherf
arm act
ivi
ti
esathomesincethesheep
areconfi
ned.
3.Control
l
edbr eedingcanbeachiev
ed.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1. Aninappropri
atesyst
em forl
argefl
ock.
2.Carryi
ngoff eedsandwaterisver
ylabourint
ensi
ve.
3.Sheepar eli
mi t
edtoeati
ngonlywhatisprovi
dedanddeni
edabi
l
ityt
osel
ectown
feeds.

C.Semi
-i
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Practicedbyagr o-
pastorali
sts.
 Itisami xedfarmingsy stem buttheemphasi sisonl iv
estockproducti
on( 40%
croppingand60%l i
vestock).
 Re li
esoncommunal l
andf orgrazi
ng,supplement edwi thcr
opresidues,grazedon
farmlandaf t
erharvest.
 Flocksar emov edinthedr yseasoninsearchofwat erandgrazingpasture,leav
ing
someani malsbehindtopr ovidemilkf
orthoser emai ningonthefarm.
 Product i
onlevelsarehigherthaninpastoralsystemsbecauset hesheephav ea
mi xeddiet.
Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngasheeppr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Therear
eanumberoff actor
sincl
udingcul
ture,
tradit
ion,
landsi
zeandnumberof
sheepdeter
minest
hesy st
em pract
icedal
thought her
eareotherf
act
orsthatar
e
consi
deredwhenchoosingaproducti
onsystem.

1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Onehastoconsiderthepot
enti
alpr
ofi
tabi
li
tyoft
hechosenproduct
ionsystems.
 Theavai
labl
einputsandthety
peofproducti
onsyst
em shoul
dproduceoutputsor
prof
it
s.

2.Pr
edat
ors
 I
npredat
orprobl
em ar
easlambl
ossesar
ehigh.
 Ther
eisneedtouseabreedwi
thhi
ghmotheri
ngabi
l
ityandpr
ecaut
iousl
amb.

3.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Aproduct
ionsystem shoul
dbechosenaccordi
ngtotheavai
lableresour
ces.
 Per
sonalpref
erenceshouldnotov
err
idesoundeconomicconsiderati
onsor
l
imi
tati
onsoffarm.
 However,
peoplearemot i
vat
edtoworkharderf
orsystemstheylikeandpref
er.

4.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 Inareaswher
ether
ear
epl
antedpastur
es,i
tismor
eli
kel
ytohaveahi
ghcarr
y i
ng
capacit
y.
 Inareaswher
ether
ear
enat
uralpast
ures,
iti
smoreli
kel
ytohav
ealowcarr
ying
capacit
y.

5.Nat
ural
regi
ons
 I
nnaturalr
egionI
VandVt hei
nci
dencesofdr
oughtmakesiti
nadvi
sabletor
un
l
argeherdsofcat
tl
ehencepeopl
etur
ntothei
ral
ternat
ivewhi
chisgoatandsheep.

Managementpr
act
icesofdai
rysheep
1.Dehor
ning

I
.Hoti
ronmet
hod
 Theironisheat edbygas,f
ireorelectri
city.
 Theelectri
ci
tyandgasar eprefer
redast heyproduceaconst antheat.
 Theironisheatt oadullgl
ow.
 I
tisappliedwi t
hcircul
armotionfor3-5seconds( nottwisti
ngmot i
on).
 Guil
l
ot i
nedehor nercanbeusedf i
rstifthebaseoft hehornist oowidef ort
hei
ron.
 Forfull
y-
grownhor nsasur
gicalwireorsawandl ocalanaesthesiaareused.
 Toreducebl eedingyoucanusehy drogenper oxi
deandt rytodoi ti
nwi nter
.
 Thedehor ni
ngwoundsshoul dbecheckedr egul
arl
y.

I
I.Chemi
cal
Dehor
ning
 Thisi
sdoneusingcausti
csti
ck/sodium di
oxi
deorsomebr andi
ngli
qui
d.
 Thisi
sdonewi t
hintwodaysofbir
t h.
 Fi
rstyouhavetocli
pall
thehairaroundthehornzone.
 Thismethodisnotcommonlyusedbecauseani malsar
eli
kelyt
orubofft
hel
i
qui
d
ontootherpart
softhebodyandcauseski nburns.

2.Cast
rat
ion
 Thisi
sthecutti
ngorcr ushingofthespermaticcordssot hatt
heanimal cannot
mateproducti
velywi t
ht hefemales.
 Iti
sanimportantmanagementt ooli
nthatitprev
ent suncontr
oll
edbreeding,
i
nbreedi
ngandt akesawayt heodourt
hat’sassoci
atedwi thi
ntactbucks.
 Ma l
ecastr
atesaret hereforeagoodsour ceofuntaintedandnon-smelli
nggoat
meat.
 Therearet
hreemai nmet hodsofcastrat
ionusedi ngoatsthatistherubberri
ng,
kni
fe/r
azorandbur dizzo.

I
.Kni
femet
hod
 Thi
si seff
ecti
vefrom t
hreeweeksonwar ds.
 Ashar pkni
fe/r
azorshouldbeusedandi thastobesteri
l
izedinboi
lingwateror
ant
isepti
csoluti
on.
 Ano peni
ngshouldbemadeatt hebott
om partoft
hescr ot
um sothatther
eisno
bagofbloodformingaftercast
rati
on.
 Bothtesti
cl
esshouldbegent l
ypull
edoutandt hewholescrot
um dippedinan
ant
isepti
csoluti
on.
 Applyawoundr emedyandf lyr
epell
ents.
I
I.Usi
ngaBur
dizzo
 Thismet hodi smostef f
ectivewhenl ambsar emuchol der ,atleastt hreemont hsof
age.
 Iti
nvolvescr ushi ngt hesper mat i
ccor dt hrought hescr otal ski nbyt heuseof
specialpi ncersofpat enteddesi gn.
 Theext ernal sur faceoft hescr otum i snotdamaged, butt hei nternal bl
oodsuppl y
i
scutof fwi tht hesev eri
ngoft hesper mat iccord, t
huscausi ngt hetest i
clest o
witheraway .
 Thet echni quei st odr awt het esticlesdownt otheendoft hescr otum.
 Thecor doft hef i
rsttest i
cleist hendr awnt othesideoft hescr otum andcaught
betweent hej awsoft heBur dizzowhi chi st henlockedandhel df orsomeseconds.
 Thesamepr ocedur ei st henadopt edf ort hesecondt esti
cl e, butont heot hersi de
ofthescr otum.
 Caremustbet akent oensur et hatt hebr uisemar ksoft het wosepar atebi tesoft he
i
nst r
umentdonotmer georov erl
ap.
 Thisisdonebecausei tcouldcauset hewhol eoft helowerscr otum t odieand
eventuallydr opof fandt huspr ovideaneasyent r
yf orscrew- wor m orbact erial
i
nfection.
 Theoper atorshoul dal soensur ethatt hejawsoft heinstrumentar enott oocl ose
tothebodyast her eisadangerofcat chingandi njur
ingt heani mal '
speni si nside
thebodywal l.
 Useoft heBur dizzomet hodofcast rationensur esmi nimum oppor tunityfor
secondar ydi seasei nfect i
on.

I
II
.El
ast
rat
or
 Thismet hodi sf avouredpar t
icul
arlywher elabouri sscar ceandexpensi ve.
 Itisquickandnost eri
li
zationordisinfecti
oni srequi r
ed.
 Aspeci alapplicatorisusedt of i
tat i
ghtrubberr ingar oundt hetopoft hescrotum
andabov ethet esti
cles,thuscutti
ngof ft
hebl oodsuppl y.
 Thel owerhal fofthescr otum shrivelsawayand, ifleft
,wi l
lusuall
ydr opoffaft
er
about10or12day s.
 Ther ubberr i
ngmustbeappl iedwhent helambi sv eryy oung,preferabl
ytwot o
threeday soldwhi letheski nofthescr otum isst i
llverysof t
.
 They oungert heani mal,themor eef fecti
velywillthewoundbeheal ed.
 Thet echniquei stodr awt hetesti
clesdowni ntot helowerendoft hescrotum with
onehand
 Theyar enotal way seasyt olocatewhent hel ambi ssoy oungandt oappl ythe
elastrat
orringabov ethem.

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngmi
l
kpr
oduct
ionandqual
i
ty
1.Hor
mones
 Hormonessuchaspr ogest er
one( P4), i
nsuli
n,gl
ucorti
coi
dsandoest r
ogen
i
nfluencesmi lkproduction.
 Ifprogester
onei shighint hebloodoft heanimal,
itsuppressesthepre-
part
um
synthesisoflactoseleadingtol owlev elsofmilkproduct
ion.
 Wh enoest r
ogen, i
nsuli
nandgl ucor ti
coi dsar
enotf oundinthebloodofthe
l
actatingsheep, mil
kpr oducti
onwi l
lreduce.
 Milkproductionwi l
li
ncreaseast hesehor monesincreasestheirl
evel
sinthebl
ood.

2.Di
et
 I
nadequat efeedi
ngmayr educebothdai
lymi lkproducti
onandt helengthofthe
l
act ati
onper i
od.
 Thehi ghertheamountoff eedgivent
oal actati
ngewe, thegreatert
hemi lkyi
eld.
 Highener gyconcent r
atesresult
sinanimpr ovedmi lkyi
eldpr
ov i
dedt her
eisa
balancewi thprotei
ns,mineralsandvi
tamini nthefeed.
 Overf eedingshouldbeav oidedasthi
swillleadtof atdeposi
ti
oni ntheudder.
 Fatr educesalveoli
dev el
opmentofsecretorycell
sr esponsi
bleformi l
kproducti
on.

3.Mi
l
kingpar
lour
s
 Amilki
ngparlouri
sapl aceorareadesi
gnedformil
ki
ngani malsonaf ar
m.
 Amilki
ngparlourhasnecessaryequi
pmentwhichall
owf ormil
king.
 Ther
earediff
erentmi l
ki
ngparlour
swhichincl
udeabreastpar
lour,t
andem par
lour
andHerri
ngboneparlour

i
.Abr
eastpar
lour
 Ewesst andsi debysi dei
nast all
withagateatt hefrontandachainattherear
.
 Toent erthest al
ltheewewal ksacrossthemi l
ker’
sspace.
 Aftermi l
kingthefrontgateisopenedandt heewel eavesbyaspeci al
passage.
 I
ti suseful f
orthef l
oorofthestal
ltoberaisedabov etheleveloft
hefloorar
eaof
themi l
kerbyasi nglestept omaket heuddermor eaccessibletot
hemi l
kerand
discouraget heewef rom movingdur i
ngmilki
ng.

I
I.Thet
andem par
lour
 Stall
sar earr
angedi nl
ineononeorbothsidesofapi
tinwhichmil
ker
swor k.
 Thef l
ooroft hepiti
sslightl
ybelowt
helev
elofthest
all
stoall
owthemil
kertowor
k
withoutstopping.
 Eachst all
isar ect
angularcrat
eandhasanentr
yandexitpoi
ntontoanaccess
 passageonthesi
deawayf
rom t
hemilker
.
 Theewesdonotcrosst
hemil
ker’
sspacewhenent
eri
ngorleavi
ngatandem
parl
ourbutt
helay
outwoul
dnotbeusedformor
ethanfourst
all
sbecauseoft
he
di
stancebet
weenthem.

I
II
.Her
ri
ngbonepar
lour
 Thisist
hemodi f
ieddoubl
et andem withoutformalst
all
sinwhichcowsst andatan
angleofabout30oonbothsi desofthepitinwhichthemilker
sworks.
 Ewesaremov edinandoutinandouti nbat cheswhenentryandexi
tgatesare
opened.
 I
napar l
ourtheewesov er
lapeachot hersot hatt
hedist
ancebetweenmilking
point
sisminimal.

4.Hy
giene
 I
ft hehygieneinthedai r
ypar louri
spoor,theni tmeansthemil
kpr oducedwillbe
bothpoorqual i
tyandquant it
y.
 Goodhy gieneispractisedbyr i
nsi
ngallequipmentincoldwatertoremov eresidual
milkasmuchaspossi ble.
 Washequi pmentinhotwat erwithdet
ergentsast hi
skil
l
sbacteriaaswel l
as
remov esdirt
.
 Steri
li
seinst r
eam chestf oratleast10mi nutesat93°C.
 Dryequipmentonr ackbef orenextmil
king.
 Oldrustyandcr ackedequi pmentshouldbedi scar
dedasitcontaminatesmilkand
makescl eaningdiffi
cult
.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofdai
rysheep

1.Lambs
 Lambsar eusuall
ysepar at edfrom theirdamssoonaf t
erbi rt
h,usuall
ywithi
n24t o
48hour s.
 Lambsmaybeal l
owedt oconsumecol ostr
um f r
om theirdam bef or
ebeing
separatedforarti
ficial
rear ingortheycanbet ubefedcol ostrum.
 Analternati
vetoear lysepar at
ionistoleavethelambsont heewesf ort
hef i
rst30
days,beforeini
ti
atingt wicedai lymilki
ng.
 Gradual i
ntr
oductionofcr eepf eedshouldbedonesoast omeett henutr
iti
onal
requi
rement softhesel amps.
 Thecr eepfeedisusual lymadeofhayandgr ainandshoul dbegi veninsmall
quantiti
esuntil
thel ampsgetused.
2.Ewes
 Aft
erparturi
ti
on, t
heeweshoul dbesepar atedf rom i
tsl
ampsot hatitcanproduce
moremi l
k.
 Ewescanbemi lkedbyhandorbymachi ne.
 Handmi lki
ngisusuall
yonl ypracticalformi lkingasmallnumberofewes.
 Iti
scommoni ncountri
eswher elargef locksar emanagedunderv er
yextensive
condi
ti
ons.
 Regar
dlessoft hemethoduse, hygienei sofpr i
maryimport
ance.
 Ewescaneatmor eofahi ghlydigestibledi etwi thhighmetaboli
sableenergy.
 Iti
sadvisedforonetopr ovidefeedt ol act atingewe’ssothattheywi ll
produce
moremi l
k.
 Feedcanbei nf or
m ofhey ,pasture,grainorsheepcanr angefreely.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.I
dent
if
ylocal
far
merswhoar
epr
act
ici
ngdai
rysheeppr
oduct
ionandl
i
stt
hebr
eeds
t
hatt
heyareusi
ng.

Br
eedsofdai
rygoat
s
 Goatsaresmal l,
easyt ohandleandpr oduceheal t
hyf l
av oursomemil
k.
 Goats’milki
sofhi ghqualit
yandhaspot enti
al f
orv al
ueaddedpr oductssuchas
cheese,yoghurtandferment edmi l
kproducts.
 Goatsareseasonal producersandi nthedry,cool mont hs(JunetoAugust)t
heydo
notproducemi l
k.
 Thethreemai ndairygoatbreedsusedi nsout hernAfricaareSaanen,Toggenbur
g
andBriti
shAlpine.
 Thesebreedsar efrom Europebutsomehav ebeencr ossbredwithi
nAf r
ican
i
ndigenousbreedst oproduceof fspri
ngwi t
hdecentmi lkvolumesandgood
hardi
ness.
 Nutri
ti
onandmanagementar ekeyplayersintheper f
or manceofdair
yanimals.

1.Saanenbr
eed
 SaanengoatisaSwi ssbreedwhichor i
ginat
edfrom SaaneVal l
ey.
 Saanensareofmedi um hei
ghtwhencompar edtoAlpinebreeds.
 Theyhaveanall-
whiteorcream coatwi t
hblackspotsont henose,ear
sandudder.
 Theyhaveearswhichar egeneral
lypoint
edander ect.
 Thei
rfacei
sst r
aightandslight
lydished.
 Theyhaveagoodbodyconf ormation.
 Thebreedi
ssensi t
ivetoexcessiv
esunl i
ghtandperformsbesti ncool
ercondi
ti
ons.
 Saanensareverydoci
l
eanimals,t
heyrespondv
eryqui
ckl
ytoaffect
ion.
 Anadultbuckweighsabout70kgto90kgandadul
tdoeweighsabout60kgt
o70kg.
 Butt
erFatcontenti
s3.5%.

Fi
g.6.
8.1 Saanengoat

 Theudderiswell
devel
oped.
 Saanendoesareheavymil
kproducer
s,t
heyproduceabout1kgto3kgofmi
l
kper
day.
 Underext
ensi
veproduct
ionsuppl
ementar
yfeedingi
srequi
red.

2.Toggenbur
gbr
eed
 Toggenbur gor i
ginatedf r
om Toggenbur gVall
ey,Swi tzerland.
 Theyar emedi um sizedani mal s
 Breedcol ourvariesfrom br ownt ochocol atewithdi sti
nctwhi t
emarki
ngs.
 Mar ksar eonfacef rom theey est ot hemuzzl e,
ont heedgeoft heear
s,onthe
rump, andonoraboutt het ai
l.
 Thel egsarewhi tefrom thekneesandhocksdownwar ds.
 Theyar egener all
ypolled(hor nless) .
 Themal esusuallyhav elongerhai rthant hefemal es.
 Theyhav eerectearswhi char ecar ri
edf orward.
 Theyar esturdy ,
v i
gorousandv eryal er
tinappear ance.
 Averagewi therheightis65cm t o75cm.
 Adultmal ewei ghs65kgandf emal e50kg.
 Doeshav eexcellentudderdev elopment .
 Theypr oduceav eragemi l
ky i
eldof1kg/ day.
 Milkcont ai
nsabout3%f atand2. 7%pr otei
n.
 Toggenbur gsper form betterincool erconditi
ons.

Fi
g.6.
8.2 Toggenbur
ggoat

3.Br
it
ishAl
pinebr
eed
 I
tisabreeddev el
opedi nBr i
tainbycrossi nglocalgoatswithAlpi
negoatsimport
ed
fr
om Switzerl
and.
 Theyhaveadi shedorst r
aightfaciall
ineandawedgeshapedbody .
 Thebreedissimi l
artot heSaaneni nstructureandt heToggenburginmarki
ngs.
 Bri
ti
shAlpinesar eblackincol ourandt hecoati sgenerall
yshortfi
neandglossy
.
 Bucksmayhav elonghai r.
 Theyhavewhi teorcr eam mar kinginv ari
ouspar tsofthebody.
 Hornsandt asselsmayormaynotbepr esentatbi r
th.
 Themuzzl eisgenerallysquar i
sh.
 Theyareexcellentforagersandhav egoodj umpingabili
ty.
  Bri
ti
shalpi
nesgenerall
yhavelongl
act
ati
ons.
 Theyproduceanaverageof4kgofmil
kperday.
 Butt
erf
atcontenti
sabout3.8kgandprot
eini
s2.
7kg.

Fi
g.6.
8.3 Br
it
ishal
pinebr
eed.

Fact
orst
hataf
fectt
hechoi
ceofabr
eed
i. Mil
ky iel
d
i
i. Mil
kqual i
ty
ii
i. Personalpreference
iv. Avail
abil
it
yofst ockorsemen
v. Managementandcondi t
ion
vi. Vegetati
on
vi
i. Naturalenemi es
v
ii
i. Envir
onment al condi
ti
ons

Dai
rygoatpr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Aproducti
onsy stem i
saunionorcombi nati
onofthreemaincomponent
swhi
ch
ar
eInputs,conversi
onprocess,andoutputs.
 Goatsarerearedunderfoursystemswhicharetetheri
ngsy
stem,ext
ensi
vegr
azi
ng
sy
stem,int
ensi v
esy st
em andsemi -
int
ensivesy
stem.

A.Ext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Thisiscommonl ypract
icedinmostcommunalareaspart
icul
arl
yinlowrai
nfal
l
areaswherethereisabundantgrazi
ngwit
hli
tt
lecroppi
ngacti
vit
iesandint
he
ranchingar
eas.
 Du ri
ngtheday,goatsar
eher dedandgr
azeonnaturalv
egetat
ionand/orbr
owseon
shrubsorfeedoncr opresi
dues.
 Th efl
ockispennedatnight.

Adv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Goatsfeedonnatur
al vegetat
ionandhaveplent
yofchoice.
2.Goatsselectt
hepasturetheywant.
3.Herdi
ngt hegoat
sprotectsthem fr
om t
heftandpredat
ors.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofext
ensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Cont
rol
l
edbr
eedi
ngmaybedi
ff
icul
t.
2.Thecommunal system exposesgoatstoint
ernalworms,
ext
ernal
par
asi
tesand
otherdi
seases.
3.I
ncreasedchancesoflossandt hef
tsifnotherded.
4.Noteasytoidenti
fyandtreatsi
ckanimals.
5.Offtakei
slow.

B.Tet
her
ingsy
stem
 Thi
sisthemostcommonsystem usedbysmall
holder
s(wit
hlesst
han0.
4Haof
l
and)inZimbabwewhoownlessthan10goatsperfamil
y.
 I
nthissyst
em, t
hegoat
sar
etiedt
oapeg, t
reeorshrub.

Theadv
ant
agesoft
ether
ingsy
stem
1.Reducedani
malst
ray
inganddest
ruct
ionofnei
ghbours’
crops.
2.Goatscanbeti
edi
nanyplacewheret
herei
spastureorinthef
iel
dsaf
tercr
op
harv
est.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
ether
ingsy
stem
1.Grazi
ngisl
imit
edandgoatsareusual
lyunder
fed.
2.Goatsarer
arel
yprovi
dedwit
hadlib(shoul
dbealway
sav
ailabl
e)wat
er.
3.Goatseasi
l
yfallpr
eytost
rayani
mals(notver
ycommonthough).

C.I
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 I
ntensif
icati
onisoftenassociatedwithadecreaseingr azi
ngdependenceandan
i
ncreaseintheuseofconcent ratedfeedtosupplementnat uralf
eeds.
 I
ntensiv
esy stem i
schar act
eri
sedbyahi ghanimal concentrat
ionperuni
tar
ea.
 Goatsareper manentlyhousedandf eedisprovi
ded.
 I
tisasy stem ofchoicefordai
rygoat si
nsomepar t
sofZi mbabwe.
 I
tisrecommendedf orhighl
andar easwher el
andar eacanbeasl owasoneacre
perhousehold.
 Thefoddercouldbegr ownonfarm orcollect
edfrom communal ar
eas.

Adv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Goatsareprotectedfrom har
shenvi
ronmentandf r
om thi
evesandpr
edat
ors(
toa
cert
ainextent)
.
2.Theherdsman/ farmercanengageinotherf
arm acti
vi
ti
esathomesincet
hegoat
s
areconfi
ned.
3.Control
l
edbr eedingcanbeachiev
ed.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
1.Aninappropr
iatesy
stem f
orl
argefl
ocks.
2.Carr
yingoffeedsandwateri
sveryl
abourint
ensi
ve.
3.Goatli
mitedtoeati
ngonlywhati
sprovi
dedanddeniedabi
l
ityt
osel
ectownf
eeds.

D.Semi
-i
ntensi
vepr
oduct
ionsy
stem
 Iti
sami xedfarmingsy stem butt heemphasi si sonliv
estockproducti
on(40%
croppi
ngand60%l i
vest ock).
 Reli
esoncommunal landf orgrazi
ng,animalsar esuppl ement
edwi t
hcropresi
dues
andgrazedonf ar
ml andaf terharvest.
 Herdsaremov edint hedr yseasoni nsearchofwat erandgrazi
ngpasture,l
eavi
ng
someani malsbehindt opr ovi
demi lkf
orthoser emainingonthefarm.
 Producti
onlevel
sar ehi gherthaninpastoralsy stemsbecauset hegoatshavea
mixeddiet.
 Thissyst
em waspr act i
cedbyagr o-
pastoral
ists.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngadai
rygoatpr
oduct
ion
syst
em
 Thereareanumberoffact
orsincl
udi
ngcult
ure,
tradi
ti
on,
landsi
zeandnumberof
goats.
 Th erear
eotherf
act
orsthatcanbeconsi
deredwhenchoosingapr
oduct
ion
system.

1.Pr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
 Onehast oconsi
derthepotenti
alprofi
tabil
it
yoft hedi
fferentsyst
emsof
product
ion.
 Thishastobeconsider
edint hel
ightoflikel
yf ut
uremar kettr
endsrat
hert
hanbase
theesti
matesenti
rel
yoncur r
entmar ketstatus.
 Allt
heotherfact
orswil
laff
ectprofi
tabili
tyofthediff
erentsystems.

2.Pr
edat
ors
 Inpredatorpr
obl
em ar
eas, ki
dlossesarehigh.
 Thereisneedtousebreedswi t
hhighmot heri
ngabil
i
tyf
orkids.
 Int
ensivesyst
emsareideal i
npredatorpr
oblem ar
easbecausei
thasbet
ter
securi
tycomparedt
oot herproducti
onsystems.

3.Per
sonal
pref
erence
 Per
sonal
pref
erenceshoul
dnotov
err
idesoundeconomi
cconsi
der
ati
onsor
 l
imi
tat
ionsoffarm.
 However,
peoplear
emot
ivat
edt
owor
khar
derf
orsy
stemst
heyl
i
keandpr
efer
.

4.Pl
ant
edpast
ures
 Thisincr
easesthecarr
yingcapaci
tyofthefar
m andwidensthechoi
ceof
producti
onsystemstobeconsidered.
 Semi-ext
ensiv
esy st
em i
sidealwherether
eareplant
edpastures.

5.Nat
ural
regi
ons
 I
nnatur
alregi
onIVandVthei
nci
dencesofdr
ought
,ext
ensi
vegoatandsheep
pr
oduct
ionisadv
isabl
e.

Managementpr
act
icesofdai
rygoat
s

1.Dehor
ning

Hoti
ronmet
hod
 Their
oni sheatedbygas,f
ireorelectri
city.
 Theelectr
ici
tyandgasareprefer
redast heyproduceaconstantheat.
 Their
oni sheattoadullgl
ow.
 I
tisappli
edwi t
hcircul
armotionforthreet ofi
veseconds(nottwist
ingmoti
on)
.
 Gui
ll
otinedehornercanbeusedfirstifthebaseoft hehor
nistoowi defort
hei
ron.

Fi
g.6.
8.4 Hoti
rondehor
ningmet
hod

 Forful
ly-
grownhornsasurgi
cal
wi r
eorsawandl ocalanaesthesi
aareused.
 Dehorni
ngshouldtakepl
aceinwinterandusehydrogenperoxidetor
educe
bl
eeding.
 Thedehorningwoundsshoul
dbecheckedr egul
arl
y.

2.Weani
ng
 I
tisthegr
adual
repl
acementofbr
east
feedi
ngwi
thot
herf
oodsandway
sof
nur
turi
ng.
 Thisisdonef ormanyr easonsbutasamanagementt ooliti
sdone:
a.Tor emov ethelactati
onburdenondoes.
b.Tosepar ateanimal si
ntodiff
erentagegroupsforfeeding/supplement
ati
on.
c.Ithelpsi
nv eldmanagementbycont roll
i
ngtheherdsi ze.
 We aningshouldbedonewhent hekidsarehundreddaysol donav erage.
 Th emostcommonweani ngmet hodingoatsiscompletesepar at
ionoftheki
ds
andt hedoes.
 Kidsshouldbev accinatedagai
nstpulpykidney(PK)j
ustbef oreweaningtoavoi
d
stressinducedpul pykidney.

3.Weani
ngmet
hods
 Ther
eisonl
yonemet
hodonweani
ngdai
rygoat
swhi
chi
scompl
etesepar
ati
on.

Compl
etesepar
ati
on
 I
nt hi
smet
hodt
hedoesar
elef
tint
heor
igi
nal
penbutt
heki
dsar
etakent
oaf
ar
pen.

Fi
g.6.
8.5 Compl
etesepar
ati
on

4.Vacci
nat
ions
 Effecti
v eprev enti
onofent er otoxaemi a, pul
pyki dney ,blackleg,tet
anusandot her
cl
ost ri
diainfect i
onsi sachi ev edthroughv accination.
 Previouslyunv accinat eddoesshoul dbegi venani ni
ti
al cour seoftwovaccine
i
njections4t o6weeksapar twhent heyent erthebr eedingf lock,f
oll
owedbyan
annual boost erabout6weeksbef oreki dding.
 Thispr e-ki
ddingboost eral
soensur espassi vepr otectionofki dsupto16weeksof
age.
 Kidsbor ntov accinat eddamsshoul dr eceiveaf irstsensi t
izerdoesatabout8t o12
weeksol d,f
ol l
owedbyasecondboost eratl east4weeksl ater.
 Doescanbei mmuni sedusi ngav accinecont ai
ningki ll
edK99E.col i
,administer
ed
atthesamet imeascl ost
ri
di av accination.

Ki
ds’
management
 Pr
ovi
deadrycleanshelterf
ornew- bor
nkidsandtheirmot hers.
 Di
pnavel
swithiodi
neatbi r
thtostopbacter
iali
nfecti
ons.
 Gi
veki
dsadropofiodineont hetonguetopreventdefi
ciencies.
 Makesur
ethattheki
dsar edryandbondwi ththedoe.
 Ki
dsmustconsumecol ostr
um withinanhourofbeingbornandsuff
ici
entmi
l
kto
 supportthegrowt hofthekid.
 Givekidssupplemental feedfrom amont hold.
 Iti
sessentialt
hataki disallowedt oeatsoli
dfeed.
 Kidscanbei nt
roducedt osol i
df eedatabout2weeksol d.
 Thekidsneedt obesuppl ementeduntilt
heyjoi
ntheflock.
 Freshcleanwat erisveryimpor t
antasisascheduleforv acci
nat
inganddewor
ming
thekid.

Buckmanagement
 Thebuckmustbemanagedandf edsot hatheisheal
thyandablet
owork
eff
ect i
vel
ydur ingthemat i
ngseason.
 Duri
ngt hebr eedingseason, keepar ati
oof1r am ast
o20-30does.
 Replacebuckev eryt
hreey earstopr eventinbreedi
ng.
 Iti
simpor tanttoensurethatt hebuckt haty ouchooseisbri
ngi
ngthecor
rectgenes
i
ntot hefl
ock.
 Useonl ythebestani malsforbr eeding.

Managementofdoes
 I
tisi mpor t
antthateweshav eaccesst ogoodbr owseoragoodnut r
iti
onf r
om
threeweeksbef oremat ingtot woweeksaf termat ing.
 Thi smayr equiresuppl ement ati
onov erthewi nterper i
odt oensur
er easonabl
e
bodycondi ti
on.
 Bodycondi tionscoreofappr oximatelythreewi l
lbei deal f
orthematingseason.
 Minimi sehandlingduringt hemat i
ngseasonandf ortwoweeksaf tertheendofthe
mat i
ngseason.
 Gest ati
oningoat sisappr oxi
mat el
y150day s( 5mont hs)long.
 Makesur ethatthereissuf fi
cientfeeddur i
ngt heear lystage(topr
ev entre-
absor pti
onoft hefoetus)andsuf fi
cientfooddur ingthel astsi
xtoeightweeksof
pregnancy( whent hefoet usisgr owingfast).
 Donotov erf
eedt hemot herasi tmaycausebi rt
hdi ff
iculti
es.

El
ephant
s
 Elephantsar ethelargestlandmammal softhefamilyEl
ephanti
daeandt heorder
Proboscidae.
 Therearet wot ypesofelephantspeci esandt heseareLoxodontaAfr
icana(Afri
can
elephant)andEl ephasmaxi mus(Asianelephant).
 Elephantfallunderthebi gfiveani
mal s.
 Bigfivereferstothef i
vemostdi ff
icultanddanger ousani
malsinAfri
cat ohunton
foot.
 Histori
call
yel ephant
swer enotprotected,t
heyusedt oli
veinthewil
d.
 Howev er,elephantnumber saredecreasingduet omassivepoachi
ng.
 Thiscausedenf orci
ngofr egulat
ionswhichprot
ectselephants.
 Theser egulat
ionsaresetbynat ionswhichhaveel
ephantsandt heinter
nati
onal
communi ty
.
 Exampl esofinter
nat i
onalcommuni ti
esareConventi
ononI nternati
onalTradein
Endanger edspeciesofwildli
fefaunaandf l
ora(
CITES)andI nternat
ionalUnionf
or
Conserv ati
onofNat ure(I
UCN) .
 Elephantisanendanger edanimal (aspeci
esofanimal t
hatisser i
ouslyatri
skof
exti
ncti
on) .

Fi
g.6.
9.1 AnAsi
anEl
ephant

Fi
g.6.
9.2 AnAf
ri
canEl
ephant

Phy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csofel
ephant
s
 Elephant ’
sheadi slar gef orsuppor tingt heheav yt r
unk.
 Mal eel ephant shav eacur vedf oreheadwhi l
efemal esappearsquar erinpr ofil
e.
 Theey esar enor mal l
ygr eenorhazel i
ncol our.
 Theey esar epr ot ect edbyl ongey elashesandt heycanseebesti ndiml ight.
 Elephantski niswr i
nkl edi nappear ance.
 Wr i
nklesactascool ingmechani sm byi ncreasingt heski n’ ssurfacearea.
 Elephant shav espar sehai rdistri
but edunev enl
yont heirbodywi thmostnot iceable
concent rati
onsar oundt heey es,earopeni ngs,chi nandt ail.
 Elephanthasl argeear swhi char eusedf orhear i
ngandt heyhel pinbody
temper at urer egul ation.
 Earscanal sobespr eadwi deasasi gnofi nti
mi datingt heenemywhent hreatened.
 Elephant shav eexcel lenthear ing.
 Theyar eabl et ocommuni cat ewi thot heri ndividualssev eralkilomet r
esaway .
 Theyhav esi xset sofmol arteet hthr oughoutt hei rl
ife.
 Thet usk( ivory )ofel ephanti st heupperi ncisort eethwhi chgr owv erylong.
 Anel ephant 'st runki sext remel yv ersat ileand70%oft heai rthatelephant sbr eat
he
i
si nhaledt hrought het runk.
 Whent het runkhol dswat erordust ,elephant suset heirmout ht obreathe.
 Thet runkcanbeusedt ogi vephy sical communi cationsignal s,breakbr anches
from trees, pluckbundl esofgr ass, suckupandspr aywat erordustov ert hebody .
 Thet runkcont ai nsei ghtmaj ormuscl es.
 Elephantl egshav eboneswhi char epl acedv er
ticallyabov eeachot herformi nga
ri
gidcol umnwhenatr est .
 Thishel pst osuppor ttheani mal '
senor mouswei ghtwi t
houtt her i
skofi tslegs
buckling.
Repr
oduct
ionchar
act
eri
sti
cs
 Elephant sr eproducesl owl ybecauseoft heirl
argesi ze.
 Femal esmat ur eearlythanmal esandf i
rstconcept i
onoccursaround10t o12
year s.
 Mal esr eachpuber t
yar ound15y ears.
 Mal eswi llstartmat i
ngwhent heyar estrongenought ochall
engemat uremales.
 Whent estost eronelev el
sr ise,bul l
sbecomesexual l
yactiv
eandv eryaggressiv
e.
 Thebul lguardst hef emal eagai nstt heappr oachofot hermalesandt hi
sprotecti
ve
behav iourcanl astforaf ewhour sorev ensev eraldays.
 Bullsuset hei rtrunkt osmel lurineorv ulvaofpot enti
almate.
 Ar ecept i
vecowmaywal korev enr unawayf rom theherdifapproached.
 Whenabul l f
inallygetscloseenough, copulati
on, wi
ththebullst
andingonhi shind
l
egs, t
akesl esst hanami nut e.Gest at
ionper i
odisabout22mont hs(650-660
day s).
 Mat ingandbi rthsusual l
yoccurdur i
ngtherainyseason.
 Newbor ncal veswei ghabout120kg.
 Calv esmaysuckl eupt oei ghty ear s.

Behav
iour
alchar
act
eri
sti
cs
 Elephant
sdrinkwaterev er
ydaybuttheycansurviv
ef orsev
eral
dayswit
houti
tin
searchforf
ood.
 Elephant
sarehighlysocialani
malsandt heyl
i
v easaf amil
yorher
d.
 Inwetseasonwhenf oodisabundantthesegroupscomet oget
herandf
orm what
i
sknownasacl ustergroup.
 Ag roupisl
edbyt heoldestfemal
ecal l
edamat ri
archy.

Fi
g.6.
9.3 Amat
ri
archyel
ephantl
eadi
ngt
heher
d.

 Themat ri
archyknowswher etofindfoodandwat er.
 Thegr oupr el
iesont hemat r
iar
chyf orupkeepandsaf ety.
 Domi nancewi t
hinfami l
ygroupsi sbasedonage, sizeandexper ience.
 Mat urefemal eswai tforol dmat r
iarchyt
odiesot hatt heycanlead.
 Elephantsar eherbivor es.
 Theyeatabout200kgperdayofpl antmatt
er.
 Theyi nf
luencet heirhabi tat
/envir
onmentbydi spersingofseedsandcl eari
ngof
undergr owtht hereforepr omotingspeciesregeneration.
 Elephantsar ev er
yint ell
igentandhav easharpmemor ywhichenabl esthem t
o
recogniseeachot herev enanewi ndivi
dualt
hatcomest othegroup.

Habi
tatofel
ephant
s
 El
ephant
soccupydi
ff
erenthabi
tat
srangi
ngf
rom gr
assl
andst
othi
ckf
orest
sas
 l
ongast heyhav eadequatequant i
tiesoff eedandwat er.
 Theirideal habitatisdensef orest sbecauset heyarebulky-mi
xedfeeder s(t
heyeat
vari
etyoff oodi ncl
udinggrasses, l
eav es, fruits,t
reebranchesandbar ks).
 Elephant swi l
ltravelgreatdistancesi nsear chofsui t
ablehabi
tatanddi et.
 Exampl esoft hesehabi t
atsincl udesav anna, woodlandanddeserts.
 Theyf ormr outesorpat hsthatt heycont inuet ofol
lowy earaf
teryearinsearchof
food.
 Nowaday sel ephantsar ekepti nnat ional par ksforprotecti
onagainstpoaching.
 I
ncr easei nhumanpopul at
ionl edt oel ephanthabi t
atdest r
uct
ion.
 Thisr esult
edi nshor tageoff oodsuppl yforel ephants.

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyel
ephant
s

1.I
ll
egalt
rade
 Despi teagl obal CI
TESbanoni nter
nationalsal
esofi vor
y ,
manyel ephantsare
beingki l
ledt omeetagr owingdemandf orivor
yproductsint heFarEast.
 Forexampl einChi na,
elephanttuskiscarvedintosculpturesandusedt omake
otherpr oduct ssuchasmedi ci
ne.
 Thehi ghpr iceofelephant’
stuskisleadingtotheincreasei nnumberofill
egal
poacher s.
 Li
mi tedr esour cescombinedwithremot eandinaccessibleelephanthabi
tatsmake
i
tdi f
ficultforgov er
nmentstomoni torandpr ot
ectelephanther ds.

2.Habi
tatl
ossandf
ragment
ati
on
 Ther eislessr oom forAf ricanelephant sduet oexpansionofhumanpopul ati
onsin
wildli
fear eas.
 Humansar econv erti
ngwi l
dli
fehabi tat
sintoagricul
turall
and, set
tl
ementar easand
otherinfrast ructuredev elopment s.
 Commer ci allogging,plant ati
onsf orbio-f
uelsandext r
acti
vei ndustr
iestheydestr
oy
habitatsandal soopenaccesst or emoteelephantforestsforpoacher s.
 Pov ert
yanddi splacementofpeopl ebycivilorarmedconf l
ictalsoaddt ohabit
at
l
ossandf ragment ati
on.
 Elephant sar eputi ntopr otectedar eastosaf eguardthem from theseharsh
condi t
ions, thoughi thinder stheirfreedom toroam withoutrestri
cti
ons.

3.Human-
elephantconf
li
ct
 Ashabi t
atscontractandhumanpopul ati
onsexpand, peopleandelephantsar
e
i
ncreasingl
ycomi ngintocontactwitheachother.
 Cr
opandot hervil
lageinfr
astr
ucturedamager at
eincreases.
 Thi
sr esult
sinlossoflife(bot
hhumansandel ephants).
 Humansar etr
ampl edbyelephantswhil
etryi
ngt oprotectt
heirpr
operty.
 I
ntur
ntheseel
ephant
swill
beshotdeadbygamer
anger
sbecauset
heywi
l
lbe
r
egar
dedasthr
eatstohumanl
if
e.

Managementpr
act
ices

1.Legi
slat
ionandant
i-poachi
nguni
ts
 CITES, I
UCNandNat i
onal par kst heysetupr egulationswhichpr otectel ephant s.
 CITESi sani nt ernat ional agr eementbet weengov ernmentswhi chwassi gnedi n
1973.
 Itsai mistoensur et hati nt ernat i
onal t
radedoesnotendangersur vi
val popul ations
ofwi l
dli
fespeci es.
 CITEShast hr eeappendi ces( Appendi xI,Appendi xIIandAppendi xI I
I).
 Appendi xIlist sspeci est hatar emostendanger ed.
 Appendi xIIlistsspeci est hatar enotnecessar il
ynowt hreatenedwi thext i
nctionbut
thatmaybecomesounl esst r
adei scont rol
led.
 Elephant swer eputunderAppendi xIIinthel astCopofCI TES.
 Appendi xIIIlistsspeci esi ncludedatt her equestofa“ Party
”t hatalreadyr egul ates
tradei nthespeci esandneedscooper ationofot hercountri
est opr event
unsust ainabl eexpl oitat i
on.
 IUCNi sani nt ernat ional or gani sat i
onwor kingi nthef i
eldofnat ureconser vation
andsust ai
nabl eusesofnat ural resources.
 Itwasf oundedi n1948.
 IUCNai mi st oi nfluence, encour ageandassi stsoci eti
esthroughoutt hewor ldt o
conser vethei nt egrityanddi v ersityofnatureandt oensurethatanyuseofnat ural
resour cesisequi tabl eandecol ogicall
ysust ainable.
 IUCNhasa“ Redl ist ”oft hr eatenedspeci esandel ephantsar efoundi nt hisli
st .
 ZimbabwePar ksandWi ldl i
feManagementAut hor i
ty(ZPWMA)has“ Parksand
Wi l
dl i
feAct .”
 Ifany onev iolet sther egul at i
onst heyar egivenheav ypenalties.
 Nat ionalpar kshav epat rollerswhoar etheret osaf eguardthepar kswi tht heai m
ofr educingpoachi ngr ate.
 ZimbabwePar ksandWi ldl i
feManagementAut hor i
ty(ZPWMA)t rainedr anger s
whohav ether ightt oshootpoacher sinpar kpremi ses.

2.Pr
ovi
sionofar
ti
fi
cialwat
erpoi
ntsandsuppl
ement
aryf
eed
 Art
if
ici
alwaterhol
esareconst
ruct
edsoast
oprovi
dewat
ert
oelephant
sint
imes
ofdroughtordr
yseason.
 I
nsomegamepar kstheypr
ovi
desuppl
ement
aryf
eedtot
heel
ephants.
 Thissaveselephantl
i
vesf r
om deathbydehydrat
ion.
 I
talsoreduceshuman- el
ephantconfl
i
ctbyreduci
ngelephantmi
grat
ionf
rom
protect
edareasinsearchofwater.

3.Useofr
adi
ocol
lar
s
 Aradiocoll
arisusedfortr
ackingthemovementofel
ephantherd.
 Theradiocoll
arshoul
dbeputont hematr
iar
chy.
 Thisaidi
nprotecti
onofelephantsfr
om poacher
sbyranger
ssincetheywi
l
lbe
tr
ackingthemov ement.

4.Popul
ati
oncont
rol
 Elephantpopul ati
oniscontroll
edbydifferentmethods.
 Whent hepopul at
ionexceedsthresholdcont r
acept
ivemethodorcull
ingcanbe
usedt omai ntaincarr
yingcapacity
.
 Co nt
racepti
v emet hodiswhenf emaleel ephantsar
egivencontr
acepti
vepil
l
sto
avoidfert
il
isationofov um aft
ermat i
ng.
 Cu l
li
ngisther emov alofunproducti
veorol danimalsfr
om theherd.
 Ho wever,CITESbannedt hecull
ingmet hod.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Assumey ouaretheHwangeNat ionalgameparkgameparkmanagerandyouhav
e
beenassignedtorepor
ttheissueofhuman-el
ephantconfl
i
cttotheZPWMA
(Zi
mbabwePar ksandWi l
dli
feManagementAut hor
ity
).Composearepor
tand
i
ncludetheprobl
emsandpossi blesuggest
edsolut
ionsinyourr
epor
t.

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1:
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2:
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MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

LI
ONREARI
NG

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
e
t
o:

1.Descr
ibet
hecharact
eri
sti
csoflions.
2.Descr
ibet
hesuit
ablehabi
tatofli
ons.
3.Descr
ibemanagementpract
icesofli
ons.

Li
ons
 Al i
oni soneoft hel argest,strongestandpower ful bigcati ntheFelidaef ami l
y.
 Thesci ent if
icnameofal i
oni sPant heraleo.
 Al i
oni samongt hebi gfiveani mals.
 Bigf iver eferstot hef i
vemostdi f
fi
cultanddanger ousani malsi nAf ri
cat ohunton
foot .
 Av eragel ifespanofl i
onsi nthewi l
dis15t o18y earsandi ncaptivit
yt heymayl iv
e
upt o30y ears.
 Wi l
dl ionsar efoundi nAf ri
caandAsi a.
 I
nEur opet heyar enowconf i
nedi nNat i
onal parks,ZoosandConser vanci es.
 Lionsar ecar nivoreshencet heyeatmeat .
 Theyhuntsmal l ani
mal sliker odentstolargeani mal ssuchast hebuf f al
o.
 Thehunt ingofl i
onsi sdifferentf r
om otherpr edator s.
 Lionsar eambushhunt ersandt heyhavest r
ongbui ltmuscl eswhi chgi vest hem the
abilityt owr estl
eagai nstal argepr ey.
 TheI nter nat i
onal Unionfort heConser vationofNat ur e(
IUCN)l i
stsr egar dsl i
onsas
vulner abl especi es.
 Av ul ner abl especiesi saspeci esthathasbeencat egorizedtheI UCNasl ikel
yto
becomeendanger edunl esst heci r
cumst ancest hatar ethreateningitssur viv
aland
repr oduct ionimpr ove.
 Vul ner abi li
tyismai nlycausedbyhabi tatloss.

Fi
g.6.
10.
1 Amal
eli
on
Fi
g.6.
10.
1 Af
emal
eli
on

Phy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
ions
 Lionshav egoodey esightandt heycanseev erywel l atni ght.
 Whi t
eci rclejustbel owt heey eshel psr eflectl ighti ntot heey est of urtherimpr ov e
nightv i
sion.
 Theyhav eav erygoodsenseofsmel lwhi chmakest hem mar ktheirter r
itori
esby
meansofscentdeposi ts.
 Goodsenseofsmel lalsohel psl ionst of indki l
lsmadebyot herpr edat ors.
 Lionshav eav erygoodsenseofhear ing; theycant ur nt heirear sf r
om si detosi de
tocat chsoundscomi ngf rom anydi rection.
 Thisenabl esthem t ohearpr eyf rom adi st ance.
 Thebodyi scov er edwi thasandybr owncoati nmanysubspeci esbutmayv ary
from whi tetodar kbr own.
 Thecol ouroft hel i
on’ scoatcamouf lageswel lwi tht hei rsur roundings.
 Thishel pst hel i
ongetcl oset ot heirpr eywi thoutbei ngnot iced.
 Lionshav est r
ongmuscl esi nt hei rchest sandf rontl egswhi chenabl est hem to
knockandhol ddownl argeani mal s.
 Power f
ul muscl esandst rongt endonsi nt her earl egspr ovidet remendousl eaping
abil
iti
es.
 Theirpawsar eequi ppedwi thsof tr ubber ypadst omakequi etmov ementandhel p
them t osneakuponpr ey .
 Lionesshasasmal lerandl i
ght erbodywhi chmakest hem f ast er.
 Absenceofl argemanei nl ionessmakesi ti seasi erf orhert ohi deint hegr ass.
 Thecl awsar er et r
act abl eandv eryshar p, ther etract abl efeat urehel pskeept he
clawsshar pandpr ev enti njur ydur i
ngpl ay .
 Thet ailofal ionhasat assel att het ip.
 Thet ailisusedf orbal anceaswel l asameanst osi gnal eachot herdur ingagr oup
huntandcanbeusedasa‘ followme’ signal f
ort hecubs.
 Mat uremal elionhasamanet hatcov erst hebacksi deoft heheadandt he
shoulder s.
 Manemakest hel ionappearl argerandf i
er cert ohi senemi es.
 Primar yroleofmanei sofpr ot ect iondur ingf i
ght sbuti thasbeendi scov eredt hat
femal espr efermal eswi thbi ggeranddar kermane.
 Al i
onhasshar pt eet hwhi chhel pt hem t ohol ditspr ey ,kil
litandcutt hrought ough
skinandt endons.
 Lionsdonothav et eethsui t
abl ef orchewi ngt hust heyswal lowt heirf oodi nchunks.
 Thel i
onhasatl eastni nedi stinctv ocal i
zat ions,incl udi ngaser iesofgr untst hat
servet omai ntaincont actast hepr idemov esabout .
 Lion’sroarser vest oal er tot herl ionsofani ndividual ’spr esence.

Repr
oduct
ionchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
i
ons
 Lionshav enopar t
icularbr eedi ngseason.
 Bot hsexesar epol ygamousbutf emal esar eusual lyrestri
ctedt ooneort woadul t
mat esoft hepr ide.
 Femal esr eachsexual mat urityataboutf oury earsofage.
 Mal el ionsr eachsex ual mat urit
yatar ound26mont hsbutunl ikelytobreedbef ore
theageoff ourorf i
v eduet oal ackofoppor tunitytotakeov erapr ide.
 Birthwei ghtforcubsi sabout1. 5kg.
 Lionessesar epol yoest rous( havingmor et hanoneper iodofoest rusinay ear).
 Whenl ionessisi noest russhemaymat ewi ththemal emor et hant wentytimesa
day .
 Al i
onessi noest r
usi scl oselyf oll
owedbyt hemal esoft hepr i
de.
 Domi nantmal el i
onf ollowst hefemal elionar oundv erycloselyatt hefirstsignsof
oest rusonseti nsteadoff i
ght i
ngt omat ef irst.
 Othermal eskeept heirdi stanceunl esst her eisacl earsizedi fferencethatis,a
l
ar germal emayf i
ghtasmal l
erone.
 Lionessesoest rusl astf orfourt osev enday s.
 Domi nantmal el i
onmayl osei nterestbef oret heendofanoest rusperiod,givi
ng
pat i
entmal esachance.
 Lionessesusual l
yinv i
tecopul ati
onbyl or dosis( excessivecur vatureoft hespineor
l
owerback) .
 Theydonotconcei v eifthel itt
ersur vives.
 Gest at i
onper i
odi sabout110day s.
 Lionessesr et r
eatt oasecl udedar ea( den)t ogiv ebirt
h.
 Av eragel i
tt
ersi zeist hreebutmayr angef rom onet osix.
 Cubsar eintroducedt ot her estofpr ideatsev enweeksofage.
 Cubsar eweanedatsi xmont hsbutr emai nwi ththeirmot herf or20t o24mont hs
butsomemayr eachupt o30mont hs.
 Lev el ofnut ri
ti
oni nfluencesbot hfertili
tyandl it
tersize.
 Femal escanbr eedunt iltheyar e15y ear sol d.

Behav
iour
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
ions
 Lionsar eterr
it
orialanimalswhi chliv
easasoci al gr
oupofupto40l i
ons,cal
leda
pride.
 Ter r
it
or i
esarescentmar kedwi t
hur i
ne,faecesandheadr ubbi
ng.
 Lionscanal soputsi gnswhenmar ki
ngt er
rit
oryf orexamplemarkingtreeswith
theirclaws.
 Thedomi nati
ngmal elionsst andguar dandpr otectthepri
defrom int
ruding
enemi es.
 Lionsar epredators(carnivor
es)andt heyeatany thi
ngtheycatchandki l
l.
 Theyar epri
maril
ynoct urnal.
 Al i
onr oarcanbehear d(about8km away ).
 Roar i
ngi sbeli
evedt ohav eat er
ri
tori
al f
uncti
onandt ohelpani
malsl ocateeach
 other.
 Th eydr
inkfr
eelywhenwateri
savai
labl
e,butt
heycansur
viv
eonl
yont
hewat
er
theygetfrom t
hei
rpreyf
orlongper
iodsofti
me.

Fi
g.6.
10.
3 Li
onpr
ide

 Li
onsspendmuchoft heirtimer esti
ngbuttheycanbeseenv eryactiv
eandplayi
ng
oncool days.
 Femalelionsdoal lt
hehunt ingandwi llof
tenhuntingroups.
 Whenl i
onshuntt heywillbescat ter
ed,iti
srarethatt
heyallareassembleinone
spot.
 Theywillbeinsingleandsmal lgroupsthatchangefrom daytoday.
 Member sofapr idewil
lgr eeteachot herwit
hfri
endlygestur
ebyr ubbi
ngthei
r
headsorev entheirwholebodi esagainsteachother.
 Social
gr oomingisimportantinapr i
de.

Habi
tat
sofl
ions
 Lionshav enospeci f
ichabi t
atpr efer
encesot heycanbeencount eredanywhere.
 Lionsusual l
ypref ertoli
v einhabi t
atsthathavegrassessot hattheycan
camouf lagewel l forambushi ngpr ey.
 Theypr eferopensav annasot hattheycanchaset hei
rpreywi t
houtany
disturbances.
 Lionsar ef oundinar easwi t
hdensegr assesbecauseofthepr esenceofthei
rprey
(herbivor es).
 Thesehabi tatsi
ncl udeopenpl ains,woodlands,t
hickbushesandsemi deser
t.
 Thecol ourandt hehunt ingt echniquesoflionsaremoresuccessf uli
nlonggrass
andt hickbush.
 Theywi lltrytost alkthepr eyusingt hecov ert
heyhaveav ai
l
able.

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyl
ions

1.Lossofhabi
tatandnat
uralpr
ey
 Li
onsarel osi
ngthei
rhabi
tatduetotheexpansi
onofhumanact
ivi
ty(
pri
mar
il
y
agr
icul
ture)andhumansettl
ement.
 Li
ons’preyspeci
esarealsobeinghunt
edforhumanconsumpti
on.

2.Conf
li
ctswi
thhumansandl
iv
est
ock
 Li
onsar
eal
sohunt
edf
orspor
t(t
rophy
)andper
secut
edasapr
edat
orwher
ethey
 comei
ntoconf
li
ctwi
thdomest
iccat
tl
eher
ds.

3.Unsust
ainabl
etr
ophyhunt
ingandt
radei
nli
onpar
ts
 Lionsarebeingunsust
ainabl
yhunt
edforsportortr
ophy.
 Somel ionpart
shaveahugepr i
cei
nthemar kett
heref
orecausi
ngr
isei
ndeat
hs
throughpoaching.

4.Di
seaseandcl
i
mat
echange
 Epidemi
cdiseaseri
sksforanimalsli
vingi
nfragment
edsmallpopulat
ionsarehigh
becauseoffr
equentcontactwit
hhumansanddomest icani
mal popul
ations.
 Cli
matechangeiscausinganincreaseinpat
hogenshencei
ncreaseindiseases.

5.I
nbr
eedi
ngdepr
essi
on
 Thereisar
iskofinbr
eedingwit
hinfr
agmentedli
onpopul
ati
onsandi
tisa
fundament
alprobl
em inconser
vati
onbi
ology.

Managementpr
act
ices
 Li
onscanbedr i
venandkepti nNat ionalparksandconservanci
es.
 I
ntheseareasl i
onsar emoni t
or edwi thvari
ousmanagementpr acti
ces.
 Thesemanagementpr act
icesi nclude:
a.Setti
ngofant i-
poachinguni ts.
b.Provi
sionoff oodandwat eri
ndr oughtoutbreaks
c.Captivebreedingandi nterventionofv et
eri
narydoct
orsincasesofdi
sease
outbreaks.

1.Cul
li
ng
 Thisistheremov
al orkil
l
ingofal lunpr
oducti
veandproblemati
cani
mals.
 Li
onscancausepr oblemsi nthecommuni tybyatt
ackinghumansandtheir
l
ivestock.
 I
fal i
oncausesuchpr oblems,itshouldbekil
l
edbyt heZimbabweparksand
wildl
i
femanagementaut horit
y.

2.Capt
ivebr
eedi
ng
 Li
onsarebredi
ngamepar
ksandpr
ivat
ereser
vesot
hatwecani
ncr
easet
hei
r
popul
ati
on.
Act
ivi
ty
 “Femal
eli
onsar
emoreimport
antt
hanmaleli
ons.
”Div
ideyourcl
assi
ntot
woand
debat
eonthi
sstat
ementcl
ear
lyj
usti
fyi
ngy
ouranswers.

LEOPARD

 Al eopar disal ar
gesolitarycatt hathasaf awnorbr owncoatwi thblackspots.
 Leopar dsar enativetothef or estsofAf r
icaandAsi abutpopul ationshavebecome
reducedandi solated.
 Al eopar disanani malwi t
hanel ongat edbody ,rel
at i
vel
yshor tlegsandal ongt ai
l
.
 Itbelongst othegenusPant her aandi smemberoft heFeli
dae.
 Thesci entifi
cnameofal eopar di sPant herapar dus.
 Accor dingtot heInter
nat i
onal Unionf orConser vationofNat ure(IUCN) ,l
eopards
hav east atusofbei ngvulner able.
 Itmeanst hatleopardsar elikelyt obecomeendanger edunlesst hecircumstances
thataret hreateningit
ssur vival andr eproduct i
oni mprove.
 Itfall
sundert he‘ bi
gfive’whi chr eferst othef i
vemostdi ffi
cul tanddanger ous
animal sinAf r
icat ohuntonf oot .
 Theyar enoteasyt oconf inei nNat ional parksandconser vanci esbecauset heyare
solit
aryani mals,mostoft hem ar eoutoft hepr otectedareas.

Fi
g.6.
11.
1 ALeopar
d

Phy
sicalchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
eopar
ds
 Thel eopar disthemostadapt ableofallthewi l
dcatsandhast hewi dest
distri
bution.
 Al eopardhav eamassi veskul l,l
ongcani neteethaswellaspower fuljaws, neck
andshoul dermuscl es.
 Leopar dhasshor tmuscul arlegst hatall
owsi ttoki
l
l medium si
zedant elopeand
aidincar ryi
ngt hecarcassupat reetokeepitawayf rom otherpredator s.
 Thesof tcoatv ar
iesfrom apal eyell
owt oadeepgol denbr own(thecol our
variati
onsar ecausedbydi fferenthabitatsofleopar
ds)andhasapat t
er nofbl ack
rosettes.
 Thecol ourhel psthel eopardtocamouf lagewi t
htheenv i
ronmentitinhabi ts.
 Thishel pst oambushpr eydur inghuntingandal sotohidef r
om enemi es.
 Thehead, bel lyandl owerl imbsar espot tedwithsol i
dbl ack.
 Theyhav et wobl ackst ripesont hel owerneckabov ethechest( cal
ledt
henecklace)
whichi suni quet oeachi ndi vidual ani mal.
 Thel eopar dhasal ongt ail,spottedf orhalfofit
sl ength, withblackbandstoward
theend.
 Thel ongt ail hel pst hel eopar dwi t
hbal ancewheni ti
sr unning.
 Thet ailiswhi teunder neat htoenabl ei ttobeusedasav isualaidwhencubsar e
fol
lowi ngthei rmot her .
 Thecl awsar er et r
act abl eandper manent lysharp.
 Ther etractabl ef eat urepr otectst hecl awsf rom damageandal sotheywil
lremain
shar p.
 Thecl awsoft heAf ricanl eopar dar ecr ooked,helpingt hem t oholdontotheirpr
ey
andt ocl i
mbt rees.
 Thest rongmuscl esi nt hel egsofal eopar dhelpthem t orunatspeedsofupt o
58km t o60km perhour .
 Theycanal soseaml esslyl eapv erti
cal l
yupt o3m i ntotheai rtocatchbir
dsand
horizont all
yupt o6m t ocr ossobst acles.
 Leopar dshav easpeci al adapt edr etinawhi chgivesi tabet tervisi
onthanother
cats.
 Theirhear ingandsenseofsmel lareal sohighlydev elopedwhi chenablesthe
l
eopar dt ot rackpr ey .

Bi
ologi
calchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
eopar
ds
 Leopar dsar edifferentf rom ot hercat sthathavebr eedingseasons.
 Theydonothav erepr oduct iv
e( breeding)season, theybr eedallyearroundbut
peaksdur i
ngt her ainyseason.
 Femal esusual lygivebi rthonceev ery15-24mont hs.
 Thegest ationper iodofl eopardsi sappr oximatelythreemont hs.
 Thef emal el eopar dt ypicallygivesbi rt
ht oali
ttersizeofbet weent woandt hr
ee
cubsi naden.
 Thecubsar ebor nbl i
ndandal mosthai rl
ess,theywei ghanav erageofhalfa
kil
ogram.
 Whent hecubsar ebor nt heyar ehiddeni ndensebush, rockcleftsorholl
owtr ee
tr
unks.
 Thecubswi l
lvent uref r
om hi dingaf tersixtoeightweeks, bythattimetheyareable
tocli
mbt r
ees.
 Thecubsar eweanedatt hreemont hsbutwi l
lstaywi ththemot herfort
hefir
st22
mont hs.
 Theywi l
lst artmat ingwhent heyar eaboutt woort hreey earsofage.
 Themot hermaycont inuet oshareki ll
swi t
hherof f
springunt i
ltheybecomet otal
ly
self
-sufficient.
 Cubsar egi vensol idfoodwhent heyar eaboutsi xweeksol d.
 Leopardsarepromi scuousasbot hmalesandfemaleshav emul t
ipl
emates.
 Afemal el
eopardonheatat tractsmalesbyexcret
ingpheromonesi nheruri
ne.
 Maleleopardandfemal el eopardonlystayt
ogetherduri
ngmat ingandtheyeven
sharefood,af
tersev er
al daystheygoont hei
rseparat
eway s.
 Ma l
eandf emalewei ghtsdiffer,21-
60kgand36-75kgrespecti
vely.
 Leopardscanliv
ef orupt o15y earsi
nthewil
dand23y earsincapti
vit
y.

Behav
iour
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofl
eopar
ds
 Afri
canl eopar dsar esol itar ycat sandt heyar eusual lyseent oget herwi t hanot her
l
eopar ddur ingt hemat i
ngseasonori ncasesofaf emal ewi t
hhercubs.
 Leopar dsar et er ri
tor i
al cat sandt het errit
or yofamal eof tenov erlapst hatof
sever al f
emal es.
 Theymar kt hei rter r
itoriesusi ngcl awmar ks, scatandur i
nespr aying.
 Theirt erritor i
escanal sov ar yi nsi zef rom 10squar eki lomet r
est osev er al hundred
squar eki lomet res.
 Amal ewi lldef endhi ster ritor yagai nstot hermal esbutwi l
l sharet er ri
t or ywi t
h
femal es.
 Leopar dscansur vivef orl ongper iodswi t
houtdr i
nki ngwat er,sat i
sf y i
ngal ltheir
moi stur eneedsf rom t hei rpr ey .
 Mal eandf emal eleopar dsar ev erydi fficultt odisti
ngui shbutusual lyt hemal e
l
eopar dswei ghmor eandhav eal argerbodyt hanf emal e.
 Leopar dsar enoct urnal, hunt i
ngbyni ghtwhi l
espendi ngmostt hedayr esting,
usual l
ydr apedont r
eel imbsorl yingi nt hickunder gr owt h.
 Theyar edi ff i
cul tt oseeort oi dent if
yonebecauset heyar eact i
v edur ingt heni ght.
 Oncedar knessset si n,leopar dsmov ear oundf r
om t imet ot i
meunt i
ldawn.
 Aleopar di sacar nivorehencei thunt sandki llsotherani mal sforf ood.
 Theycanhuntsmal l animal sl iker odent supt orelat i
vel ymedi um si zedant elopes
l
ikei mpal as.
 Adul tleopar dsar ev eryshy , sol i
tar yandt er r
itori
alandwi l
lonl yassoci at elong
enought omat e.
 Despi tebei ngsol i
tar yani mal s, l
eopar dshav estrongmat ernal bonds.
 Leopar di sav er ysi l
entcr eat ureandoccasi onallyemi tsacough- l
ikecal l.
 Thel eopar di scl assi callyf elinei ni tshunt ingbehav iour ,speci alizingi nambushi ng
andst alkingi t
spr ey ,thenpounci ngbef or ethev icti
m canr eact.
 Withi tsheadl ow, l
egsbentandbel l
ynear lytouchi ngt hegr ound, al eopar dwi llt
ry
tost alkt owi thint hr eet ot enmet er sbef or epounci ng.
 Ifi
tmi sses, itwi llsel dom chasei tspr ey .
 Afterasuccessf ulpounce, thel eopar dpar alysesitspr eywi thabi tet hr ought he
backoft heneckt hatdamagest hespi nal cor dandt henst rangl est hev icti
m wi th
i
tspower f
ul jaws.
 Usual lyt heki ll i
st hent akenbyt heneckanddr aggedt osaf ety,awayf rom ot her
predat ors.
 Leopar
dsoftenstor
etheirki
ll
sintrees,outoft
her
eachofl
i
onsandhy enas.
 Leopar
dsarerenownedfortheirst
rengthandcanhaul
acarcassofatl
eastt
hei
r
ownweightupthevert
icaltr
unkofat ree.

Habi
tatofLeopar
ds
 Leopardsar ecat swhichcanadaptt oanyenv ir
onmentt heref
oretheycanli
vein
almostanyt y
peofhabi t
at.
 Usuallyleopardsaref oundinar easwi thmanyt r
eesandr ocksthathavecaves.
 Theyliket ospendmostoft heirt i
mei ntreesbecauset heyambushpr ey.
 Theyal sotaket hei
rfoodupi ntr eest oavoidscav engersl
ikehyenasandli
ons.
 Leopardsl i
ket obaskt heinsunsousual lyitisfoundonr ockssleepi
ngaswel l
baskingi nthesun.
 Thesehabi tatsincl
uder ainfor
est s,woodl ands,forest
s,mountainhabi
tat
s,coastal
scrubs, shr
ubl andsandswampyar eas.
 Leopardsl i
veinmor epl acesthananyot herlargecat .

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyl
eopar
ds

1.Spor
thunt
ing
 Leopardshavelongbeenhuntedfortheirt
rophyorsof tfur
.
 Theirski
nisusedt omakecoatsandcer emonialrobes.
 Leopardsarealsobeinghunt
edfortheircl
aws, whiskersandt
ail
swhi
char
e
popularasfet
ishes.

2.Human-
leopar
dconf
li
ct
 I
faleopar
dhasahabitatcl
osewi
thhumansettl
ement s,
theymaypr eyonl i
vest
ock.
 Peopl
eandfarmer
sintheareawi
l
lret
ali
ateandkil
lthebigcatsinretr
ibut
ionorwil
l
at
tempttoext
ermi
natethem i
nor
dertoprev
entli
vestockkil
l
ings.

3.Habi
tatl
oss
 I
ncreasei
nhumanpopul at
ionisl
eadingtoariseinforestdest
ruct
ioni
nordert
o
i
ncreasel
andforf
armingandbuildingofi
nfr
astruct
ure.
 Thi
siscausi
nghabit
atloss,habi
tatfr
agmentati
onandr educedpreybase.
Managementpr
act
ices

1.Communi
tybasednat
ural
resour
cemanagement
 Communi t
ieswhichhavel
eopardsaroundthem shouldbeengagedandbegivena
chancetomanaget her
esour
cest hatt
heyhav e.
 Thiswil
lenabl
ethesecommunitiestohavedirectbenef
it
softhenat
ural
resource
hencetheywil
lseethei
mportanceofleopards.

2.Capt
ivebr
eedi
ng
 Leopardsar
ebeingtakent
oprotectedar
easf
orbr
eedi
ngandr
etur
nedbacki
nto
thewil
d.
 Thishelpsi
nincr
easi
ngthei
rpopulati
on.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Goandr
esear
chonCommunityBasedNatural
Resour
cesManagementi
n
Zi
mbabweandcr
it
ical
l
yanal
yseit
sexist
ence.

Buf
fal
orear
ing
 Buffaloesar elargemember soft heBov i
daef ami lyandar eoneoft hemost
successf ul grazer si nAf ri
ca.
 Theyar ebov inesj ustl i
kecat tlebutt heyliveint hewi ld.
 Abuf falo’ssci entificnamei sknownasSy ncer uscaf fer.
 Buffalosubspeci esdi fferwithcount ryandr egiont heyi nhabit.
 Souther nAf ricahasSav annabuf falo(Syncer uscaf fer ¬caff
er )andFor estbuffal
o
(Syncer uscaf fernanus) .
 Othersubspeci esi ncludeWestAf ri
cansav annabuf falo(Syncer uscaffer
brachy ceros) ,cent ralAf ri
cansav annabuf fal
o( Sy ncer uscaf feraequinoctial
is)and
souther nsav annahbuf falo(Sy nceruscaf fercaf fer).
 Abuf falof all
sundert hebi gfiveani malsi nAf ri
ca.
 Bigfiver eferst ot hef ivemostdi ff
icultanddanger ousani mal sinAfri
cat ohunton
foot.
 Buffaloeswer edr i
v enint oprotectedar east or educespr eadofdi seasest ocattl
e,
toreducehuman- wildli
feconf li
ctsandt oaddr esst hei ssueofhabi t
atloss.
 Buffaloesl iveasl argeher dwhi chcompr i
sesofdomi nati
ngbul ls,br
eedingfemal es
andj uveniles.
 Buffaloesar ef oundi nlargenumber sall overAf ricaandAsi asot heyar eofleast
concer naccor dingt oIUCNst atuses.
Fi
g.6.
12.
1 AnAf
ri
canbuf
fal
o

Phy
sical
char
act
eri
sti
csofbuf
fal
oes
 Buff aloesar eext remel yl ar geani mal s.
 Bothsexescar ryhor nswhi char ehookshapedcur vingdownwar dsfrom t he
ori
gi nal skullbef orecur li
ngupwar dsandi nwar ds.
 I
nmal es, t
hehor nscangr owupt o1. 5m.
 Thehor nshel pthebuf f aloesi ndef encewhenf ightingandt heyarecalledt heboss.
 Buff aloesv aryconsi der abl yi nsize, withsomeoft hef orestbuf fal
oeshal fthesize
ofthosef r
om t hepl ainsandsav annah.
 Buff aloessuppor ttheirl argebodi eswi t
ht heirheav ylegs.
 Fronthoov esar el argert hant hehi ndbecauseoft heext ramasst heycar r
yi nthe
hugeheadandt hickneck.
 Africanbuf faloeshav eat hi ncov er i
ngofshor thairwhi chf adeswi t
hage.
 Adul tsav annahbuf faloesar eext remel ydarkbr ownorbl ack.
 Mal esar etypicallydar kert hanf emal es.
 Oldmal esav annahbuf fal oesmaydev elopgr izzledwhi tepat chesaroundt heeyes
andf orestbuf faloesar et ypicallyr edt or eddishbr own.
 I
nal lbuf f
alosubspeci es, thebodyi sbar rel-
shapedandt hechesti swi dewhi ch
gi
v est hem powert otheupperbodywhenf ighting.
 Thel ongt ailhasat ermi nal tassel wi thlongerhai r
swhi chcanbeusedt oswat
awayf li
esf r
om i tsbody .
 Apar tf r
om t hehor ns, themostdi st inguishingchar acteront heheadar et hel ar
ge,
droopyear swhi char ef ringedwi t
hl onghai ront heedges.

Bi
ologi
cal
char
act
eri
sti
csofbuf
fal
oes
 Buf fal
oesmaybr eedthroughoutthey earbutbi rthst endt
obeseasonal where
rainfal
l i
sl i
mited.
 Themal ebuf faloesar esoaggr essiv
edur i
ngt heper iodofmat ingduetohighlevel
s
oft estosterone.
 Mal esdet ectfemal esonheatbysni ffi
ngatt hei rurine.
 Onl ydomi natingmal esmat ewiththef emalesonheat .
 Thegest ati
onper iodofbuf f
aloesisappr oximat ely340day slong,aft
erwhicha
singlecal fi
sbor n.
 Av eragebi r
thwei ghtsforthespeciesar earound40kg.
 Cal vesshar east rongbondwi ththei
rmot hers.
 Femal ebuf faloespr ot
ecttheiri
nfantev enwhendi r
ectlyt
hreatenedbyapr edator
.
 Cal vesareweanedatar oundsixmont hsofage.
 Theyr eachsexual maturi
tybetween3. 5-5year sofage.

Behav
iour
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofbuf
fal
oes
 Sav annahbuf f
al olivei nlargeher dsof50t o500ormor eani mals.
 Ther ear eanumberofsmal lersoci al gr oupsmadeupofsev er
al f
emal esandt heir
mostr ecentof fspr i
ng( upt ot woy ear sofage)wi thint heher d.
 Femal eshav east rongbond.
 Allani mal sint heher dr espondt odist resscal ls, especi allythosemadebycal v
es.
 Thiscohesi onpr ov i
despr otect ionf orweakenedi ndivi
dual ssucht hatblind
buffal oesandt hr ee-leggedi ndi v i
dual sar eabl et osur vi
v einaher dset t
ing.
 Bachel orgr oupsofupt otwel vemal esar ef oundwi thi
nt heher dsubst r
uct ure,
alongwi thgr oupsofsi mi l
arly -
agedj uveni l
esandol dmal esmaybesol itary.
 Forestbuf faloar ef oundi nsmal lergr oupst hant heirsav annahr elat
ives, usual
ly
with8t o20r elatedi ndi vi
dual s.
 Groupsr emai nat tachedt otr aditi
onal rangesev enwhencondi tionschange.
 Sav annahbuf f
al oar eact ivet hroughoutt heday ,spendi ng18hour sperdaymov i
ng
andf or agi ng.
 Grazi ngoccur sast heher dsmov e,al t
houghf eedi ngi smostf r
equenti nt helat
e
afternoonandev eni ng.
 Buf faloesusual lydr i
nkwat eri nt hemor ningandatdusk.
 Dur i
ngt hehot testt imeoft heday ,herdst ypicallyr estandr uminate.
 Theypr ef err estingi nt heopenr athert hani nshade.
 Buf faloesswi t
chf rom cont inuousgr azi ngt oni ght -
timef oraginginar easwher e
therear ehi ghhumandi sturbances.
 Buf faloesusemudwal lowsf requent ly.
 Mudser v est ocool t
heani mal s.
 Mudf or msapr otect i
vecr ustwhendr iedhencedi scour agi nginsectbi t
es.
 Africanbuf falohav easy mbi ot i
cr elationshi pwi thbi rdsl ikeox- peckersandcat t
le
egret s.
 Thesebi rdsr emov ebi tingandsucki ngi nsect sf rom buf f
al oes’skin.

Habi
tatofbuf
fal
oes
 Buffaloesinhabitawi derangeofhabi t
atsacrossAf ri
ca.
 Theymost l
ypr eferhabit
atswi t
hdensev egetati
onespeci all
ygrassessi ncethey
areher bi
vores.
 Buffaloesalsopr eferthi
ckforestswit
hpl acesthattheycanhi def r
om pr edators
l
ikel i
ons.
 Theyar ewat erdependedsot heyusuall
yinhabitinplaceswi thgoodwat ersource.
 Buffaloesarehoof edani malshencetheyl i
keahabi t
atwi thgentl
esl ope.
 Exampl esoft hesehabi t
atsaresavannahgr assl
ands, woodlandmosai csand
forest.
 Theyseekoutgl ades( openspaceinwoodsorf orest)wher epossible.
 Forestbuffaloesar efoundinswampyj ungle,
primaryrainforestandsecondar y
-
growt hfor
est s.
 Forestbuffaloesmost l
yforageingrassyglades,alongwat ercoursesandi n
wat er
loggedbasi ns.

Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyBuf
fal
oes
1.Human-
buf
fal
oconf
li
ct
 Buf
faloesareknownt obreakfences,rai
dcul
ti
vat
edcr
opsandev
enspr
eadi
ng
di
seasest ol
iv
estock.
 I
nturn,probl
ematicbuff
aloesarekil
led.

2.Habi
tatf
ragment
ati
on
 Buf
fal
o’spopul
ationi
sthr
eat
enedbyhabi
tatf
ragment
ati
onduet
oincr
easei
n
humanpopulat
ion.

3.Hunt
ing
 Buff
aloesareprey
soflionsandcrocodil
es,
whichtypi
call
yattackoldsol
it
ary
ani
mal sandyoungcalves.
 Buff
aloescanalsobehuntedbyprofessi
onalhunt
ersforthei
rtrophi
es.
 I
ll
egalhunter
smayal sokil
lbuf
fal
oesformeatortrophy.

Managementpr
act
icesofbuf
fal
oes
1.Legi
slat
ion
 Buf
fal
oesareprot
ectedbytheZi
mbabwePar ksandWil
dli
feManagement
Aut
hori
ty(
ZPWMA) .
 ZPWMAh asregul
ati
onsthatpr
otectbuf
fal
oesfr
om poacher
sandil
legal
hunt
ers.

2.Pr
ovi
sionoff
oodsuppl
ement
s
 I
ndroughtper
iods,
buff
aloesar
epr
ovi
dedwi
thf
oodsuppl
ement
ssuchasgame
nut
s,gameblocksandhay.

3.Cul
l
ing
 Cul
l
ingi
stheremovalofol
dandunproducti
veani
mal
s.
 Cul
l
ingai
dincont
roll
i
ngbuffal
opopulat
ions.

4.Pr
ovi
sionofar
ti
fi
cial
wat
erpoi
nts
 Ar
ti
fi
cial
water
holesareconstr
uctedforpr
ovi
sionofwateri
ndroughtper
iods.
 Pr
ovi
sionofwaterai
dsinreduci
nglongdist
ancewalksofbuff
aloesi
nsearchof
wat
er.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Asanenv i
ronment
alof
fi
cerwr
it
ear
epor
tonhowt
oaddr
esshuman-
buf
fal
o
conf
li
ct.

Rhi
nocer
osr
ear
ing
 Ar hi
noisal arge,heav il
ybuiltplant-eatingmammal withoneortwohor nsont he
noseandt hickf ol
dedski n.
 Rhinocerosesar eamongstt hel argestofal ll
andani mal s
 Theyar eclassi f
iedundermegaher biv
or es.
 Theyar enat iv
et oAf ri
caandsout hernAsi a.
 Therear etwospeci esofAf r
icanr hinocer oswhi char etheblackrhi
no(Diceros
bicor
nis)andwhi t
er hinos(Cer atotherium simum) .
 Ar hi
noisoneoft hebi gfiveani mal s,
bi gfivereferstot hefiv
emostdi f
fi
cultand
dangerousani malsinAf r
icat ohuntonf oot.
 Rhinoswer eoncei nt hewi l
dbutduet omassi vepoachi ngtheyarenowmoni t
ored
andpr otectedi nnational parksandconser vancies.
 Rhinosar erareandendanger edspeci eshencet heyhav especi
alat
tenti
onbecause
theyareatr iskofex tincti
on.
 Rhinoshav ehor nswhi chhav eagr eatmar ketinMi ddleEastandAsia.

Fi
g.6.
13.
1 Bl
ackr
hino

Fi
g.6.
13.
2 Whi
ter
hino

Convent
iononInt
ernati
onal
TradeinEndanger
edSpeci
es
(CI
TES)li
sti
ngofAfri
canrhi
nocer
oses
 TheConv ent i
ononI nternationalTradeinEndanger edSpeciesofWi l
dFaunaand
Flor a(CI
TES)i sani nt
ernat i
onal tr
eaty.
 CITEShast hr eeappendi ceswhi chituses.
 Itwassi gnedby145count r
iesai medatpr ot
ectingwi ldl
i
feandpl antpopulat
ions
from decl i
net hr oughunsust ainableint
ernati
onal trade.
 Itpr ovi
desf ort hemoni tori
ngandr egulat
ionoft radeinspeciesl i
stedini
ts
appendi ces.
 Appendi xIlistsspeci est hatar emostendanger edandCI TESpr ohibi
ts
i
nt ernati
onal commer cial t
radeoft hesespecies.
 Rhi nocerosar el istedinAppendi xIbecauset heyar econsideredasmost
endanger edspeci es.
 Appendi xIIlistsspeci esthatar enotnecessar i
lynowt hr
eatenedwi thext
inct
ionbut
thatmaybecomesounl esst radeiscontroll
ed.
  Appendi
xI I
Ili
stsspeciesincl
udedatt
herequestofa“ Par
ty”thatal
readyregul
ates
tr
adeinthespeciesandneedscooperati
onofot hercount
riestoprevent
unsust
ainableexpl
oitati
on.

Tabl
e6.
13.
1Di
ff
erencesbet
weenbl
ackandwhi
ter
hino.
Whiter hi
no Blackr hi
no
-Ithassquarelipsforgr i
pingandteari
ng -Ithashookl i
keli
psf orholdi
ngand
grasswhenf eeding. gr
abbingbranchesforleaves.
-Iti
ssubstant i
all
ylargerandlongerinsize-I
tissli
ghtl
ysmallerandshor t
erthana
thanablackr hi
no. whit
erhino.
-Awhi t
erhinoi sagrazer . -Ablackrhi
noisabr owser.
-Ithasver
yl ongandt ubul
arears. -I
thassmal l
erandrounderear s.

Phy
sical
char
act
eri
sti
cs
 Allrhinoseatpl antmat t erabsol utely,theirlipsandt eethar eadapt edtot aki
ngand
breakingdownv egetation.
 Whi terhinosar eknownasgr azer swi t
hwi deandsquar eli
pssui tabl ef
oreating
grass.
 Blackr hinosar ebrowser sandt heyf oragewi t
ht hehelpofhook- lippedl i
pswhich
graspbr anchesandt wi gs.
 Rhinosusual l
yhav egreyski nthoughi ndi vi
dual shadet osomeext entdependson
soilcondi t
ionswher et heyl iv eandgr aze.
 Rhinoscangr owupt oashoul derhei ghtofabout1. 4m t o1. 8m,wi ththeheadto
tai
llengt hbei ngar ound4. 2m.
 Maler hinosar elargerthant hef emal er hinos.
 BothAf r
icanr hi
noshav et wohor ns,thel argestandpr ominenthor ni stowardsthe
endoft henose.
 Thesehor nsar enotmadeofbones.
 Thehor nsar ecomposedofker atin.
 Theyhav ear obust ,
cylindr i
cal bodywi t hal argehead.
 Despi tet heirgreatsize, rhinosr unv eryqui cklyforupt o48km/ h.
 Theyhav eshor tlegsandshor ttail.
 Rhinoshav etoughski nwhi chi swhyt heyar esomet imesr eferr
edt oas
pachy der ms.

Bi
ologi
cal
char
act
eri
sti
cs
 Whit
erhinoshavepoorey
esight.
 Whit
erhinonoseisal
waysont hegroundanditsearsar
ehugel
yimport
antt
oits
ov
erall
awarenessandsafety.
 Whit
erhinohasveryl
ong,tubul
arearsthatf
unnelsoundi
nanditswi
vel
stheears
 i
ndependent lylikelitt
lesatelli
tesev endur ingrest.
 Thebl ackr hinoear s,eyesandnosear ehighint heairmostofthetimemeaningit
i
sl essdependentonj ustoneofi tssenses.
 Blackr hinoear sar emuchsmal l
erandr ounderi nshape.
 Rhinof emal esr eachsexual mat urit
yat4t o5y ears.
 Theyusual l
yhav etheirfi
rstcal fatar ound7y earsofage.
 Mal esmayst artmat i
ngat10- 12y earsofage, theagewhi chtheycanbeableto
cl
ai m at errit
ory .
 Rhino’sl ifespanr angesf rom 35- 50y ears.
 Dur i
ngcour tship, confli
ctsov eraf emal emayr esul ti
nthedeathofoneofthe
compet ingmal es.
 Breedi ngoccur st hroughoutt hey ear.
 Thegest at i
onper i
odi sbet ween419and478day s.
 Anav eragecal v ingintervalis2. 5-3.5y ears.
 Blackr hinosweanatar oundei ght eenmont hsofage.
 Whi ter hinocalv esbegi ngr azingatt womont hsandt heyareweanedaround12
mont hsol d.

Behav
iour
alchar
act
eri
sti
cs
 Rhinosar esoli
taryani malsandbot hmal esandf emal esestablishterr
itor
ies.
 Theydonotdev elopcl osebondsot hert hanbet weenamot herandhercal f.
 Whi t
erhinocerosmayl i
veingr oupsofupt o10ani mal s.
 Blackrhinoshav eal way shadar eputat i
onf orbei
ngmor eaggr essiv
eandcur ious
thanthewhi terhino.
 Rhinosusual l
ybr owsef orfoodatdawnanddusk.
 Femal eblackrhinost endt osleepl esst hant hemalesbyal mosthal ft
het i
me.
 Rhinoshav easy mbi oticrelat
ionshi pwi tht hetickbir
ds.
 Rhinosusual l
yof tenf ightwi t
heachot her .
 Rhinof i
ghtsusual lyar egenderspeci ficmeani ngmal esonlyf i
ghtmal esand
femalesonl ywithf emal es.
 Rhinosuset heirhor nsnotonl ywhenf i
ght ingforterr
itoryormat esbutalsoin
defendingthemsel vesf rom pot enti
al predat orssuchasl ionsandt i
gers.
 Rhinosar ehighlyaggr essiv
eani malsespeci al
l
yblackr hi
nos.

Habi
tatofr
hinos
 Preferredhabi tatvari
esdependi ngont hespeci esbuti trangesfrom savannahs,
grasslandpl ai
ns,wetlandsanddensef orestsint het r
opical r
egions.
 Howev er,themaj ori
tyoft hem l
iveinsav annahsandar eascov er
edingrassand
smal l
t reesandbushescal l
edshr ubland.
 Rhinospr eferareasli
ket hesebecauset heywi l
l hav eenoughf ood.
 Rhino’spr imarymet hodofmar kingterri
toryi
sscr appingi t
slargefeetacrossthe
ground.
 Theycanal sousepungentur i
net omar ktheout sideedgesofabul l
’
shomet urf
.
Pr
obl
emsf
acedbyRhi
nocer
os
1.Humanandwi l
dli
feconfl
ict
2.Excessivepoaching
3.Trade
4.Habitatchanges
5.Decli
ninggov er
nmentr esour
cesf
orr
hinoconser
vat
ion.

Managementpr
act
icesofr
hinocer
os
1.Awar
enesscampai
gns
 Organi
sati
onsli
keAf r
icanWildl
if
eFoundationworkswithotherconser
vati
onal
organi
zat
ionsandgov ernmentstospreadpubl
icawarenessabouttheil
legal
rhi
no
horntr
ade,thedangersofpoachinganddimini
shingr
hinopopulati
ons.

2.Rhi
nosanct
uar
iesandconser
vanci
es
 Conservanci
esandsanct uari
esforr
hinoshavebeenputupsoastoeasil
yidenti
fy,
monitorandtreatsickrhinos.
 Conservanci
esandsanct uari
esarefundedbybothgover
nmentandnon-
gover
nment alorganisati
onsforprovi
sionofnecessar
yequi
pment(v
ehicl
es,radi
o
set
sandhousi ngf acil
it
iesamongother s)
.

3.Recr
uitwi
l
dli
fescout
s
 Wildl
if
escout sar
erecr
uited,trainedandprovi
dedwi t
hnecessar
yequi
pmentsoas
toprotectr
hinosfr
om poacher s.
 Scoutsshouldbefamil
iarwi t
ht hearea,r
hinosandcommuni t
ymemberssothat
theycanbeabl et
oquickl
yi dentifyanysuspi
ciousacti
vi
ty.

4.Dehor
ning
 Rhi
nosaredehor
ned.
 Dehor
ningser
vesthepur
poseofl
esseni
ngpoachi
ngr
ateofr
hinosf
ort
hei
rhor
ns.

5.Pr
ovi
sionoff
eedsuppl
ement
sandar
ti
fi
cial
wat
erhol
es
 Inrhinobr eedi
ngproject
sandpr ivateconservancies,rhi
nosar egiv
ennutri
ti
onal
suppl ements.
 Arti
ficialwater
holesareconstructedsothatther hinoswi l
lnotdieoft
hir
storbreak
fencesi nsearchi
ngforwat er
.
 Allthisisdonesoast oboostrhinopopulati
onsot hattheycannotgoexti
nct.
Act
ivi
ty
1.I
denti
fymeasureswhi
chcanbeputi
npl
acet
oimpr
ovet
hepopul
ati
onof
r
hinocer
oses.

PASTUREMANAGEMENT

 Apast ureislandcov er
edwi t
hgr assandot herlowpl ant
ssuitabl
eforgrazing
animal s.
 Thel ongt erm pr oduct i
v i
tyandqual i
tyofpasturesreli
esongoodmanagement
skill
s.
 Ther ear eplant ed( cult
ivated)past ur
esandnat ural(permanent)pastur
es.
 Plantedpast urei saf encedar eai nwhichimpr oveddomest i
catedforagesar e
grownf orani mal st ograze.
 Nat uralpastur esar egr azi
ngenv ironmentst hatareusuall
ydomi natedbynat i
ve
grassesandmayoccurasgr asslandsorwoodl ands.
 Permanentpast uresmaybeper ennialorself-
seedingannualplantsmaintained
throughsev eral years.

Cul
ti
vat
edorPl
ant
edPast
ures
 Cul t
ivatedpast ur
esareusuallyincorporatedi
ncroppi
ngsystemswher econdit
ions
aref avourableinter
msofr ai
nfall
,temperatur
e,soi
landtopography.
 Th eyusual l
ycompet ewi t
harablecr ops.
 Plant edpasturescanbel egumesorgr asses.
 Th eyar ealsoexpensivetomai ntai
ni nter
msoff er
ti
li
zer
s,fencesandirr
igat
ion
hencehi ghvaluedli
vestockproduct sareneededforr
easonableret
urns.

1.Cul
ti
vat
edpast
uregr
asses
 Pasturegr assesar eimpr ov edgr asseswhi char eplantedf orgrazingani mals.
 Theyar egener al
lybulkandhi ghy iel
dingcr ops.
 Mostoft hegr asseshav ehi ghmet abolisableener gyv al
ueswhencutbet weentwo
toeightweekscompar edt olocal grassf orages.
 Plantedgr assesar ealsoimpor t
antint heenv i
ronmentbecauset heypr ovidequi
ck
soilcovert olandandmi nimi sesoi lerosion.
 Somegr assesar er esi
stantt onemat odesandi dealforusei ncropr otati
ons.
 Grassespl ayamaj orroleinsust aini
ngandi mpr ovi
ngl i
vestockpr oductivi
ty.
 Exampl esofpast uregrassesi ncludegiantst argr ass(Cy nodonnl emf uensis)
,
katambor ar hodesgr ass( Chlor i
sgay ana) ,
t eff(Eragr
ost i
st ef
),Weepi ngLov egrass
 Er
( agrost
iscur
vul
a),
smut
sfi
ngergr Di
ass( gi
tar
iaer
iant
ha)andgui
neagr
ass
Pani
( cum maxi
mum) .

2.Cul
ti
vat
edf
odderl
egume
 Legumepast ur esarenitrogenf ixingmember swhi chbel ongt othelegumefamily.
 Foragel egumesar egener allyselectedf ortheirabili
tyt ofixnit
rogen.
 Mostl egumesar emor eproduct ivethangr assesdur ingthedr yseason.
 Thismakest hem mor ev al
uabl eassour cesofaddi t
ional highquali
tyfeedduri
ng
dryseasont husi ncreasingt hey earr oundcar r
yingcapaci ty.
 Benefitsofusi nglegumesi nclude:
o I ncreasedf oragequant it
yandqual it
y.
o I mpr ov edani mal performance.
o Re ducedwi nterpr oteinsuppl ement ation.
o I mpr ov essoi lconditionsint ermsoff erti
li
ty,structure,moist
urecontentand
or ganicmat t
er .
 Exampl esofl egumesar ev elvetbean( mucunapr uriens),cowpea( vi
gna
unguiculata)andl ablab(labl abpur pureus).

Nat
ural
orv
eldpast
ures
 Theyareusuallyfoundi nareaswhi char enotsuit
ableforcroppr oducti
on.
 Natural
past ur
escanbegr assesorl egumes.
 Theycannotsust ainhighy i
eldingl
ivestocksuchasdai rycows.
 Theyusuallysuppor tl
owdemandi ngani malsforexampl ebeef,sheep,goatsand
wil
dli
fe.
 Examplesofnat uralgrassesf oundinZimbabwear ethatchgrass(hyparrheni
a
fi
li
pendula)andredoat( t
hemedat r
ianda).
 Natural
legumesf oundinZimbabwei ncludeacaciaspeciesandl eucaenaspecies.

Past
uremanagementpr
act
ices
 Past
uremanagementistheuseandstewar
dshipofpast
ureresour
cest
omeet
goal
sanddesir
esofhumans.
 Ther
earevar
iousmethodsofmanagingpastur
ewhichare:

a.Monitori
nganimal mov ements
b.Adjusti
ngofst ockrates
c.Grazingsystems
d.Controlofbushencr oachment
e.Burningofthev el
d
f. Maki
ngoff i
reguards

Cont
rol
ofani
mal
mov
ement
s
 Useofthesamepathencouragessoi
lerosi
ononpast
ure.
 Ani
malsmustnotusethesamepat heveryday
.
 I
tisgoodifani
malaresentoutver
yearl
yinthemorni
ngandbr
oughtbackv
eryl
ate
i
ntheeveningf
rom gr
azing.

Adj
ust
mentofst
ocki
ngr
ate
 Stockingratesv arygreatl
yintheircapacit
yt osupportli
vestockbecauseof
dif
ferencesi nsoilfer
til
i
ty(producti
vit
y),amount sandpat t
ernsofrai
nfall
,
topographyandv egetati
on.
 Ke epingli
vestockwhi chexceedst hecar r
yingcapacitywil
lpromoteov er
grazi
ng
hencedest royingpasture.
 Keepinglivestockatlesst hanthecarryi
ngcapaci tywil
lcausepasturetogrowtop
hamperhencer educi
ngplantv i
gour.
 Af ar
mermustkeept heani malsatoptimal car
ryingcapacit
y .

Gr
azi
ngsy
stems
 Agrazi
ngsy stem i
saspeciali
zedmanagementwhi chdefi
nesper
iodsofgr
azi
ng
andnogr azi
ngfortwoormor epaddocksormanagementuni t
s.
 Thechoiceofagr azi
ngsystem i
saff
ectedbyclimate,
topogr
aphy,t
ypeof
veget
ati
on, t
ypeofliv
est
ock, wat
eravai
labi
l
ityandmanagementcapacit
y

Theobj
ect
ivesofut
il
izi
nggr
azi
ngsy
stems
1.I
mpr overangecondition.
2.Achiev
espat ial
distr
ibuti
onofanimalsthr
oughpaddocksi
zeandshape.
3.Promoteuni f
ormf or
ageut i
li
zat
ionbyreduci
ngsel
ecti
vegrazi
ng.
4.I
ncreasesanimal performance.
5.I
ncreaseflexi
bil
ityofrangemanagement .
6.I
mpr oveforagequalityandquanti
ty.

Ty
pesofgr
azi
ngsy
stems

1.Cont
inuousgr
azi
ng
 Managementi nwhichanimalsarekeptinasingl
eenclosurefort
heentir
e
grazeableper
iodofeachyear.
 Thenumberofani malsi
nt heenclosur
emaybev ariedaccordi
ngtothegrazi
ng,
but
atleastsomeanimalsarepresentatall
timesduri
ngthegrazeableper
iod.
 Usuall
yconti
nuousgrazi
ngsystem appli
estowildl
i
feandcommunalrangel
and.
 Charact
eri
sti
csofconti
nuousgrazingsystem ar
enoformalr
est
ing,
nosubdivi
sion
andnomani pul
ati
onoffi
regrazingint
eracti
on.

2.Rot
ati
onal
grazi
ng
 Managementwhi chrequi
resthegrazingal
locatedtoagrouporgroupsofani
mal
s
fortheenti
regrazeableperi
od.
 I
thast obesubdi vi
dedintoatleastoneenclosuremoret
hanthenumberofherds
i
nar ot
ati
on.
 Thisenablesanimalstobeconcent rat
edonassmal l
par
tofthegrazingar
ea
avail
abletothem aspaddockingper mit
satanyt i
me.
 Itinvol
vesthesuccessivegrazingoftheenclosuresi
narotat
ion.

Bushcont
rol
management

Met
hodsusedt
ocont
rol
bushencr
oachment

A.Fi
re
 Naturalcomponentofsav
annav eget
ati
onhav eco-evolv
edadaptedtowit
hstand
fi
re(dormantbudsduetoapicaldominance,corkybark,
under
groundrootstock)
.
 Thereforef
ir
eusedtocontrolbushcanopyratherthantoact
uall
ykil
li
ndivi
dual
pl
ants.

Adv
ant
agesoff
ir
e
1.Fi
reperseisacheapmet hodofcontrol
l
ingwoodyplant
swhencompar
edtoother
methods(forexamplechemi cal
sormechanical
).
2.Vi
gourofher baceousl
ayerismaint
ainedatsamet i
me,t
hrought
her
emovalof
moribundgrass.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoff
ir
e
1.Lossofproducti
oncausedbyburni
ng.
2.I
nadditi
on,unrel
iabl
enatur
eofrai
nfal
lpr
esentsr
iskwi
thr
egar
dst
otheav
ail
abi
l
ity
offor
ageduringthespr
ingandearl
ysummer .
B.Chemi
cal
cont
rol
met
hod
 Thisistheuseofher bici
desandArbor icides.
 Select
iveherbici
desappliedtotheindividualsbyeitherpaint
ingthest
em baseor
cutstumpandt husappli
cati
oncost sar eli
kelyt
obehi gh.
 No nselect
iveherbici
desandAr bor
icidesar eappli
edt othesoili
napelletor
granulefor
m, andthusapplicat
ioncost scanber elati
velylower.

Adv
ant
agesofchemi
cal
s
1.Theyareeff
ecti
ve,i
ndivi
dualsareusuallykil
l
edandcoppi ci
ngisnotaproblem.
2.Nonselect
iveherbi
cidescanbeef f
ectivel
yusedast heini
ti
alt
reat
menti ncases
wherebushdensiti
esareextremelyhigh.
3.Usual
lyfol
l
owupt r
eatments(herbi
cide,fi
re,mechanical
)ar
ehowev eressent
ial
.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofchemi
cal
s
1.Harmfult
ohumans, ani
malsandt heenvironment;t
heymaypol
l
ut egroundwater
andmaykillpl
antsnotear
markedf orcontrol.
2.Alt
houghherbi
cideshavearel
ati
velylongr esi
dual
acti
on,
oncetheylosethei
r
aff
ecti
vi
ty,
thebushusuall
yrecoversquickly.

C.Mechani
cal
met
hods
 Thisi
stheuseofmachi ner
yforexamplebul
ldozer
stor
emovewoodyveget
ati
on
onanon- sel
ecti
vebasi
sorbrushcutt
ers,
axesandbushkni
vest
osel
ecti
vel
y
removeindiv
idualpl
ant
s.

Adv
ant
ages
1.Nonsel ect
ivemechani calmet hodshav eanadv antageinsituati
onswher ehigh
bushdensit i
esr est
rictaccess.
2.Selecti
vethinningindividualspecies/plantscanber emov edfrom therange.
3.Neighbouringindivi
dual sarenotadv er
selyaff
ectedast hecasewi thcertai
n
herbici
des.
4.Disposalofcutbr anchesandt reetrunkscanbei ncorporatedintotheoveral
l
managementf orex ampl esoldasf ir
ewoodorchar coalorusedf orbrushpacking
i
ner odedar eas.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Majordr
awbackisthatr
emov edplant
sarealmostreplacedbynewseedli
ngsand
coppi
cefrom t
hebasesandexposedr oot
softheoldpl ant
s.
2.Thedist
urbedenv
ironmentpart
icul
arl
yaft
erbull
dozingisalsoi
deal
forthegr
owth
 ofavar
iet
yofundesirabl
eplant
sandalieninvasivespeciessuch
asTi
ckberr
y(Lanatacamara)andTri
ff
idweed( Chromolaenaodorata)
.
3.Soi
ldi
stur
bancecreatestemporar
yunstabl
eenv i
ronment,anderosi
oncanbehi
gh.
4.Cost
sofmechanicalremovalarehi
gh,part
icularl
yinthecaseofselecti
ver
emoval
ofpl
ant
s.
5.I
tisl
abourint
ensi
ve.

D.Bi
ologi
cal
met
hods
1.Theuseofbr owsingani malsforexamplegoats,el
ands,Kudus,bushbuck,bl
ack
rhi
noandmi xedf eedersareanef f
ecti
venatur
alcontrolofwoodyv eget
ati
on.
2.Goatshavebeenusedsuccessf ull
yinbushcontrol
.
3.Unfort
unat
ely,browsingspeciesofgamecanbesel dom usedalonet ocl
earbush
becausesocialbehaviourprecl
udeshighbrowsingpressure.

Adv
ant
agesofbr
owser
s
1.Profi
tabi
li
tyofenter
pri
seisi
ncr
eased
2.Browsinganimalsareabl
etomaint
ainopencommunit
ies(andthushi
ghgrass
producti
on)meanslessmoneyneedstobespentonothermethodsofbush
control
.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofbr
owser
s
1.I
ndi genousbrowsersar
eusual l
ynotabletocontrolbushencroachmentalthough
theyhav easigni
fi
canteffectonbushstruct
ure,part
icul
arl
yshrublands.
2.Browser stendtobeselecti
vefeeder
sandv eryoftencert
ainwoodyspeciesar enot
affected
3.Selectiv
ebr owsi
ngofpalatabl
especiesbygoatsmaycauseundesi r
ablespeciesto
predomi nate.

E.Bur
ningofv
eld
 Fi
recanbeusedunderspeci
fi
ccondi
ti
onst
oachi
evedesi
redgoal
s.

Obj
ect
ivesofbur
ning
1.Altervegetati
oncomposi ti
onbyr emov
alofundesir
ableshrubsandher baceous
speciesandpr omot i
ngdesirabl
es.
2.Fi
reI mpr ovef
oragequalitybypromoti
nggrowthofnewshoot s,
recent
lyburned
areapr oducedbetterquali
ty.
3.Fi
rei ncreaseavai
lablebrowsebydestroy
ingmoribund/top-hamper.
4.I
talsoimprov
esaccessi
bil
i
tytof
oragebydestr
oyi
ngthi
cketsandinvasi
vespeci
es.
5.Fi
realsodest
roy
sparasi
tesli
ket
ickst
hatcausedi
seasestoanimals.

Cul
ti
vat
edpast
uremanagement

I
rr
igat
ionmanagement
 I
rrigat
ionist hear t
if
ici
al appl icat i
onofwat ert olandf orthepur poseofagr i
cul
tur
al
producti
on.
 Effect
iveirr
igat i
onwi l
l i
nfluencet heent ir
egr owthpr ocessf r
om seedbed
preparati
on, germination,rootgr owt h,nutrientut il
i
sat ion,pasturegrowthandr e-
growth,yiel
dandqual ity.
 I
rrigat
ionwat erisessentialf orpr ofi
tablepast urepr oduct i
ondur ingwinterandin
mostsemi -
ar idagroecol ogical zones.
 Thekeyt omaxi misingirrigationef f
ortsisuni f
ormi ty.
 Thepast urepr oducerhascont r
ol overhowmuchwat ertosuppl yandwhent o
applyitbutthei rri
gati
onsy stem det er
mi nesuni formi ty.
 I
rrigat
ionsy stemsshoul dencour agepl antgr owt hwhi l
emi ni
mi singsalt
i
mbal ances, l
eafbur ns,soi ler osionandwat erloss.

Fer
ti
li
serpr
inci
ples
 Newl ysownpasturesthathav el
owl ev
elsofsoi
lfer
ti
li
tyareahi
ghpr i
ori
ty.
 I
nt r
oducedspeciesofgrassesandl egumeshaveahigherrequi
rementfor
phosphorusthannativ
egr assessof er
ti
li
singt
hesepaddockswill
giveabetter
response.
 Ferti
li
serappl
icat
ionusuallytopdressi
ngisdonewhent hepast
ureismostactivel
y
growing.

Weedi
ngmanagement
 Aweedi sanypl antthatisnotwant edi napast ure.
 Weedsi npasturesreducef oragey i
eld(quantityandqual it
y)andcausi ngani
mal
i
njurythroughtoxici
tyorspeci ali
zedplantorgans( thornsandspi nes).
 Eff
ectiveweedmanagementbegi nswithaheal thypast ur
e.
 Weedsar erar
elyaseriousprobl em i
nawel l-managed, v i
gorouslygrowingpast
ure.
 Onceapast ur
eisestablishedweedsmustbecont rol
ledwi t
hmechani calor
chemical methods.
 Anintegratedapproachinv ol
vesscout i
ng,prev enti
on,andcont rol(bi
ologi
cal
,
cult
ural,mechanicalandchemi cal
)inacoor dinatedplan.
Pl
ant
ingpast
uregr
assesandf
odderl
egumes
Tool
sused
 Hoe
 rake
 Gardenline
 Wat er
ingcan
 Slasher

St
epst
ofol
l
ow
Landpr
epar
ati
on
 Fi
rst,thelandisclearedusingsl
ashersandhoes.
 Diggingisdonesoonaf t
erclear
ingthelandusi
ngahoe;t
hiswi
l
lbehel
pint
urni
ng
andmi xingthesoil.
 Breakingoflargelumpsf oll
owsafteranditi
sdoneusi
ngahoe.
 Ar akefoll
owsaf t
er;itwi
llbelevel
l
ingtheseedbed.

Pl
ant
ing
 Beforeplanti
ng,strai
ghtl inesforpl
anti
ngaremadepay i
ngmuchat tent
iontoin-
rowandi nter-
rowspaci ngusi ngagardenli
neandamet rerul
e.
 Afterthatabasal fer
ti
liser(compoundD)i sthenappli
edandmi xingsoi
l and
fert
il
iserisdone.
 Planti
ngt henfol
lows; someoft hepast
ureisplantedasseeds,someasseedl i
ngs
andsomeascut tings.
 Lastly,water
ingtheplant edseedbedisdoneusi ngawateri
ngcanwi thaf i
nerose
i
sdone.

Vel
dassessment
s
 Veldconditionreferstot
hestate/
heal
thofthev el
dinrel
ati
ontoitsposit
ioni
n
plantsuccessionasmodi fi
edbysomedisturbanceforexampleherbiv
ory.
 Ho wever,veldassessmentisdonetomeasurementandi nt
erpret
sparameter
sli
ke
speciescomposi tion,
basalar
eaandmanymor e.
 Th er
eforeveldassessmentisthemeasurementoft hevel
dparamet er
swhenthey
aredecli
ning.

Vel
ddecl
i
ningpat
ter
ns
 Speci
escomposit
ionchanges.
 Reducedpl
antv
igour.
 Reducedsoi lcoverandpr
otect
ion.
 I
ncreasedbar ear eas.
 I
ncreaseder osion.
 Sever
er un-off.
 Desertf
or mation.

Pur
poseofv
eldassessment
1.Toassesspresentcondi
ti
onofthevel
d.
2.Tomonitorchangesinvel
dcondit
ion.
3.Todeter
mineef f
ectsofpr
esentmanagementpract
ises.
4.Toassessgrazi
ngcapacit
yandhencer ecommendstocki
ngr
ates.

Par
amet
erst
obemeasur
ed
 SpeciesComposi ti
on
 Basal cover
 Li
ttercov er
 Soilerosionand compact
ion
 Plantv i
gour
 Eachpar ameteri
sscoredoutof10,
bei
ngexcel
l
entand1v
erypoorcondi
ti
on.

Speci
esComposi
ti
on
 Onspeci
escomposi
ti
on,
ther
ear
edecr
easer
s,i
ncr
easer
sandi
nvaderspeci
es.

Decr
easerspeci
es
 Specieswhichpredomi
nateingoodcondi ti
onbutwhoseabundancedecl
i
neswhen
conditi
ondeter
iorat
est
hroughov erorunderut
il
isat
ion.
 Mo stcli
maxgrasseswi
llbeclassif
iedinthi
sgroup.

I
nvaderspeci
es
 Theseareplantswhichar
efor
eigntoagivenplantcommunitywher
et heyoccur
butinonl
yinsmal l
numbers.
 Velddominatedbythisgr
oupisconsi
der
edt obeinv er
ypoorcondi
ti
on.

I
ncr
easerspeci
es
 I
ncreaserspeci
es1-Speciesnotabundantingoodcondi
ti
onvel
dbutwhose
abundanceincr
easeswhenv el
disunderut
il
ized.
 I
ncreaser2-Speciesnotabundanti
nveldi
ngoodconditi
onbutwhoseabundance
i
ncreaseswhenv el
disoveruti
li
sed.
 I
ncreaser3-Specieswhi charenotabundanceinv el
dingoodcondi ti
onsbut
whoseabundancei ncr
easeswhenv el
disselect
ed.
 Whenassessingthepr oport
ionofdecreaserandincreaserspecies,
ahighscor
eis
gi
venforhighproporti
onofdecr easer
sanddesirableincreaser
.

Li
tt
ercov
er
 Actuall
it
tercoverandit
scomposit
ionandtheextentandevennessofdi
str
ibut
ion
ofli
vingplant
s.
 Ah i
ghscor egi
venforevenl
ydi
str
ibut
edhighlev
elsoflit
terandmostl
yofgrass
debri
s.

Basal
cov
er
 Actualbasalcoverandhowclosethi
sistotheidealf
orthesit
e,andt
heextentand
evennessofdistri
buti
onofl
ivi
ngplant
s
 Ah i
ghscor egiv
enf orev
enl
ydist
ri
butedhighbasalcover
sfrom smal
ltuf
ts.

Soi
ler
osi
onandcompact
ion
 Thisistheevi
denceofcur
rentsoilmov
ementandst
abi
l
ityofpr
evi
ousl
yer
oded
areas.
 Ah ighscor
eisgivenf
ornoerosion.

Pl
antVi
gour
 Healthst atusofthepl ants,ext
entofpl antvi
gourandproducti
vi
tyinrel
ati
onf orthe
potentialforthesite.
 Ah i
ghscor eisgivenf orproductivi
tyandv i
gour.
 Onp lantv i
gour,oneassessespl antsize,l
eafcol
our,numberandsizeofflowering
heads, numberandt y
peofseedl ings,vi
gourofseedl
ings,ageofseedli
ngs,ageof
di
stri
but i
onofpl ant s,di
ebackoft uft
sandbushencr oachment.

Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Coll
ectfi
venat
uralpast
uresavail
ablei
nyourareaandpr
eserv
ethem.
2.Researchandwri
tethenutr
it
ionalcont
entofeachandever
ypast
uret
haty
ouhav
e
col
lect
ed.

Ani
mal
handl
i
ngf
aci
l
iti
es
 Ani
mal handl
ingfaci
l
iti
esarestr
uct
uresusedtoconfi
neani
malssaf
elyand
ef
fi
cientl
yforcl
oseobservat
ionandrout
ineheal
thandmanagementprocedur
es.
 Handli
ngfacil
i
tiessmoot hensf
lowandeaseoper at
ions.
 Handli
ngfacil
i
tiesmi ni
misestr
esstoani
mals.
 I
nwel l
-pl
annedf aci
l
iti
es,ani
malscanbeprocessedv er
yqui
ckl
yandr
etur
nedt
o
t
heirgrazi
ngpaddocks.

Paddock
 Apaddocki safencedgrasslandfi
eldusedf orgrazinglivest
ock(cat
t l
e,goat
sand
sheep).
 Afarm canhaveaf ewormanypaddockswher elivest
ockar emov edatacertai
n
i
ntervalfr
om onepaddockt oanother
.
 Theinterval
atwhichli
vestockaremov eddictateswhet heritcanbecalled
rot
ati
onal gr
azi
ngorintensiverot
ati
onalgrazing.
 Tempor aryf
enci
ngmat eri
alsareavail
abl
et hatmaker otati
onalgr
azingeasy.

Adv
ant
agesofpaddocki
ng
1.Thebasi cpremisewi thr ot
ationalgr
azi
ngist hati
twil
lal
lowpastureplantstorest
andhav er
egrowt hperiodbef orebei
nggrazedagain.
2.Li
v estockwil
lbepl acedonamor eevenplaneofnutri
ti
onascompar edt o
continuousgrazing.
3.Therei smoredroughtr esi
stanceinthepasturehenceanimalscanhav efoodin
droughtseason.
4.Therei smoredrymat t
erpr oducedinaseasoncompar edt oconti
nuousgr azi
ng.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofpaddocki
ng
1.I
trequir
esmor elabourthanconti
nuousgrazi
ngtosetuppaddocks.
2.I
tismor eexpensiv
esincethereisneedmaket empor
aryf
encingandnecessar
y
i
nfrast
ruct
uretoprovidewaterinal
lpaddocks.

Fi
g.6.
16.
1 Cat
tl
einapaddock

Paddockl
ayout
 Calculatenumberofanimalsav ai
labl
eont hefar m soast oallocat
et hem i
nto
herds.
 All
ocat efiv
et oei
ghtpaddocksperher daccor dingt orecommendat ions.
 Thisgivest hetot
alnumberofpaddocksr equiredont hef arm.
 Tryasmuchaspossi bletoexcludecropf i
eldsi npaddocks.
 Ensuret hatasmuchofdi f
ferentvel
dty pesar eputi nt
odi ff
erentpaddocksas
possibleasdi f
fer
entty
peshav ediff
erentgr azi
ngcapaci t
ies.
 Alwaysi
ncludesmallar
easofsandvel
dwit
hlar
geredsoi
l
sareas,andsmal
lar
eas
ofvl
eiwit
ht opl
and.
 Theopti
mum paddocksizedependsoncat
tl
emanagementv
eldtypevel
d
managementandher dsi
ze.
 Thesuggestedpaddocksi
zesbasedonnat
ural
regi
onsar
easfoll
ows:

Cr
ushpens
 Thisisal ongnar r
owpassagewayt hroughwhi chthest ockmov esoneatat i
me.
 Itshoul dbe10m t o12m l ongt ohol d10t o12ani malsatat i
me.
 Stockcanbeconf inedint heracebypl aci ngpol esinfrontort herearofthe
animal s.
 Thisonl yal lowscar ryi
ngoutofmanypr actices,whichdonotneedcl ose
confinementofst ock.
 Quickoper ati
onssuchasbr anding,spray i
ngandgi v
ingi njectionsonlyneedar ace
toposi ti
ont hecattle.
 Mor especi ali
sedwor ksuchasearmar king, dehorni
ng, cast r
at i
on,foottri
mmi ng,
weighi ng, arti
fi
cialinseminat i
on,pregnancyt esti
ngandv eterinaryoper at
ions
requiresacr usht of i
rmlyrestrainanani mal
 Racesar ebui ltwithsortofcur veorangl ebecauseani mal sar eeasi ertodrivewhen
theycannotseewher etheyar egoing.
 Curvedr aceswi t
hsol i
dsidepr ov i
deamor esmoot hf l
owofst ock.
 Thought hi sisnol ongerbeingdonebecauseoft hecosti nvolv ed.
 Acur vedr acei smor econv enientwhent heheadsoft heani mal sar
er equir
edtobe
ononesi de.

Fi
g.6.
16.
2 Cat
tl
einacr
ushr
ace

 Woodi spr eferredt omet alasi tisqui et

eranddoesnotr ustandfri
ghtenanimals.
 Thewal lsoft her acecanbev er ticalorangled.
 Thev ert i
calr acesar echeaperandeasi ertobuildandt her
eislesstendencyfor
animal st ogett heirlegsst ackt hrought hesides.
 Iti
sal soeasi ertogett ot het opoft heani malsonverti
calracethanangled.
 Theirdi sadv antagei sthatcal v esandot hersmallstockmayt urnaroundunless
extraspacer sar epr ovided.
 Ont heot herhandar acewi thangl edsidesisself-
adjusti
ngast hesmallerani
mals
areint hel owerandnar rowerpor ti
ons.
 Mov ingcat t
leintot her aceisof tenasl owpr ocess,butonceaf ewanimalshave
entered, other swillreadilyfollow.

Aspr
ayr
ace
 I
tisacomplexequipment,
whichi
ncludephysi
calbui
ldi
ngsandfences,
apump,
motor,
nozzlesandpi
pes.
 I
tisbett
ertousemanufactur
edspr
ayr acesr
athert
hantryanddesi
gnonefr
om
 i
ndividual components.
 Ther acemustbebui l
tsucht hatwhenani malsentertheywalkawayf rom thesun.
 Thespr ayr aceshouldbebui ltacrossthedirecti
onoft hepr
ev ail
i
ngwi ndssot hat
thewi ndsdonotbl owt hrought herace.
 Itshouldnev erbebuiltnearorundert reesasf al
li
ngleavesandseedsmaybl ock
thesievesandnozzl es.
 Itmustbebui l
tatleast100m f rom thedairysothatthedippi
ngcompoundsdonot
contami natethemi l
k.
 Thenozzl esshouldbeadj ustedtodeliverknownl i
tr
espermi nuteatagi v
en
pressure.
 Theremustbet wof ootbat hseach3m l ongt oensureadequat efootwashing.
 Thef l
oor sshouldhav ecor r
ugationstoopent hedigit
s.

Fi
g.6.
16.
3 Spr
ayr
ace

Adv
ant
agesofaspr
ayr
ace
1.Thedipwashisal
way satthecorrectstr
engt handfreshandev enl
ysuspendedi
n
thef
lui
dbecauseiti
smadeupateachdi pping.
2.Thecostoft
heacari
cideisspreadev enl
ythr oughouttheyearorseason.
3.Acar
ici
desmayreadil
ybeal t
ernated.
4.I
njur
iestot
heanimalsareunli
kelytooccur .

Di
sadv
ant
agesofaspr
ayr
ace
1.Mechani calfail
ureofthepump.
2.Wet t
ingisnotal way scomplete,par
ti
cul
arl
yoftheearsandunderthetail
.
3.Thest r
ippingratei shi
gh,result
ingi
nalowerconcentrat
ionofacar
ici
debyt hetime
thelastanimal saretreat
ed.
4.Stri
ppingimpl i
est hatahigherconcent
rat
ionofacar
icidecli
ngstotheani
mal sand
thattheconcent rati
onofacar i
cidei
nthefl
uidt
hatdripsofftheani
malsafterthey
havebeenspr ayed.

Pr
act
ical
consi
der
ati
ons
 Thesprayracemustnotbebui l
tcloset owatersourcesast hesemaybecome
contaminatedbyr un-offfr
om thesump.
 Itmustnotbebui ltneardeciduoust r
ees.
 Thewal l
smustbebui l
tacrosst hedirecti
onofthepr evail
ingwi ndandthespray
raceshouldber oofed.
 Inthesouthernhemi sphereifpossi bl
et heanimalsshoul dentertheracefrom t
he
northsothattheyar enotdaz zledbyt hesunshi ni
ngt hrought hespray-
mist.
 Theremustbeaf ootbat hbeforetheent rancetother ace.
 Prefer
ablythefl
ooroft hefootbathshoul dbecobbledt ospr eadtheclawsandt hus
helpremovemud.
 Di ppingf l
uidshoul dbeaddedt othef ootbatht oassi sti
nt hecont rol
oft headult
andi mmat urestagesoft i
ckst hatpr eferthef eetasapr edilecti
onat tachmentsi t
e.
 Thedr ainingr acemustbel ongsot hatspr ayi
ngi snoti nterruptedwhi leall
owi ngfor
dr aini
ngandhand- dressing.
 Siev esbet weent hespr ayr aceandt hesumpandt hosebet weent hedrainingrace
andt hesumpmustf itproper l
yandbeef fecti
v e.
 Theymustbei nspect edr egularl
ydur ingspr ayingt oensur et hattheyhav enot
becomecl ogged.
 Amaxi mum of500ani mal sshoul dbedi ppedwi t
hasi nglesumpf ullofdipping
fluid.
 Ifmor eani mal saret obedi ppedt hesumpshoul dber efil
ledwi thaf reshly
pr eparedsuspensi onofacar ici
de.
 Al lthenozzl esandsi ev esmustbei ngoodwor ki
ngcondi tionbef oredipping
commences.
 Toensur ethatt heper i
-anal r
egioni st horoughl ywettedwav eat ennisorsol i
d
racqueti nf rontoft heani malsast heycomeoutoft hespr ayr ace.
 Thi scausest hem t ost opandl if
tupt heirtai
ls.
 Al lthepipesandt hesumpmustbef lushedwi thcleanwat eraf teruse.

Loadi
ngr
amp
 Thi
sser v
esasanent r
anceorexitfort
ransportedani
mal
s.
 I
tmustbest r
onglybuil
tofwoodorconcr et
e.
 Therampshouldbe1. 25m hi
ghattheroadside,1.
9to2.
5m wi
dewi
thaf
orci
ng
penof6.25m l
ong.
 Theslopeshoul
dnotbemor ethan20%or1:5.

Fi
g6.
16.
4 Woodenl
oadi
ng

Fi
g6.
16.
5 Per
manentl
oadi
ngr
amp

Fur
rowi
ngr
acks
 Farr
owi ngisaterm specifi
ctopigst hatr
eferstotheactionofgi v
ingbirt
h.
 Farr
owi ngmanagementbegi nsmont hsbeforepiglet
sar eborn.
 Whent hepigisaboutt ogivebirt
h,itisputi
naf urrowingroom whi chcomprisesof
afurr
owi ngrack.
 Afurrowingrackisashel fli
keequipmentdesi gnedforasowt hathaspiglet
s.
 Thefurrowingrackmakesi teasyforpigl
etstodrinkmi l
kfrom thesowsi nceit
hol
dst hesowi napositioneasyf orpigl
etstohav emilk.
Fi
g.6.
1.6 Sowi
naf
arr
owi
ngr
ack

Adv
ant
ages
1.Survi
valrateofthepigl
etsishi
gh.
2.Thebar sdivi
dingpigl
etsfr
om t
hesowar eaincreasesthesafetyf
ortheper
son
handl
ingt hepigl
etsandhelpswhenfeedi
ngt hepiglet
siron,
sincethesowcannot
i
nterf
ere.
3.Aft
erfarrowing,sowstendtokeepthenesti
ngar eaclean,whi
chreduces
maintenance.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.I
tisexpensi
vet
oinst
all
.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Vi
sitt
heschool
farm andi
dent
ifyt
hefar
m handl
ingf
aci
li
ti
esavai
labl
ether
e.
2.Makemodelsofvar
ioushandl
i
ngfaci
l
iti
esthaty
ouhavestudi
ed.

Far
mrecor
ds
 Af armr ecordisadocumentusedt okeepaccountofdi fferentact i
viti
es,event
s
andmat eri
alsonaf arm.
 Recor dingandr ecordkeepingareessent i
alforasuccessf ulent er
prise.
 Farmr ecordsar egroupedintotwocategorieswhi charephy sicalrecordsand
fi
nanci al r
ecords.
 Phy si
cal r
ecordsincludehealt
hrecords,animal perf
ormancer ecords,stockfeed
recordsandi nventoryrecor
ds.
 Farmf i
nanci alr
ecordsar ef
ormaldocument sthatshowmonet arytr
ansactions
thatwer ecarri
edoutatt hefarm.
 Exampl esoff i
nancialrecor
dsareprofi
tandl ossaccount, balancesheet ,bank
statementandcashbook.

I
mpor
tanceoff
armr
ecor
ds
1.Recordscanbeusedt
ocont
rolmovementoft
oolsandequi
pmentint
oandoutof
thefarm.
2.Recordscanbeusedf
ormonit
ori
ngandeval
uati
onoffar
m proj
ect
s.
3.Theycanbeusedf oreval
uati
ngper f
ormanceofi ndivi
dual stock.
4.Farmrecor
dsarealsousedoncashcont rol
s.
5.Theyareusedt
osour cefundsfrom donorsorsecur i
ngloans.
6.Farmrecor
dsgiveaf or
ecastont hesustai
nabil
i
tyofpr ojects.
7.Theyhelpi
ndeci
sionmaki ng,i
fthereareadjust
ment sthatneedt obedone.
8.Theyactasapointorsourceofreference.
9.Farmrecor
dsgiveupdatedinfor
mat i
onont heprofitorlossont hef
arm.

Chal
l
engesofr
ecor
ds
1.Timeconsumi ng.
2.Increasedt axesasl evelsofproduct
ioni
ncrease.
3.Mayhi nderthesecur i
ngofl oans.
4.Maybedi ffi
culttointerpret
.
5.Errorsincompi l
ati
onmayl eadtoprobl
emsf orexampl
epur
chaseoff
eedor
chemi calsthatareinexcess.
6.Recor dsaddgener al expensestofarmers.

Mai
ntai
ningofphy
sical
andf
inanci
alr
ecor
ds
 Constantandcont i
nuousupdateoftherecords.
 Corr
ectf i
li
ngoft herecordsforeasyaccess.
 Assi
gni ngalocationwher etherecor
dsaresafelyst
oredwit
houtanydi
stur
bances.
 Needf ordigi
tal
isingtherecordssothattheyarekeptsaf
ethani
nbooksandf i
l
es.

Phy
sical
recor
ds
 Therearemanytypesofphysi
calrecordsonaf ar
m.
 Therearenospecial
rul
esforpr
epar i
ngr ecordsbutthereisneedforgreatcar
eto
ensurethatt
herecor
dsmeetacer tai
nst andardforagoodf armrecord.
 Physicalr
ecor
dsdiff
erwit
htheproductionbei ngpract
icedonthefarm.

Ani
mal
product
ionr
ecor
ds
 Animal productionrecordsar erecordsthatgiveanaccountofei t
herindividual
performanceofanani malorthewhol e.
 Thet ypeofpr oductionbeingcar ri
edoutdet er
mi nestheinformationcollectedand
recorded.
 Indairyproductioninf or
mat i
onlikelact
ationper i
od,amountofmi lkproduced,mil
k
composi ti
onandt hebullsusedi srecorded.
 Inbeefpr oducti
on, i
nf or
mat i
onlikedateofbi r
thandl i
vewei ghtisrecordedand
alsoinpigandpoul tryproducti
oni nf
ormat i
onlikeli
vewei ghtandnumberofeggs
i
sr ecorded.
 Theser ecordsofani mal productionshowt helevelofproductionofeachani mali
n
theproduct i
onsy stem.
 Thi
senablest
hef
armert
oknowwhi
chani
mal
sar
ethemostpr
oduct
iveandwhi
ch
ani
malsshoul
dbecul
l
ed.

Dai
rypr
oduct
ionr
ecor
ds
 Therei
salotofi
nformati
ontoincludeondai
ryrecordi
ngsheets.
 Thesearesomeofthethi
ngsincludedonadair
yr ecor
dingsheetandbel
owar
ean
exampleofadai
ryrecor
dingsheet.

Tabl
e6.
17.
1Recor
dingsheetf
ori
ndi
vi
dual
ani
mal
s.
Lact
ati
on Lact
ati
on
Ser
vice Bull
s Cal
vi
ngdat
e Cal
f 305-day %f at
Number l
ength Total
dat
es used product
ion protei
Day Mont
h YearSex days
1 04/
06/
14 Ji
mmy 18 04 15 F CP376 90 25lit
res 2250l 25%
2 04/
06/
14 Ji
mmy 14 04 15 F CP374 80 25lit
res 2000l 25%

Tabl
e6.
17.
2Acombi
nedsheetf
oral
lcows.
DATE COW’
SNAME
Total
numberof
Jan ManzumaMatsi
ruGwebi
TindoJaneSi
ster
Susana
l
it
resproduced
1 16 14 14 13 7 8 13
2 15 13 12 14 6 9 12
3 16 13 13 14 6 9 14
4 15 14 14 14 7 8 11
5 15 14 12 13 6 7 14
Total
li
tr
esof
i
ndivi
dualani
mal
s
cows

 I
ndai rypr oduct i
on,recordingisdoneonadai lybasisont herecordingsheets.
 Onanat i
onal l
evelther ecordervisi
tsthefarm everymont handr ecordsthey i
eld
obtaineddur inga24- hourperiod.
 Recor dingisdoneaf tereverymi l
kingsessiononi ndiv
idualcowsanddet erminethe
mi l
kquant i
typroducedbyeachcow.
 I
ncount rieswher emi lkisconsumedpr i
mar i
lyforit
spr ot
einandnotf atcontent,
testi
ngf orbutterf
atcont entmaynotbenecessar y .
 I
tisessent i
al t
oknowt hefatandpr ot
eincomposi ti
onofmi l
kfrom indi
vidualcows.
 Semi -automat i
cmachi nesf orquickdeter
mi nati
onofpr otei
ncont entarenow
avail
abl ewhi chmakesi tpossibletoanalyseal ar
genumberofsampl esatacent ral
 l
abor
ator
y.

Ani
mal
heal
thr
ecor
ds
 Whencr eati
ngf arm heal threcordsaf armershoul dstartbyi denti
fyi
ngt heanimal
speci es.
 Af terthatthedescr ipti
onofanysy mpt oms, il
lness,inj
ury,distressand/ or
behav i
ouralabnor mal i
tiesshouldbenot ed.
 Af terthatthef armershoul drecordt hedat e, detai
lsandr esul tsofallmedicall
y
relatedobser vations,exami nat
ionsandt ests.
 Af ar merhast oknowt hedet ai
lsofal l tr
eatment s,includi
ngt hename, dosage,
rout e,fr
equency ,anddur ati
onoft r
eat mentwi thdrugsorot hermedi cati
ons.
 Treat mentpl ansshoul di ncludeadi agnosi sandpr ognosis,det ail
ingthet y
pe,
frequency ,anddur ationofanyt reatmentandt hecrit
eriaand/ orschedul eforr
e-
ev aluati
onbyt heattendi ngv et
erinarian.
 Sur gicalrecordsshoul di ncludedet ail
edpr eandpostst atusoft heani mal,aswel
l
asi ntra-
oper ati
on,not es.

Tabl
e6.
17.
3Aheal
thr
ecor
d.
Dosage Ani mal
Durati
on
Clinical Treatment &rout
er ecover
ed
Number I
D Date Diagnosis of
signs plan of (
yesor
t
reatment
admin no)
8oz/25
06/02/18-galsof
Cocci di
osi
sAlbion
06/03/18 water,
Severe Oral
di
arrhoea,
1cc,
1 133506/02/
18weight YES
Dextose 06/ 02/18-I
ntra
l
oss, whit
eAnemi a
I
ron 06/03/18 Muscula
gums
r
06/02/18-7cc,
Diarrhoea Kaopect at
e
06/02/18 Oral
2 133606/06/
18

Repl
acementr
ecor
d
 Thi
si sarecordthatisusedwhenr eplaci
ngananimalfr
om t
heherdbyeit
hera
newbornorar eplacementanimal
.
 Wh encreat
ingreplacementrecor
dsaf ar
mershoul
dtakenoteofavar
iet
yof
poi
nters.
 Thesearedateofbi rt
h,sex
,ident
it
y ,
typeofbi
rth,
sir
e,dam,bi
rt
htimeand
comment .
 Byrecordingtheaboveinfor
mation,afar
merwi l
lhaveagoodideaofwhati
s
happeningwithhisani
mal sonthefarm.
 Theinformationi
srecordedontherecordingsheetandi
scoll
ectedandt
hen
tr
ansferredtocomputerforstor
age.

Tabl
e6.
17.
4:Ar
epl
acementr
ecor
d.
Valueof
Tag Weani
ng
Number Br
eedBi
rt
hdat
eSex the Comments
# date
ani
mal
1 1645Sabi 12/
04/
15F 12/
07/
15 $55 Goodconf
ormati
on
Goodmother
ing
2 1523Dor
per
01/
11/
16F 01/
02/
17 $50
abi
li
ti
es

Her
dinv
ent
ory
 Aher di
nventor
yhelpsthef ar
mertoknowallhisani
malsav ai
l
abl
eonthefar
m.
 Af ar
merneedst opayattenti
ontothepar
ti
culari
nfor
mat i
ononthet
agnumberof
theanimal.
 Breedoftheanimal,age,
sex, bi
rt
hdateofeachanimalandcommentsaboutthat
parti
cul
aranimal.

Tabl
e6.
17.
5Ahear
dinv
ent
ory
.
Valueof
Tag
Number Br
eed Age SexBi
rt
hdat
e The Comment
s
#
ani
mal
2 Alway
singood
1 1345Bor
an M 04/
04/
16$2000
year
s condi
ti
on

I
nvent
ori
esr
ecor
ds
 Aninvent oryi
sal i
stofpropertythataper son,co-
operati
veorcompanyownsona
cert
aindat e.
 Everyfarm oranimal ent
erpri
sehasv ar
ioustoolsitusestoperfor
mv ari
ous
acti
vit
ies.
 Farminv entor
iesli
stthefoll
owingt ypesofpr oper
tyorassets.
 Toolsandequi pment, l
iv
estock,cropsandi nputssuchasf eed,
seedandf er
ti
li
zer
s
whicht hefarmerowns.
 Theper soncollect
ingthetoolormachi nerymustsi gnforaccountabi
l
ity
.
 Theper soncollect
ingthetoolorequi pmentmustbel i
abl
ef ori
tsl
ossordamage.
Tabl
e6.
17.
6Anequi
pmenti
nvent
oryr
ecor
d.
DATE DATE QUANTI TY
TOOL/EQUI
PMENTQTY SI
GNED SI
GNED REMARK
TAKEN RETURNED RETURNED
BURDIZZO 2 01/08/
18~~~~ 03/08/18 1 ~~~~ 1Lost
KNAPSACK
1 15/
08/
18~~~~ 15/
08/
18 1 ~~~~ Al
lgood
SPRAYERS
HOOFTRIMMERS 4 15/08/
18~~~~ 17/
08/
18 4 ~~~~ Al
lgood
TAGAPPLICATOR 10 20/
08/
18~~~~ 20/
08/
18 6 ~~~~ 4Lost
DOZINGGUN 5 20/08/
18~~~~ 20/
08/
18 5 ~~~~ Al
lgood

 Recordingt oolsorequi pmentissohelpfulbecauseitreducestheftandr eckl

ess
useoft oolsbywor kers.
 Eachper sonwhot akest hetoolwi
llberesponsibl
ef orthattoolunt
ili
tisreturned
tothest oreroom.
 I
fonel osesat oolitmustber ecor
dedandar eportshouldbepr ovi
dedt oexplain
whythet ooli
snotav ail
abl
e.
 Attheendoft hey earinvent
oryrecordsarecompi l
edandputononer ecordforthe
wholey ear.
 Thisi
sdonet osoast ohaveanupdat eont hetot
alnumberofasset st hefarm has.
 I
tisalsoi mpor tantbecauseitupdatesont heexpensest hataretobeincur r
edon
i
nventory

6.
17.
7Ani
nvent
oryr
ecor
dfort
hewhol
eyear
.
TOOL/
JANFEBMARAPRMAYJUNJULAUGSEPOCTNOVDEC REMARKS
EQUIPMENT
2Broken
BURDIZZO 4 0 0 8 3 8 7 12 0 5 8 2
and9St olen
Theyar eal l
KNAPSACK
1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 i ngood
SPRAYER
condi
tion
HOOF Theyar eal l
1 0 0 00 2 2 0 1 4 7 4 0
TRIMMER i
ncondi tion
TAG
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 9 1br oken
APPLICATOR
Theyar eal l
DOZINGGUN 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i nperf ect
condi
tion
SYRINGES 0 3 2 1 0 3 1 6 0 1 0 2 5Br oken
SPADE 0 3 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1St olen
Fi
nanci
alr
ecor
ds
 Fi
nanci alrecor dsareallmonet aryact i
vi
ti
esthataredoneont hefar
m.
 Exampl esoff i
nancialr
ecor dsarebal ancesheet,r
ecei
pts,pett
ycashBook,
statementofdebt orsandcr edi
tors,cashanalysi
sbook,profi
tandlossaccount
andI ncomeandexpendi tur
eaccount .
 Thesear ebooksofaccount swhichar eusedonf armsasfinanci
alrecords.
 Thei ncomesi deiscall
edt hedebi tside(l
eft
)andt heexpendit
uresi
dei scal
ledt
he
creditsi de( r
ight).
 Adebi ti sanaccount i
ngent r yt
hatincreasesanassetandacr editi
sanaccounti
ng
entryt hatincr easesaliabil
ity.
 Thef inanci alrecordsarealsousedi ndecisi
onmaki ngonmostf arms.

I
mpor
tanceoff
inanci
alr
ecor
ds
1.Everytransactionont hef arm needst obeanal ysed.
2.Fi
nanci alrecordsar eusedt oanal yseallt
hef i
nanci altransacti
onsont hefarm.
3.Farmingi sabusi nesswhi chincur salotofrisks, t
her eforefi
nancial r
ecordsar e
usedtopr edictf uturefinancialtr
endsanddeci deappr opriat
eacti
oni nadvance.
4.Fi
nanci alrecordscanbeusedt ohel pfarmerspr eparef arm budgetsf orvarious
enter
prisesont hef arm sot hatthef ar
merknowsmoneyl ostorgai ned.
5.Therear ev ar
iousor gani sati
onst hatgivefarmersl oansf orexampl eAgr i
bank.
6.Thereforef i
nanci alrecordshelpf armerst osecur efinancialhelpfrom lending
i
nstit
utionst ofinancet hei rf
armingact ivi
ti
es.

I
ncomeandexpendi
tur
eaccount
 Thisisthemai nfinancialrecordont hefarm becauseitshowsal lt
heact i
vi
ti
es
whicharedoneont hef arm usingmoney .
 Themoneyspentont hef armi sr ecordedintheexpendi t
ureaccountandal l
the
moneyr eceivedisrecor dedint hei ncomeaccount .
 Everyreceiptforfar
m pur chasesshoul dbefiledforauditi
ngpurposes.
 Howev er,producewhi chiseat enbyt hefar
merandhi sf amil
yisrecordedas
i
ncomebecauset heydi dnotpayf orit.
 Producegi ventofarm wor kersi srecordedasexpendi tur
ebecausei tcoul
dbepart
oftheirwages.
 Therefore,i
nani ncomeandexpendi tur
eaccount, aprofi
tisachi
evedi ft
heincome
si
dehasmor emoneyt hanthecr edit
.

Tabl
e6.
17.
8Ani
ncomeandexpendi
tur
erecor
d.
RETURNS/(I
NCOME) $ COSTS/( EXPENDI
TURE) $
Mi
lksold $300 Semenbought $150
Mi
lkdrank $15 Concentr
ate $250
Unproduct
ivecows
$600 Suppl
ement
s $300
sol
d
TOTAL $915 TOTAL $700
MAIZESOLD $150 SEEDMAIZE $20
MAIZEEATEN $50 FUEL $40
LABOUR $30
TOTAL $200 TOTAL $90

GRANDTOTAL $1115GRANDTOTAL $790

PROFI
T:(
INCOME–EXPENDI
TURE)=$1115-$790=$325

Pr
ofi
tandl
oss
 Thepr ofi
tandl ossaccountiscalcul
atedonceay earoraf tertheproducti
onyear
.
 Thepr ofi
tandl ossaccountiscalcul
atedforeachent erpri
seandt henforthewhol
e
farm.
 Itisi
mpor tantfort hefar
mertoknowt heprofi
torlossmadebyanent erpri
seso
thatt
heycanpl anandmakei nformeddecisionsonf uturepr oduct
ionofthe
enter
pr i
se.
 Profi
tableenterprisescanbeexpanded.
 Thereisopeni ngst ockandcl
osingstockintheprofi
tandl ossaccount.
 Theopeni ngst ocki st
hemoneyaf armerhasatthebegi nningoftheyearand
closi
ngst ockist hemoneyaf ar
merhasatt heendoft hey ear.

Tabl
e6.
17.
9Apr
ofi
tandl
ossaccountf
oral
ltheent
erpr
ises.
Beefent
erpr
ise $
I
NCOME A $20000
EXPENDITURE B $1200
PROFIT/LOSS(+/
-) A-
B=C $18800

Porkent
erpr
ise $
I
NCOME D $1000
EXPENDITURE E $2500
PROFIT/LOSS( +/
-) D-
E=F -$1500

LAYERSENTERPRISE $
I
NCOME G $19245
EXPENDITURE H $13160
PROFIT/LOSS(+/
-) G-
H=I +$6085
TOTALPROFIT/LOSS(+/-)
SUM OFENTERPRISEPROFITORLOSS C+F+I $23385
GENERALFARM EXPENSES J $7000
TOTALPROFITORLOSS( +/-
) (C+F+I
)-
J=K +$16385

I
NVENTORY
CLOSI
NGSTOCKTOTAL L $16385
OPENI
NGSTOCKTOTAL M $17000
I
NCREASEORDECREASEOFI
NVENTORY(
+/-
) L-
M=N -
$615

TOTALPROFI
TORLOSS(
INCLUDI
NGSTOCK) $15770
Act
ivi
ti
es
1.Establ
i
shandr
unanagr i
cult
ureent
erpr
iseofy
ourchoice.
2.Prepar
eandmaint
ainappropr
iat
erecor
dsforyourent
erpr
ise.

Val
ueaddi
ti
on
 Val ueadditi
onisapr ocessoft ransformi ngoral teri
ngapr oductf rom i t
sor iginal
stat et
oamor ev aluablest ate.
 Whenr awmat erialsar epr ocessed, theycanf et
chhi gherpricesont hemar ket.
 Val ueadditi
oninv olvest heappl icat i
onofbi otechnol ogywhi chinvolv esthe
alterat
ionofnut r
itional composi tionoft heani mal productsinor dert omeett he
expect ati
onsandneedsofaspeci f
icmar ket.
 Val ueadditi
onisdonesoast oimpr ovet hequal i
tyandshel flif
eoft hepr oduct .
 Itcanal sobedonet oincr easet hemar ket abili
tyoft heproduct.
 Val ueadditi
oncanbedoneonani mal pr oduct ssuchasmeat ,milk,fish,leatherand
eggs.
 Processi ngmeat ,mi l
k,leat her,eggsandi voryt ov alueaddedpr oduct shelp
farmer stoobtainbet t
err eturnsf rom far m pr oduce, li
vest
ockandwi ldli
fe.
 Val ueadditi
oncani nvolvecut ti
ng, salt
ingorcur i
ng, smoking,mi l
kf erment ation,
drying,packaging, tenderizat i
on, deboni ng, seasoni ng(addit
ionofspi cesand
condi ments)andst eri
li
zat ion.

1.Cut
ti
ng
 Meatcut ti
ngcanbedi vi
dedint
ofivemet hodswhi charemincing(gr
inding)
,
disconti
nuousandcont i
nuousprocesses, f
rozenmeatcut t
ingandthecut t
ingof
fattyt
issues.
 Th ecutti
ngofmeati sdonesoast oreducet hemeatsizesintosmallerporti
ons.
 Th emachi ner
iesusedformeatcutt
ingar eshredders,
dicer
s,gri
ndersandbowl
 cut
ter
s.

I
.Mi
nci
ngorgr
indi
ng
 Mi
ncingorgri
ndi
ngi
sdonef
ormeatt
hati
ssof
tandedi
blebypassi
ngi
tthr
ough
meatgri
nder
s.

I
I.Di
scont
inuousmeatcut
ti
ngpr
ocess
 Thedisconti
nuousprocessinv
olv
est hecutt
ingandmi
xi
ngoff
reshf
rozenl
ean
meatt oget
herwithwateri
nabowl cutt
er.
 Disconti
nuousprocessisal
socall
edchoppingofmeat
.

I
II
.Cont
inuousmeatcut
ti
ngpr
ocess
 Theconti
nuouspr ocessi scall
edchoppi ngofani malt
issues.
 Iti
sdoneusingemul si
fyi
ngmachi nes.
 Befor
ecarryi
ngoutemul sif
icat
ion,theanimal ti
ssuesarepr e-
mixedwithf
uncti
onal
i
ngredi
ents,seasoningsandpr e-cutusinggrindersorbowl cutt
ers.
 Themeati sthenpassedt hroughemul sifi
ers(coll
oidmil
ls),toproduceaf
inel
y
choppedmeatmi x.

I
V.Fr
ozenmeatcut
ti
ng
 Frozenmeatcuttingi
nvolvest
hecutt
ingofbonelessmeatbl
ocksint
osli
ces,
cubes
orflakesusi
ngflaker
sormeatcutter
s.
 I
tcanbecutwi thoutpre-
thawi
ngtoav oi
ddr
iplosses,
bacter
ial
growthand
di
scol or
ati
on.

V.Cut
ti
ngoff
att
yti
ssues.
 Cutt
ingoff
att
yti
ssuesi
sdonebycut
ti
ngt
hebackf
ati
nto2-
4cm cubest
oreduce
thef
atcont
entonthemeat
.

Fi
g.7.
1.1 Mi
ncemeatgr
inder

2.Cur
ing
 Meatcuri
ngusingsaltimprovesthet
asteandshel
fli
feofmeat.
 Sal
t(NaCl)assi
stsi
nt heextr
acti
onofsolubl
emuscleprot
eins.
 Curi
ngisdonetoimprov et
hemeatcol our
.
 Sodi
um nitr
it
e(NaNO2)whi chcanbefoundinsmallquant
it
iesi
nsal
treact
swi
th
 theredmeatpigmentformingtheheatstableredcolour.
 Curi
ngusingNaNO2gi vesaspecifi
cdesirabl
ecur i
ngflav
our.
 Sodium ni
tr
it
estabi
li
zesfatsther
ebyretardi
ngr anci
dit
yinmeatpr
oduct
s.
 Nitr
it
einhi
bit
sbacter
ialgr
owthespecial
lyincannedpr oduct
s.

Fi
g.7.
1.2 Changedmeatcol
ouraf
tercur
ing

3.Smoki
ng
 Itr
eferstothepreserv
ati
onoffoodbyexposingittosmokef r
om bur
ningor
smoul der
ingmateri
alsuchaswood.
 Coldsmoki ngi
ncreasesmeatflav
ourandcolourformati
onforexamplei
n
sausages.
 Automat i
cmeatsmoki ngmachinehasasmoki ngchamber,heati
ngsyst
em,ai
r
cir
culati
onsyst
em, smokesystem andtheel
ectri
calcont
rol
sy st
em.

Fi
g.7.
1.3 Smoki
ngofsausages

I
mpor
tanceofsmoki
ng
a.I
thelpsi
nmeatpr eser
vati
onasar esul
tofaldehy
des,phenol
sandaci
ds.
b.I
tret
ardsfatoxi
dati
on.
c.I
tgiv
esmeatasmokef lavourduetophenol
sandcarbonyls.
d.I
thelpsi
nhardeningsausagecasings.

4.Mi
l
kfer
ment
ati
on
 Thebact eriainvolv edinmi l
kferment ation
areLactobaci l
lus, LactococcusandLeuconost ocbact eri
um.
 Milkproduct spr oducedbyl acticacidf ermentati
onarey oghurt,cul
turedbutt
ermil
k,
cult
uredcr eam andcheese.
 Milkisinoculatedwi thastartercul
tur ewhichconv ert
spar tofthelactosei
nto
l
acticacid.
 But t
ermi lkbev eragei sproducedwhent hefatt
ypartoft hecream isskimmedoff
toproducebut terandt her
esidueisf ermentedandser v
edasar efreshi
ngdri
nk.
 Sourcream i smadef rom milkandhas20%f atcontent.
 Yoghurti sproducedbybact eri
um ferment at
ion(yoghurtculture).
 Ferment ati
onofl actoseproducesl acticacidwhichact sonmi lkproteingi
vi
ng
 yoghur
titstext
ureandt
artfl
avour.
 Cheeseisformedbythecoagulat
ionofmi
l
kpr
otei
ncasei
n.

Fi
g.7.
1.4 Thi
ckf
erment
edmi
l
k

5.Dr
ying
 Itiscar r
iedouti nbot hmi l
kandmeatpr oducts.
 Inmi lkpr oducts,dryingismost l
ydonef orpreserv at
ionpur posesbecauseit
i
ncr easespr oductshelflif
e.
 Mi l
kspr aydr ier
sar eusedt oremov ewat erfr
om t hemi l
k.
 Stepsi nv ol
vedi nmi l
kdr yi
ngincludeseparati
onorst andardizati
on,pr
e-heat
ing,
evapor ation,spraydr yi
ngandpackagi ng.
 Fishdr yingisdonebyr emovingwatersoast oi nhibitmicrobialgrowt
h.
 Ther eishi ghermar ketdemandf ordr
iedf i
shespeci all
ycat fi
sh.
 Bilt
ongi spr eparedbydr yi
nganimal meat .
 Thepr ocessofbi lt
ongmaki nginvol
vesmeatsel ecti
on, pr
epar at
ion(whichi
nvol
ves
bast i
ngandseasoni ng),dryi
ngandexper imentation.

Fi
g.7.
1.5 Bi
l
tong

6.Packagi
ng
 Packagingr eferstomet hodsandmat erialsusedf orencl osingorpr otecting
productsf ordi str
ibuti
on, stor
age, saleanduse.
 Packagingpl aysani mpor tantpartinmar ket
ingani mal product s.
 Packagingi nvolvesthef i
lli
ngofst eril
izedornon- steri
li
zedpr oduct sintopr e-
ster
ili
zedcont ainersandt i
ghtsealingoft hefoodcont ai
ner s.
 Packagingi ncludecanni ng,containercl eaning, f
il
li
ng,baggi ng, bottli
ng, seali
ngand
l
idplacing.
 Packagingcanbedi vi
dedi ntocanni ng,t i
nningandpaperorpl asticbased
packaging.
 Themat eri
al stobeusedf orpackagi ngshoul dbef l
exible,li
ght ,odour l
ess,
recycl
abl e,cheap, sealableandr esistantt ooil andf at
s.
 Packagingpr otectsproduct sdur i
ngt ranspor tati
on, pr
ov i
desbet tersani tati
onand
all
owsbet terinventoryandpr oductcont rolf
orr etai
lers.

Fi
g.7.
1.6 Packagi
ngofbeef
7.St
eri
l
izat
ion
 Steri
li
zationi sapr ocesst hatel iminat esorki ll
sal lmicr oorganismsi ncl
uding
bacteri
al spor essot hatt hepackagedpr oductmayhav eal ongershelfli
fe.
 Milkisoneoft heanimal product sthatcanbest eril
ized.
 Bottl
est eril
izationisdoneat110° Cfor30mi nutes,130° Cfor30seconds
or145° Cf or1second.
 Heatingat110° Cfor30mi nutesi sdonet oinactivatemi l
kenzy mes.
 Bacteri
al li
pasesandpr oteinasesar enotf ullyinactivatedat110° C.
 Thisprocesscausesmal l
ar dreact ionsl eadingt obr owni ngofmi l
k,formationof
steri
l
izedf lavourandl ossofl ysine.
 Ultr
a-hight emper ature( UHT)t reatmenti nvolvest heheat i
ngofapr oduct
over135° C.
 UHTt reatmentr equiresast eril
izerandanasept icuni tforpackagi ng.
 UHTi susedf orpr oduct swi thlowaci dssuchasmi lk, babyf oodsandmeat .
 UHTmaxi mizedeat hofmi cro-organi smswhi l
stmi nimi zi
ngchemi calchangesof
theproduct .
 Therear et wot ypesofUHTt reatmentwhi char edi r
ectandi ndi
rectheati
ng.

I
.Di
rectheat
ing
 Dir
ectheati
ngiswherebyapr
oducti
sheat
edbydirectcont
actwi
thst
eam.
 Theproductisheat
edatanel
evat
edtemperat
uref
orashortperi
odofti
me.

I
I.I
ndi
rectheat
ing
 Indi
rectheati
ngiswher ebyt
heheat i
ngmedi um andproductar
enoti
ndi
rect
contactbutseparat
edbyequi pmentcontactsurfaces.
 Plat
e,tubularandscrapedsurfaceheatexchangersareused.

Fi
g.7.
1.7 St
eri
l
izi
ngmachi
ne

I
mpor
tanceofv
alueaddi
ti
on
1.I
tincreasesdemandandmar ket
abil
itybymeeti
ngdifferentli
fest
yles.
2.I
tfacil
itat
esexportati
onofani malproduct
sandincreasepr oductcompeti
ti
veness
withimportedproducts.
3.Valueadditi
oncombi nesdiff
erenttypesofmeatsforcompl ementar yi
nor
derto
i
mpr ovetheulti
mat eproductquali
ty.
4.Valueadditi
onhelpsint hecreat
ionofaloyall
ocalmar ket,
becausebyaddingv al
ue
theproducerfocusesmor eonmeet ingconsumerexpect at
ions.
5.Iti
ncr easestheshelfli
feoft heproducts,f
orexample,powderedmil
khaslonger
shelflifecomparedt ofreshmi l
k.
6.Iti
ncr easesrevenuebecauset hev al
ueofapr oductatfar
m gateisl
owert
hant he
processedpr oductinretail.
7.Itprov i
desbettersanit
ationthroughpackaging.
8.Wei ghtlossesarereducedduet omi ni
mizedevaporat
ionlosses.
9.Iti
mpr ovesthequali
tyoft heproduct.
10.
Itenhancest hepalatabi
lityoftheproduct.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Takeatourt
oanyrel
atedcompanyandstudyhowt
heypr
oducemi
l
kpr
oduct
sand
i
denti
fythet
ypesofmachi
neryt
heyuse.

PROCESSI
NGOFANI
MALPRODUCTS

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Identi
fymeat ,
dairyandwildl
i
feproducts.
2.Describethehistori
calvi
ewofproducti
on,tr
adeandconsumpti
onofmeat,dai
ry
andwi ldl
i
feproducts.
3.Demonst ratetheprocessi
ngofmeat ,
dair
yandwildl
i
feproduct
s.
4.Evaluatefoodsaf et
yandtheHazardAnalysi
sandCrit
ical
Contr
olpoi
nts(
HACC) .

Pr
ocessi
ngofani
malpr
oduct
s
 Ananimal pr
oductisanymat erialt
hatcomesf rom t
hebodyofanyani mal and
theseincludefat
,mi l
k,f
lesh,hidesandi vory
.
 Processingistheperfor
manceofaser iesofmechanicalorchemicaloperati
onson
animal pr
oductsinordertochanget hei
rv al
ueortopreserveit
.
 An i
mal by-pr
oductsarethepr oductsthatareharv
estedfrom animalsthatarenot
musclemeatorpr oduct
st hatarenotf orhumanconsumpt ion.

1.Meatpr
oduct
s
 Meatisdefinedasedibleanimalfl
esh,i
ncl
udingpr
ocessedormanuf
act
ured
pr
oductsfrom sucht i
ssue.
 I
tiscategorizedi
ntoredandwhi t
emeat .
 Thedif
ferencesbetweenr edandwhitemeatisduetomy ogl
obi
n.
 Redmeathasahi gherfatcont
entthanwhit
emeat.
 Meatpr oduct
sarethoseproduct st
hatcomeaf t
ermeatprocessing.
 Processedmeatloseitscharacteri
sticsoffr
eshmeat .
 Thet y
peofmeatpr oductsproduceddependsont hemeatprocessingmet hod
used.
 Me atproduct
saredivi
dedintosixcat egor
iesandthese,ar
efreshpr ocessedmeat
products,cur
edmeat,raw-cookedpr oducts,
pre-
cookedproducts,rawf er
mented
sausagesanddriedmeat .
 Exampl esofmeatproductsareham, pol
ony,cur
edbeef,baconandsausages.

I
.Ham
 I
tismincedmeatwhichhasbeenshapedint
oaf l
atci
rcl
e.
 I
tisafreshpr
ocessedmeatproduct
.
 I
tconsi
stsofoneormorecookedpatti
esofgroundmeat,especi
all
ybeef
.

Fi
g.7.
2.1 Hambur
germeat

I
I.Bi
lt
ong
 I
tisameatpr oductpr
oducedaf t
ert
headdi
ti
onofcombi nati
onsofsal
t.
 Salti
susedforbot hmeatprocessi
ngandmeatpreservation.
 Curi
ngbeefproducesbilt
ongwhichhasani
mprovedt aste.
 Theappl
icat
ionofsaltfaci
li
tat
esmeatdehy
drat
ion.

Fi
g.7.
2.2 Cur
edbeef

I
II
.Bacon
 Baconissalt
edorsmokedmeatwhi chcomesfrom porkbel
l
yandbackcut
s.
 I
tisalsousedforbar
dingandl
ardi
ngr oast
sespeci
all
ygamemeatli
keveni
sonand
pheasant
.

Fi
g.7.
2.3 Bacon

I
V.Sausage
 I
tisami xt
ureofgroundmeatcombi nedwi t
hspi cesandotheringredi
ent
sstuf
fed
i
ntoacasing.
 Theyusuall
yhaveacy l
indr
icalf
orm.
 I
tisproducedfr
om meatcut sorgroundmeatofpor k,v
eal andbeef.
 I
tisprocessedwit
hspices,fl
avouringsandbr eadcr umbswi thanencasi
ng.
 Asausagecasingisamat eri
althatenclosesthef il
l
ingofasausage.
 Thecasingismadef r
om theint
estinesorsy ntheti
cmat er
ials.
  Sausagescanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
reshsausages,
cur
edsausagesandsmoked
sausages.

a.Fr
eshsausages

 Theycont
ainnoni
tr
atesorni
tr
it
es.

b.Cur
edsausages

 Theycont
ainsodi
um ni
tr
it
esandsodi
um ni
tr
ates.

c.Smokedsausages

 Theymaybehotsmoked(
cooked)orcol
dsmoked.

Fi
g.7.
2.4 Fer
ment
edsausage

2.Dai
rypr
oduct
s
 Theseareproductsfrom orcontai
ningcattl
e,goat,
sheepandbuff
alomil
k.
 Thereareseveralf
ormsofmi lkandt hesearerawmi l
k,whol
emil
k,drymi
lk,
evapor
atedmi l
k,condensedmi l
k,f
or ti
fi
edmilk,f
lav
ouredmil
k,or
ganicmi
lkand
ski
m milk.
 Theseareprocessedproductsofmi lk.

a.Rawmi
l
k

 Rawmi
l
kismi
l
kst
rai
ghtf
rom cow.

b.Whol
eMi
l
k

 I
tismi
l
kfr
om whi
chnoconst
it
uenti
sremov
ed.

c.Dr
yMi
l
k

 I
tisdehy
drat
edmi
l
kfr
om whi
ch95%ofwat
eri
sremov
ed.

d.Ev
apor
atedmi
l
k

 I
tisdehy
drat
edmi
l
kfr
om whi
ch60%ofwat
err
emov
ed.

e.Condensedmi
l
k

 I
tref
erst
oev
apor
atedmi
l
kwi
thsugaradded.

f
.For
ti
fi
edmi
l
k
  I
tref
erst
omi
l
kenr
ichedwi
thoneormor
enut
ri
ent
s.

g.Fl
avour
edmi
l
k

 I
tisasweeteneddr
inkmadewi
thmi
l
k,sugar
,col
our
ingandar
ti
fi
cial
flav
our
ing
addedt
oit.

h.Or
gani
cmi
l
k

 I
tref
erstomilkproducedbydai
ryf
armersthatuseonlyor
ganicf
ert
il
izer
sand
or
ganicpest
ici
des,andthei
rcowsarenotgiv
ensupplemental
hormones.

i
.Ski
m mi
l
k

 I
tismi
l
kfr
om whi
challcr
eam hasbeenremoved.
 Ski
mmedmil
khasafatcont
entofbetween0.
1and0.
3%.

3.Mi
lkpr
oduct
s
 Ther
earef
erment
edmilkpr
oduct
sandnon-
fer
ment
edmi
l
kpr
oduct
s.
 Non-
fer
mentedmi
lkpr
oductsi
ncl
udecr
eam.

I
.Fer
ment
edmi
lkpr
oduct
s
 Fer
ment
edmi
l
kpr
oduct
sincl
udey
oghur
t,cheeseandbut
ter
.

a.Yoghur
t

 Iti
spr eparedbycool i
ngboi ledmi l
kt obodyt emper atureandaddi ng5%t o10%
start
er.
 Thebact eriainv ol
v ediny oghur tproducti
onar ecalledy oghurtcultur
es.
 Yoghur tculturesf ermentl actosetopr oducel acti
caci d.
 Lacti
caci dbr eaksdownorsy nthesizesmilkpr otei
ntogi v
ey oghurtit
stextur
eand
tartf
lavour .
 Milkfrom cat tl
eespeci allyHol stei
nandJer seysinZimbabwear ethemost
commonbr eedsusedf orthepr oductionofmi l
kusedf oryoghurtproducti
on.
 Homogeni zedmi l
ki sthemostcommont ypeofmi lkusedbutev enun-
homogeni zedmi l
kcanbeusedt oo.
 Yoghur tusual lycont ai
ns81%wat er,9%pr otein,5%fat ,4%car bohydrat
esand4%
sugars.

Fi
g.7.
2.5 Yoghur
t
b.Cheese
  Cheesei sadai r
ypr oductwhichhasawi derangeoff lavoursandt extures.
 Iti
spr oducedbyt hecoagul ati
onofmi lkprot ei
ncasein.
 Duringcheesepr oduct i
on,milki sacidi
fiedandt headdit
ionofanenzy mecal l
ed
rennetfacili
tatescoagul at
ion.
 Thesol i
dmat erial isthensepar atedandpr essedintoaf inalproduct.
 Thet extureandf lavourofcheesecanbeaf f
ectedbypast eur
izati
on,butterfat
content,bacteria, processingandagi ng.
 Processingofcheesei sdoneint hr
eephaseswhi charecur dli
ng,curdpr ocessi
ng
andr i
pening.
 Curdlinginvolvest heseparati
onofmi l
ki nt
osol idcurdsandl iquidwhey .
 Curdpr ocessingi nv olvesdrai
ning, salt
ingandpackagi ng.
 Ripeningisthel astst aget hatinv ol
vesmat urat
ion.

Fi
g.7.
2.6 Cheese
c.But
ter

 I
tisadairypr oductwhichcontai
ns80%but t
erfat.
 I
tisproducedbychur ni
ngfreshorf
ermentedcream ormilkt
oseparatethebut
ter
fr
om buttermilk.
 Churni
ngi sthepr ocessofshaki
ngupcream orwholemilktomakebut t
er.
 Thediff
erentt ypesofbutt
erarecul
tur
edbutter
, sweetcr
eam but
ter
,rawcream
butt
erandwheybut t
er.

I
I.Non-
fer
ment
edmi
l
kpr
oduct
s
 Non-
fer
ment
edmi
l
kpr
oduct
sincl
udecr
eam.

a.Cr
eam

 I
tist
hehigh-f
atcomponentsepar
atedfrom whol
emil
kasaresul
tofthecr
eami
ng
pr
ocess.
 I
thasahigherpropor
ti
onoffatdr
oplet
st omil
kthanr
egul
arf
lui
dmilk.
 I
tmayappeary el
lowduet
ohi ghf
atcontent
.

4.Wi
ldl
if
epr
oduct
s
 Thesearemateri
alsderi
vedfr
om thewildanimals.
 Wil
dli
fehasav ar
ietyofpr
oductsandtheseincludewil
dgamemeat ,i
vor
y,ani
mal
ski
ns,hi
des,
trophiesandsomemat er
ialsthatareusedinmedi
cine.

a.Wi
l
dgamemeat
  I
tref
erst
oanymeatf
rom al
andwildanimalt
hati
shunt
edf
orf
ood.
 Gamemeatcanbedr
iedt
oproducebil
tong.

b.I
vor
y

 I
voryisahar dcream-colour edsubstancewhi chf ormst hetusksofel ephants.
 I
tconsistsofdentinewhi chi soneofthephy sical charact
eri
sticsofteet handtusks.
 I
voryhasbeenofgr eatvaluet otheextentthatelephant sandot herani malshave
beenlabell
edendanger edspeci esduet otheincr easeintheireconomi cdemand.
 Thishasresult
edi nthecr eationofparal
lelmar kets( bl
ackmar kets)andan
i
ncreaseinpoachingact ivit
ies.
 I
voryhasbeenusedasf aket eeth,
fans,dominoes, tubes,
reli
giousobj ectsand
i
vorycarvi
ngs.

Fi
g.7.
2.7 Acol
l
ect
ionofi
vor
y
c.Tr
ophi
es

 Thet r
ophyistheanimal(orit
shead,ski
noranyotherbodypar t)t
hatiskeptbythe
hunterasasouv eni
r.
 Animalsthatarenormal
lyusedast r
ophyhuntsareusuall
ylarge,maleanimals,
wit
hl ar
gehornsandbodi es.
 Animalsthatarepref
err
edi ntr
ophyhunti
ngincl
udeelephantsandlions.

Fi
g.7.
2.8 Tr
ophywi
l
dboar
d.Ski
nsandhi
des

 Ahideisani
mal skinthati
st reat
edforhumanuse.
 Wildanimalsthatar esourcesofv al
uablehi
desincl
udel
eopar
ds,
crocodi
les,
el
ephantsandr hinoceros.
 Hi
desandski nsar eusuall
yusedl ocall
yorexpor
tedfort
hemanuf
actureof
pr
oductsli
keshoes, j
ackets,belt
s,hat
sandbags.

Hist
ori
calv
iewofproduct
ion,
tradeandconsumpt
ionofmeat
,
dair
yandwildl
if
einZi
mbabwe
 HistoryofZimbabwe'sagri
cultur
al sectoronmeat,dai
ryandwi l
dli
fei
sdivi
dedint
o
threedist
inct
ivest
ageswhi charepr e-col
onial
to1985period,
post1985andpost
2000.
 Thei nt
roducti
onofthelandreform programmef aci
li
tat
edagr osslev
elofchange
i
nt heagricul
tur
alandwildl
ifesector.
 Trendsofpr
oduct
ion,
tradeandconsumpt
ionl
evel
sshowt
hechangesov
ert
he
years.

1.Meatanddai
rypr
oduct
s

Pr
e-1985
 Before1985beefpr oduct ionwasf ocusedoncommer cial sect orandt hear eas
werel ocat edi nt hedr ierpar tsofZi mbabwepar ti
cular lyt hel owerv eld.
 Animal sf inishedof fongr assbutot her smov edt oar easwi thbet terrainfal l
amount sl i
keChat swor t
hdur ingt hedr yseasons.
 Duringt hisper i
odCol dSt orageCommi ssi on( CSC)wasi ntroducedwhi chensur ed
gradingandst or ageofbeef .
 Total meatexpor tsincr easedar ound1960t o1970' s.
 Howev er , i
nl at e1970' st hel i
ber at i
onwarandi ndependencer educedexpor tst o
aparthei dSout hAf ri
casucht hatt het otal meatexpor tsdr amat icall
ydecl ined.
 By1985communal andr eset t
ledf armer spr oduced3409000cat tl
ewi thanof f
takeof1%t o3%.
 Animal swer esol dt oCSC.
 Othermeatani mal slikemut ton, goat , pigandpoul tryhadl owerpr oduct ionl evel
s
compar edt ot hef oll
owi ngy earsbecauset heirmar ket swer el i
mi tedcompar edt o
beefpr oduct ion.
 Dairypr oduct ioni nZi mbabwei sdat edbackt o1912.
 Dairypr oduct ion( 50%ofdai rypr oduct ion)waspr imar ilydonei nr egionI, IIandI II.
 Thepr edomi nantdai rycat tl
ebr eedswer et heHol stein- Friesianbr eeds,fol lowedby
Jersey ,Ay rshir e,Guer nsey ,Redpol l
, Simment al andRedDane.
 In1952, theDai r
yMar ketingBoar d( DMB)wasf ormedwhosepr imar yfunct i
ons
weret opur chase, col l
ectandr ecei v emi lkandbut terf atf rom r egisteredpr oducer s
atprescr ibedpr i
ces.
 In1983t heGov ernmentsetupt hePeasantSect orDev elopmentPr ogrammewi thi
n
theDai ryMar ket i
ngBoar d( DMB) ,nowknownast heDai ryDev elopment
Programme( DDP) .
 Ini
ti
al fundi ngwasf r
om NORAD, DANI DA, EuropeanUni on( EU) ,GoZ, Hei fer
i
nternat i
onal ,Af ricaNow( Uni t
edKi ngdom)andFoodandAgr icultureOr gani sati
on
(FAO) .
 Thisf undi ngi mpr ov eddai rypr oduct iont hr oughconst ruct ionofmi l
kcol lect ion
centres, cat tl
ebr eedi ngt echnol ogi es, pur chaseofbul lsandhei fers,purchaseof
equipmentandt rainings.
 From 1978t o1985t heDMBsuf feredhi ght r
adedef icit s.
 By1984, commer cial mi l
kout puti ncr easedt o181100000f rom 101600000l it
res
andt henumberofcowsi ncr easedt o43800f rom 41500.
 Consumpt ionofmeatanddai rywasmost l
yf rom t hehousehol dher dsespeci all
yin
therur al ar eas.
Post1985
 Therewasasi gni
fi
cantchangei nbeefproduct i
onfrom 1985duet othesi
gningof
theACPpr ef
erent
ialt
radewhi chgrantedpr ef
erent
ialtr
adearrangementsfor
developingcount ri
es.
 Zimbabwehadal ucrati
veEUmar ketfrom 1985.
 Exportationofbeefwasi mprovedthroughupgr adi
ngofabat t
oirs,
countr
yzonation
andcr eationofdiseasecont r
oll
ingareas.
 Thisincreasedpr oducti
onandt radeofbeef .
 Thenat ionalherdincreasedto122000by1988- 89from 106000dairycatt
lein
1980.
 From 1987t o2000,therewasadecr easeinmi l
kproduction(
from 470000met ri
c
tonnest o310000met r
ictonnes).

Post2000
 Tosomeext enttheLandr eform pr ogram negat i
velyaffectedbeefproducti
onas
productiondecr eased.
 Duet othei ntr
oduct i
onofeconomi csanctions,tradewit htheEUwasbl ocked.
 Thisaffectedt heexpor tati
onofbeef .
 CSCcol lapsedduet othelackofani malstosellandi tdidnothav eacommon
mar ketwher eitwoul dsellthebeef .
 Dairyproduct i
ondecl inedsigni f
icant l
yinthey ear2000.
 Registereddai r
yf armer sdeclinedf rom 314in2000t o165i n2012,mil
kingherd
droppedf r
om 30000t o20000.
 Landsei zuresf acil
i
tatedmassi vedest ockingwhi chresultedinexcessiv
eher d
dropping.
 Althought herewasadecl i
nei nmeatanddai r
ypr oduction,thedemandf ormeat
anddai r
ypr oduct scont i
nuedt oi ncrease.
 Thisisduet oani ncreaseint hepopul at
ionsize.

Wi
ldl
if
e
 Wildl
if
ei nZi mbabweev ol
vedfrom pr e-colonial t
imes, colonialt
imeandpost -
i
ndependencet opresentday.
 Thepr esentdaymanagementi smul t
i-
disciplinary,i
ntegrativeandaffectedby
i
nternationallaw.
 Tradit
ionallycommuni t
iesweregov er
nedbychi efswhof acil
it
atedcontrolof
wildl
if
e.
 Therewasnozonat ionbetweencommuni ti
esandwi ldli
fe.
 Therewasnowi l
dli
feproducti
onbuti tplay edanessent ialroleinpeopl
es’liv
es.
 Wildani malswerehuntedf ormeatandski ns.
 Wildl
if
emanagementwasdonet hrought hei ndigenousknowl edgesystems( IKS)
.
 Thesei ndigenousknowledgesy stemspr ohibitedhunt i
ngofcer t
ainani
mal s
 referri
ngt hem assacr ed.
 Tradewasdoneaf tercapt ureofhunt .
 Meatwasusedbar t
ert rade.
 Dur i
ngt hecol oni
al era,communi ti
eswer eseparat edfr
om wi ldlif
e.
 Protectedar easandwi l
dlifewer echangedf r
om bei ngcommuni t
ypr opertytostate
property.
 Thel egal useofwi ldl
ifeout si det hepr otectedareaswasenj oy edbyaf ew.
 In1964, thedepar tmentofnat ionalpar kswasf or medf orwil
dl i
femanagementand
i
n1965t hecr ocodi l
er anchi ngpi l
otschemewasl aunched.
 In1968, gamer eserveswer eest ablishedi ncommunal l
ands.
 Dur i
ngt hepost -i
ndependenceper i
od, communi tiesbecamei nv olvedinwi l
dli
fe
management .
 Rev enuesf rom el ephanthunt ingwer eploughedbacki ntothecommuni tiessothat
l
ocal peopl ebenef i
t.
 CAMPFI REwast heni ntroducedi n1988.
 CAMPFI REpl ayedapi votalr olei nwildli
fetill
early2000wheni tlackedf unding.
 Atpr esent ,wildli
feproduct i
oni sdividedi ntoint
ensi ve,
semi -
intensi veand
extensivepr oduct ionsy stem.
 Int
ensi vepr oduct i
onsy stem i nv olv
espr oducti
onofcapt i
veorsemi captivespecies
l
ikecr ocodi l
es.
 Extensivepr oduct ionsy st em i nvolvesf reerangingofbi ggame.

Tabl
e.7.1.
1Trendsofannual
meatandmi
l
kpr
oduct
ion(
1000
metr
ictonnes)
.
Year Annual
growt hrat
e(%)
Product
19801990200020021980-19901990- 2000
Beef 76. 4 81.
7 101.2102.
40.
7 2.2
Pi
g 8.
7 11.4 20.4 27.
0 2.
8 6.0
Poult
ry 7.
6 17.0 25.4 35.
8 8.
3 4.1
Milk 430. 0470.0310.
0280.
00.
9 -4.1

Table.7.
1.2Tr
endsofmeatandmi
l
kconsumpt
ion(
1000met
ri
c
tonnes).
Year Annualgr
owt hrat
e(%)
Product
19801990200020021980- 19901990- 2000
Beef 60. 3 75.
5 85.7 96.
2 2.3 1.3
Pi
g 8.6 11.2 17.9 24.
2 2.7 4.8
Poult
ry7.5 16.8 24.4 33.
1 8.3 3.8
Milk 337. 1316.0168.
7202.
9-0.6 -6.
1
Tabl
e.7.
1.3Expor
tori
mpor
tdependencyf
orl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
s.
Expor
tsaspercent
ageof I
mpor
tsasper
centageof
Pr
oduct product
ion consumpti
on
1980 1990 2000 2002 1980 1990 2000 2002
Beefand
22.
41 7.
44 15.
71 5.
70 3.
66 0.
29 0.
31 0.
02
buff
alo
Pig 1.
02 1.
42 12.
18 10.
09 0.
2 0.
04 0.
02 0.
00
Poult
ry 1.
17 1.
53 4.
39 7.
73 0.
00 0.
00 0.
20 0.
40
Mil
k 0.
49 6.
24 18.
95 4.
57 2.
52 0.
04 4.
51 7.
55

Hi
stor
icalconceptoff
oodpr
ocessi
ngi
nZi
mbabwe
 TheI r
onAgepeopl eusedt ohuntformeat.
 Howev er,withti
mepeopl ebegantokeepliv
est ock.
 Duringthepr e-
colonialperi
odpeoplebegantodi scovernewmet hodsof
processinganimal productssuchasmeatandmi l
k.
 Someoft heseearlymet hodsoffoodprocessingandpr eserv
ati
onaresti
ll
used
today.
 Thesemet hodsincludemi l
kacidi
fi
cati
on,dryi
ngandt anning.

i
.Mi
lkaci
dif
icat
ion
 Tradi
ti
onally,sourmi l
kwaspr oducedbysi mplyleavi
ngf reshmi l
ki nawarm pl
ace
foradayt oferment .
 I
twasl efttofermenti nacl aypot.
 Thismethodwasusedf orbothpreservationandpr ocessi ngofmi l
k.
 Howev er
, i
nmoder ntechnologymi l
kaci difi
cati
oni sachiev edbytheadditi
onofan
acid.
 Theacidsusedf ormilkacidifi
cati
onincludeacet icacid,adi pi
cacid,ci
tr
icaci
d,
fumaricacid,glucono-delt
a-lact
one,mal icacidandt artar
icaci d.

I
I.Dr
ying
 Tradit
ionally,
meatwasdr i
edt omakebilt
ongcommonl yknownas
chimukuy u/umhwabha.
 Itwasmadef r
om goat,
sheepandcat t
lemeatandwi l
dani mals.
 Itwast heeasiestandcheapestmethodofprocessingmeatt oimproveit
st aste
andshel fli
fe.
 Sincetherewasnor ef
ri
gerat
ion,dr
yingwasthebestwayofmeatpr eservati
on.
 Driedmeatwasmadeei t
herbymar i
nati
ngorrubbingitwithsaltandhangingiton
topofaf iretoincr
easetherateofdehydr
ati
on.
 I
twasal sopr epar
edbyspr eadingi
tonabar esurfacewher ether
eisenoughl i
ght
penetr
ation.
 Howev erinthemoder nwor l
d,meatdr yi
ngisdonebymar i
nati
ngitwithspi
cesthat
i
ncreaset herateofdehydrati
onandimpr ovesthet asteofthemeat .
 Useofv inegarandspicemi xisspr
inkledli
berall
yov erthemeatandr ubbedin.
 Thedryingisnowdonebyusi nganel ectr
icfanassistedov ensetat40°Cto70°C
l
eavingthedooropenf orl
etti
ngoutmoi stair.

Foodpr
ocessi
ngt
echnol
ogy

Demonst
rat
ionofmeat
,mi
lkandwi
ldl
if
epr
oduct
spr
ocessi
ng

i
.Spr
aydr
ying
 Thi
si samet hodofdr yingmil
kintomil
kpowder .
 I
tisdonei nsidealargedryi
ngchamberwher etherei
shotairofupto200°
C.
 Mil
ki ssprayedint
ot hechamberusingeit
heraspinningdiskatomi
ser
soraseri
es
ofhighpressurenoz zl
es.
 Whent hemi stget
si ncontactwit
hhotair
,waterevaporat
esleavi
ngdri
edsol
i
ds
whichfall
toaconv eyorbel
tatthebot
tom ofthechamber.

Fi
g.7.
2.9 Desi
gnoft
hespr
aydr
yingpr
ocess.

I
I.Fer
ment
ati
on
 Thefer
mentat
ionpr
ocessisusuall
yusedtomakedai r
yproduct
s.
 Someofthedair
yproduct
sproducedthr
oughfermentati
onareyoghur
t,cheese
andbutt
er.
 Thefl
owdiagr
am belowil
l
ustr
atestheproduct
ionofcheese.

Fi
g.7.
2.10 Cheesepr
oduct
ion

I
II
.Past
eur
izat
ion
 Past
eur
isat
ioni
sar
elat
ivel
ymi
l
dheatt
reat
mentt
hati
ssuf
fi
cientt
odest
roy
 disease- causi ngmi croor gani smsandi nact i
v ateenzy mest oext endtheshel fli
feof
mi l
kandmi l
kpr oduct s.
 Itshoul dbef ollowedbyi mmedi at ecool ingofpr oductt othet emper aturethatis
suf fi
cient l
ylowt ocheckt hegr owt hofmi croor ganismswhi char eresist
antt o
temper atureused.
 Theadv antageofpast eur isationi st hati tcausesmi nimal sensor yandnut r
itiv
e
changesi nthef ood.
 Cool rawmi lkent erst hroughaf loatt ankwhi chwi llbeonat emper aturelevelof
4° Cto5° C.
 Itflowst hroughaheatexchangercal l
edar egener ator ,passingcl oseto
past eurizedmi lkt hati sf l
owi ngout war ds.
 Thet womi lkpi pesexchangeheat ,wher ebyt heincomi ngmi l
ki sheatedt o38° C
andt heout goi ngmi l
ki scool eddown.
 Thewar medmi lkpassest hroughapr e-heat er,fedbyoneoft hest eam pipesand
war mst o54° C.
 Nextt hemi l
kent er sthepast eurizi ngl oopandi smov edalongbyapump.
 Mor esteam i si nj ectedt oheati tt o72° Candi tfl
owsar oundal ongloopf or15
secondst okeepi tlongenoughf orpast eur i
zat i
ont ooccur .
 Thenex tphasei st hedet ect ionofwhet hert hemi l
ki shotenoughf or
past eurizationbuti fitisnotdi ver tedupar oundt hepur pleloopandbackar ound
theci rcuitunt ilitissuf f
icient lypast eur ised.
 Af t
ersuccessf ullypast eur i
zingt hemi l
k, itfl
owsi ntoasepar atorat72° Candi s
flashcool edt o53° Canddeodor ized.
 Apumpsendst hepar tl
ycool edmi l
kt hrought her egener atorandi tcoolsfurtherto
7° Cgi vi
ngi tsheatt oincomi ngmi lk.
 Last l
yar efri
ger at ionuni tchi llst hemi lkt oitsfinaltemper aturef orbottl
ing.
 Fig.7. 2.11i l
lustr atest hepast eur isationpr ocessofmi l
k.

Fi
g.7.
2.11 Desi
gnofami
l
kpast
eur
izer

Non-
foodpr
ocessi
ngt
echnol
ogy
 Thisi
nvol
vesthepr
ocessi
ngofproduct
sthatar
enotmeantf
orconsumpt
ion.
 I
tinvol
vesthepr
ocessi
ngofski
nsandhidesint
oleat
her
.

Tanni
ngpr
ocess
 Thisisapr ocesswher ebyrawanimalhi
desandski nsaresoakedinal
iqui
d
containi
ngt anni
cacidorbyt heuseofotherchemicals.
 Leatherthatcanbet annedcomesf rom l
i
vestockandwi l
danimals.
 Thet anni
ngpr ocessinvolv
espre-
tanni
ng,tanni
ng,select
ion,
dressi
ngandfi
nishi
ng.
I
.Pr
e-t
anni
ng
 Leatherissoakedinor dertoextr
udethesalt
sthatwereusedtopreser
vethe
l
eather .
 Leatheristhenli
medbecausel i
meremov esthehai
randepider
misont hehi
de.
 As oluti
onofsodium sulphideandli
meisusedt osof
tenandenhancetheend
product.
 Thehi deisthenspl
itintolayer
swherebythetopwil
lproducefi
neandsmoothgrai
n
l
eatherwhi l
ethebottom canbeusedf orsuede.

I
I.Tanni
ng
 Itturnst hehideintol
eather
.
 Miner al t
anningisusuall
ydoneusingal kali
nechr ome-3sal ts.
 Alkalinechr ome-3salt
stakeashor tperiodt openetrat
et hehi de,usual
ly24to48
hour s.
 Alkalinechr ome-3salt
sproducefine,softandmoder nfinishwhi chishighl
y
mar ket abl
e.
 Ifalkalinechrome-3saltsar
eunav ail
ableot hertanni
ngmet hodscanbeused.
 Th esemet hodsarepurevegetabl
et anning,syntheti
ctanni ng,oilt
anningand
combi nati
ont anni
ng.

I
II
.Sel
ect
ing
 Whent anni
ngisfini
shedt heexcesswat eronthehi
deisremoved.
 Thisi
swher ethegradingoft hehidestakespl
ace,t
hegradi
ngisaccordi
ngto
quanti
tyandwher ethenat ur
alfeatur
esandf l
awscanbeseenint hepr
oduct.
 Thehidesthatareheav i
l
ycoat edorembossedar eusual
lyr
egardedasofless
quali
ty.

I
V.Dr
essi
ng
 Thisprocessinv
olvesshav
ingofthehidessot hatt
heycanhavethesame
thi
ckness.
 Dyeingisdonesoast oaddanadditi
onalcolourtothel
eat
her.
 Setti
ngisthendonetoremov et
hecreasesandexcesswat eri
nthehide.
 Unti
dyedgesar eremovedfrom t
herestofthehide.

V.Fi
nishi
ng
 Thi
sisthef i
nal pr
ocess.
 Thehideunder goesseri
esofsurf
acecoati
ngtechniquest
oachievether
equi
red
physi
calstat
eoft hehide.
 Thesetechniquesarepadding,
spray
ing,
roll
ercoati
ng,buf
fi
ng,staki
ngand
 embossing.
 Themai nimportanceoft hef
inishi
ngt ouchesistolessenthegrai
nblemishesi
n
thehide,wi
thoutlosingthenaturalappearanceandbeaut yoft
hef i
nalpr
oduct.
 Iti
salsodonet oprov i
detheneededdegr eeofgl oss,cr
eateamor eprot
ecti
ve
surf
aceinthehide, ensuri
ngthattheleatherissoftandmouldableandtomaket he
surf
aceeasyt oclean.

Fi
g.7.
2.12 Desi
gnofl
eat
herpr
ocessi
ng(
tanni
ng)

Hazar
danal
ysi
sandcr
it
icalcont
rolpoi
nts(
HACCP)
 HACCPi samanagementsy stem inwhi chf oodsaf etyisaddressedbyanal ysi
sand
cont rolofbi ological
,chemi cal andphy sicalhazardsf rom r
awmat er
ial
s,producti
on,
pr ocurement ,handli
ng, manuf acturi
ng, dist
ribut
ionandconsumpt ionofthe
finishedpr oduct.
 Itisani nternati
onallyrecognizedsy stem f orreducingt her
iskoffoodhazar ds.
 Thi ssy stem ident i
fi
espot entialhazardsandcont rolsthem atspecif
icpointsinthe
pr ocess.
 HACCPt ri
est oav oi
dhazar dsf rom happeni ngthanav oidt
hem whent hepr oducti
s
alreadypr oduced.
 Thi ssy stem hassev enprinciples.

Sev
enpr
inci
plesofHACCP

1.Conductahazar
danal
ysi
s
 Thisist hefi
rstprincipl
ewhi chev
al uatestheprocessesandidenti
fi
eswher e
hazardscanbei ntroduced.
 Hazar dscanbephy sical,chemical orbiol
ogical
.
 Thehazar didentifi
cat i
oni sdoneint womai nst
epswhi char
e,theident
if
icat
ionand
evaluati
onoft hehazar d.
 Evaluationofthehazar disthedet erminat
ionoft heext
entofharmt heusercanbe
exposedt obyt hehazar dousmat erial
.
 Oncet hehazar dident i
fi
cat i
onandev al
uationprocesshasended,i
denti
ficat
ionof
cri
ti
cal contr
ol poi
nt sfollows.

2.I
dent
if
ycr
it
ical
cont
rol
poi
nts
 Crit
ical
contr
ol poi
ntsarepoi
ntswherethehazardmustbecontr
oll
edbef or
eit
presentsar
iskt otheenduser
.
 Foreachcri
ticalcontr
olpoi
ntther
eisneedtoident
if
yprev
enti
vemeasur es.
 Preventi
onofthesehazardscanbethroughuseofspeci
fi
ctemperatur
e,pH, t
ime
 andt
hepr
ocedur
est
aken.

3.Est
abl
ishcr
it
ical
li
mit
sforeachcr
it
icalpoi
nt
 Atthi
sst agethemaximum andmi ni
mum limit
sareestabl
ished.
 Thesearemaxi mum andmi nimum l
imit
sfortemperat
ure,t
ime, pH,
saltl
evel
,
chl
ori
neorot herprocessi
ngcharact
eri
sti
csthatwil
lcontr
olthehazard.
 Ift
heli
mi tsforfi
xi
ngt hehazar
dsareexceededther
eisneedf orcor
recti
ve
measures.
 Theaffectedproductsmustbecontrol
l
ed.

4.Est
abl
ishcr
it
ical
li
mit
s
 Thisinvolvest
heestabli
shmentofstandardsateachcr
it
ical
contr
olpoi
nt.
 Thest andarddet
erminesthehazardthatmustbecontr
oll
edateachcri
ti
calcontr
ol
point
.
 Th emaximum andmi nimum l
imitsarethecri
ti
call
imi
tsoneachofthehazards
thatneedt obecontr
oll
ed.

5.Est
abl
ishmoni
tor
ingpr
ocedur
es
 Themoni t
ori
ngprocedureinv olvest heestabli
shmentofpar amet erstobe
measur edandhowt heyar emeasur ed.
 Thereisneedt omonitorthepr ocessatt hecrit
icalcontr
ol pointandkeepr ecords
thatwillpr
ovethatthecri
tical pointshav ebeenmet .
 Ifconti
nuousmoni t
oringoft hecont rol
pointisnotpossi bl
e, t
her eisneedto
determinethetimesthemeasur ement swillbetakent oshowt hattheprocessis
undercont r
ol.
 Themoni t
ori
ngprogram const itutesphy si
calmeasur ement sorobser vat
ionsthat
canbedonei nati
mel ymanner .
 Theinformationcanbegi veni nat i
mef ramethatgi vesroom f ortaki
ngactionif
somet hi
nggoeswr ongdur ingpr ocessing.

6.Est
abl
ishcor
rect
iveact
ions
 Acti
onsneedt obet akeni facr
iti
calli
mi ti
snotmet.
 Thi
swillbeidenti
fiedaheadoft imeforeachcr i
ti
calcontr
olpoint
.
 Thecorr
ecti
v eactionmustmakesur et hatnounsaf
epr oducti
sproduced.
 Therei
sneedt oev aluatetheprocesssoast odeter
mi nethecauseoftheprobl
em
andhowt ofixtheprobl em.
 Thi
shelpsinget t
ingpr eparedi
nt aki
ngact i
onift
heproblem occur
sagain.

7.Est
abl
ishr
ecor
dkeepi
ngpr
ocedur
es
 Therei sneedt okeeprecor
dsthatshowthatthecrit
icall
i
mitshav
ebeenmetand
thesy stem i
sincontrol
.
 TheHACCPpl anmustbev ali
dat
edthroughtheestabli
shmentofver
if
icat
ion
procedur es.
 Verif
icationisdonebycheckingtheendproduct,
thecontrol
sandthecorrect
ive
acti
ont aken.

Adv
ant
agesofHACCPsy
stem
1.Itfacil
i
tatesmor eef fi
cientself
-control act
ionswi t
halesspr
obabil
i
tyoferr
ors,
accidentsorfraud.
2.Itestabli
shesaconf i
dencei nthepr oduct .
3.Itmot i
vatesper sonnel trai
ningandgi vesagl obalandobj
ect
ivevi
sionofwhat
effecti
velygoesoni nt hecompany .
4.Itreducescostsandwast es.
5.Itcanser veasdef enceagai nstlegalact i
on.
6.Itcanbeusedi ni ntroducingnewf eedsaf etyinthedevel
opmentofnewproducts.
7.Feedqual it
yincr easesandbui l
dsupr eputation.
8.Itreducesbarrier sininternati
onal tr
ade.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofHACCPsy
stem
1.I
trequir
estechnical
, humanandmat er
ialr
esourceswhichmightnotalway
sbe
avai
labl
e.
2.I
trequir
esdetai
ledt echnical dataandconstantupdat
ing.
3.I
trequir
esconcent r
at edactionsofallpar
tici
pantsofthefoodchain.
4.I
trequir
esconser v
ingofi nfor mati
onforasimplewayofinterpr
etati
on.

Act
ivi
ty
1.Visi
tEagl
eTanni
ngCompanyinMar
onderaorImponent
eTanning(
Pvt
)Lt
dand
observ
ethewhol
etanni
ngpr
ocessf
rom pre-
tanni
ngtof
ini
shi
ng.

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assAct
ivi
ty
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1:
ANI
MALHEALTH
2:
ANI
MALPRODUCTI
ON
3:
ANI
MALPRODUCTSTECHNOLOGY

PRESERVATI
ONOFANI
MALPRODUCTS

Byt
heendoft
hesubt
opi
c,l
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofpr
eser
vat
ion.

I
dent
if
ypr
eser
vat
ionmet
hodsofani
mal
product
s.

Demonst
rat
epr
eser
vat
ionofani
mal
product
s.

Ev
aluat
ethepr
eser
vat
ionmet
hodsi
nthei
rlocal
area.

Pr
eser
vat
ion
Pr
eser
vati
oni
sthepr
ocessi
ngandst
ori
ngofpr
oduct
ssot
hatt
hei
rshel
f-
li
fei
s
ext
ended.

Mostoft
heani
malpr
oduct
sspoil
qui
ckl
y,t
her
efor
edi
ff
erentmet
hodshav
ebeen
devel
opedt
opr
eserv
ethesepr
oduct
s.
Pr
eser
vedpr
oduct
scanbeusedl
ongaf
terf
reshpr
oduct
shav
espoi
l
ed.

Ani
malproduct
sarepreser
vedt
opr
eventt
hegr
owt
hofmi
cro-
organi
smst
hatcan
causespoil
ages.

I
tisther
efor
e,i
mport
anttopr
eventcont
ami
nat
ionofani
mal
product
sdur
inghandl
i
ng,
pr
ocessi
ngandst
oragesoastoavoi
dspoi
l
ages.

Themai
nideabehi
ndpr
eser
vat
ioni
stocreat
eunf
avour
abl
econdi
ti
onsf
ort
hegr
owt
h
ofmi
cro-or
gani
smsi
nanimalpr
oduct
s.

I
mpor
tanceofpr
eser
vat
ion
I
tpr
event
sfoodshor
tagest
hrought
hei
mpor
tat
ionofpr
eser
vedf
ood.

I
tincr
easest
heshel
f-
li
feofani
mal
product
s,t
husi
ncr
easi
ngsuppl
y.

Pr
eser
vat
ionenabl
espr
operf
oodsuppl
yandt
hisst
abi
l
isesf
oodpr
ices.

Excessf
oodcanbest
oredsot
hati
tcanbeusedi
nti
mesofscar
cit
y.

I
tdecr
easesf
oodwast
agebypr
event
ingdecayorspoi
l
ages.

Pr
eserv
ationofanimalproduct
ssuchasmeatr
educespr
epar
ati
ont
imesi
ncet
hef
ood
isal
readyprocessed.

Pr
eserv
edfoodi
seasytostor
eanddi
str
ibut
eforexampl
ecannedf
oodsar
emuch
easi
ert
hanrawfoods.

Pr
eservedf
oodcanbemar
ket
edt
odi
stantpl
acesandt
hiscani
ncr
easeagr
icul
tur
al
income.

Pr
operpr
eser
vat
ionoff
oodhel
psi
ncont
rol
off
ood-
bor
nei
nfect
ionsandi
ntoxi
cat
ions.

I
treducesf
inanci
all
osest
hatcanbeencount
eredwhenani
mal
product
sar
espoi
l
ed.

Pr
eser
vat
ionmet
hods
Themainobj
ecti
veofpreserv
ati
onistoextendtheshel
f-
li
feofani
mal
product
s
wit
houtchangi
ngit
st ast
e,fl
avourandnutr
it
ional
val
ue.

Thi
sisachi
evedt
hroughprev
ent
ionofcont
ami
nat
ionofpr
oduct
s,gr
owt
hofmi
cro-
organi
smsandenzymicspoi
l
age.

Pr
event
ionofcont
ami
nat
ioncanbeachi
evedt
hroughkeepi
ngt
henat
ural
cov
eri
ngof
 f
oodi
ntact
,forexampl
e,eggshel
l
.

Ar
ti
fi
cial
cover
ingsuchascleanpl
ast
icsar
eal
sousedt
opr
eventmi
cro-
organi
sms
fr
om ent
eri
ngintothef
ood.

Di
ff
erentpr
eser
vat
ionmet
hodsar
eusedt
opr
eventgr
owt
hofmi
cro-
organi
smsand
enzymati
cspoi
l
age.

Thegrowthofmi
cro-
organism andenzymicspoil
agei
nanimal
product
scanbe
prevent
edbycont
roll
ingwat ercont
entandtemper
atur
eofthepr
oduct
.

Reducedmoist
urecont
enti
nhi
bitt
hesur
viv
alandmul
ti
pli
cat
ionofmi
cro-
organi
smsi
n
t
heproduct
.

Hi
ghert
emperatur
esdestr
oymi
cro-
organi
smsi
nt hefoodwher
easl
ower
temper
atur
esretar
dthemul
ti
pli
cat
ionofmi
cro-or
gani
smsandmetabol
i
cact
ivi
ti
es.

Chemical
sli
ke(
sal
t)sodi
um chl
ori
decanal
sobeusedt
oinhi
bitt
hegr
owt
hofmi
cro-
or
gani
smsinpr
oductssuchasmeat.

1.Past
eur
isat
ionmet
hod
Pasteur
isat
ioni
saprocessofheatt
reat
mentofani
malproduct
ssuchasmi
l
kto
el
iminat
edanger
ouspathogenst
hatmaybepresent
.

Thi
sprocessr
equi
ressuf
fi
cientti
met oensur
ethatmicro-
organi
smsresponsibl
efor
spoil
agear
edestr
oyedwithoutchangi
ngthenutr
it
ionalval
ueoft
hepr oduct.

Themi
l
kisheat
edt
oacer
tai
ntemper
atur
eforaspeci
fi
cti
meandt
hencool
edr
api
dly
.

Whenpast
eur
isingmil
ktheaimistoreducebact
eri
alcountandi
nacti
vat
eenzy
mesi
n
rawmil
kwithoutchangi
ngit
stast
e,palat
abi
li
tyandnutr
it
ivev
alue.

Past
eur
izat
ionofmi
l
kbegi
nswi
tht
est
ingandanal
ysi
ngbact
eri
acounti
nther
awmi
l
k.

Mi
l
kthatmeet
squal
i
tyst
andar
dsf
orbact
eri
alcounti
ssaf
eforpast
eur
isat
ion.

Regul
ati
onsrequi
rethatbacter
iacount
sofr
awmi
l
kshoul
dnotexceed100000
st
andar
dplatecount(SPC).

Fi
rstl
yther
awmilkissentt
hroughasepar
ator,
whi
chsepar
atescr
eam f
rom t
her
aw
mil
kandthemil
kisnowreferr
edt
oasski mmedmil
k.

Theski
mmedmil
kpassest
hroughastandar
diserwher
eapr
eci
seamountofcr
eam i
s
addedt
oachi
evet
hedesi
redfatcont
ent.
Themi
lkpassest
hroughapast
euri
serandi
tisheat
edat62.
8°Cf
or30mi
nut
esorat
71.
7°Cfor15secondst
okil
lbact
eri
a.

Af
terheat
ing,
themilki
scooledandsenttoahomogeni
serwhi
chbr
eaksapar
tthef
at
globul
estocreat
eaunif
orm consi
stency
.

Thepast
eur
isedmi
l
kist
henpackagedf
orpr
operst
orageandsal
e.

Thewhol
epr
ocessofpast
eur
isat
ioni
ssummar
isedi
nFi
g7.
3.1.

Fi
g7.
3.1 Past
eur
isat
ionpr
ocess

2.St
eri
l
isat
ionmet
hod
St
eri
l
isat
ionofmi
l
kist
heel
i
minat
ionofmi
cro-
organi
smspr
esenti
nrawmi
l
kthr
ough
heati
ng.

Ther
ear
etwomet
hodsofst
eri
l
isi
ngmi
l
k,namel
yasept
icandconv
ect
ional
met
hod.

I
.Conv
ent
ional
met
hod
Conv
ent
ional
met
hodi
nvol
vest
hepacki
ngofmi
l
kbef
oreheat
ing.

Mi
l
kscr eenedforbact
eri
aandsomati
ccel
lcounti
ssentt
hroughasepar
ator
,whi
ch
separatescr
eam fr
om rawmil
k.

Theski
mmedmil
kpassest
hroughastandar
diserwher
eapr
eci
seamountofcr
eam i
s
addedt
oachi
evet
hedesi
redfatcont
ent.

Themil
kpassesthr
oughapast
eur
iseranditi
sheat
edat74°
Cto77°
Cfor15seconds
(hi
gh-
temperat
ure–shor
t-
ti
me)tokil
lsomebacter
ia.

Af
terheat
ing,
themilki
scooledandsenttoahomogeni
serwhi
chbr
eaksapar
tthef
at
globul
estocreat
eaunif
orm consi
stency
.

Thehomogeni
sedmi
l
kist
henbot
tl
edorpackedf
orst
eri
l
isat
ion.

St
eri
l
isat
ionofmi
l
kcanbedoneasbat
chori
ndi
vi
dual
(cont
inuous)
.

I
I.Bat
chst
eri
l
isat
ion
Dur
ingbatchster
il
izat
ioncont
ainersarel
oadedont
ocr
atesandt
hecr
atesar
etaken
int
osteri
li
serwiththehel
poft r
oll
eys.
Thesesealedcont
ainer
sar
emoi
stheat
edi
nar
etor
tat105°
Cto110°
Cfor30t
o45
minut
es.

Ther
ear
etwocommont
ypesofbat
chr
etor
t,namel
yver
ti
cal
andhor
izont
al.

Thehor
izont
almet
hodi
sshowni
nFi
g7.
3.2.

Fi
g7.
3.2 Hor
izont
alr
etor
tformi
l
kst
eri
l
isat
ion

I
II
.Cont
inuousst
eri
l
isat
ion
Cont
inuousst
eri
l
isat
ioni
snotcommon.

Dur
ingt
hispr
ocesscansent
erandexi
tthest
eri
l
iseri
nacont
inuousmanner
.

Cansenterandexi
tthest
eri
l
isert
hroughsel
f-
seal
i
ngi
nletanddi
schar
gev
alv
e,
r
especti
vel
y.

Af
terst
eri
l
isat
ioncansorbot
tl
esar
eimmedi
atel
ycool
edbyai
rtoav
oidf
urt
her
cooki
ngoftheproduct
.

I
V.Asept
icmet
hod
Ski
m mi
l
kispackedaf
terheatt
reat
ment
.

Ski
mmedmi
l
kisheat
edat135°
Cfort
wosecond(
Ult
rahi
ght
emper
atur
e).

Whenmil
kisster
il
isedat135°
C,al
lmi
cro-
organi
smsar
edest
roy
edandt
heshel
f-
li
feof
themi
lkisext
ended.

Thi
sprocessofst
eri
l
isat
ioni
ssi
mil
art
opast
eur
isat
ionbuti
tdi
ff
ersont
her
angeof
temperat
ureandti
me.

St
eri
li
sedmi l
kcanbekeptf
or6t
o9mont
hsi
nseal
edcont
ainer
swi
thoutneedf
or
ref
riger
ati
on.

Oncetheseal
edcont
ainer
sar
eopent
hemi
l
kmustbet
reat
edasf
reshmi
l
kandmust
beusedwi
thi
n5day s.

Fi
g7.
3.3 Mi
l
kst
eri
l
isat
ionpr
ocess
3.Canni
ngmet
hod
Canningist
heprocessofpreser
vat
ionachi
evedt
hroughst
eri
l
isat
ionofpr
oduct
sand
seal
ingt
hem i
nacont ai
ner.

Canningi
nv ol
vesthecar
efulpr
eparati
onoffoodandpackagi
ngthem i
ntoseal
ed
cont
ainersthatar
eexposedtohightemperat
uresf
oracert
ainper
iodandthen
cool
ed.

Fi
g7.
3.4 Cannedbeef

Theheat
ingpr
ocessdest
roy
sal
lbact
eri
aandspor
es.

Justaft
erheati
ng,thecont
ainermustbecooledtoabout38°
Ctoav
oidunnecessar
y
ef
fectsofheatonthefl
avour,
colourort
extur
eofthefood.

Canni
ngi
soneoft
hemost
lyusedmet
hodsoff
oodpr
ocessi
ngandpr
eser
vat
ion.

Cannedf
oods,forexampl
e,meatpr
oduct
scanl
astf
ort
woy
ear
satambi
ent
t
emperat
ures.

Cannedf
oodcanbest
eri
l
isedi
nanaut
ocl
aveat121°
Cfor20mi
nut
es.

I
ngener
al,
whenster
il
isi
nganyproduct
,thepr
oductmustbecannedorbot
tl
edand
t
henheat-
tr
eat
edinasteri
l
iser.

4.Ref
ri
ger
ati
onmet
hod
Chi
l
lingorr
efri
gerati
oni
nthepr
ocessofr
educi
ngf
oodt
emper
atur
est
osl
oworl
i
mit
thespoi
lagerate.

Ref
ri
ger
ati
onisthemostwi
del
yusedpr
eser
vat
ionmet
hodusedt
ost
oremeatf
or
shor
tperi
ods.

Keepingmeatbel
owt heopt
imalt
emper at
urer
anger
educesmi
crobi
algr
owt
h,
enzymat
icandchemical
react
ions.

Meatshoul
dber
efr
iger
atedat-
1°Ct
o5°
Ctoav
oidspoi
l
age.

Thepr
oductischi
l
ledatpoi
ntofpr
oduce,
dur
ingt
ranspor
tat
ion,
ret
ail
placeandl
ast
ly
atconsumerpl
ace.
Ref
ri
ger
ati
onofmeati
nret
ail
sshopsi
sshowni
nFi
g7.
3.5.

Fi
g7.
3.5 Ref
ri
ger
ati
onofmeati
nret
ail
shops

I
ngeneral
freshmeatremai
nsi
ngoodcondi
ti
onf
oraper
iodof5t
o7day
sif
r
efri
geratedbet
ween-1°
Cand5°C.

Pr
ocessedmeatst
oredunderr
efr
iger
ati
onhasal
ongershel
f-
li
fet
hanr
awmeat
.

5.Fr
eezi
ngmet
hod
Thi
smet hodpreser
vesf
oodbysl
owi
ngdownenzy
micr
eact
ionsandgr
owt
hofmi
cro-
organisms.

Fr
eezi
ngconv
ert
smostoft
hewat
erpr
esenti
nthef
oodi
ntoi
ce.

Foodshoul
dbest
oredbel
ow-
12°
Cifal
ongst
oragel
i
fei
sdesi
red.

Thi
scanbeachi
evedt
hrought
heuseoff
reezerandr
eli
abl
epowersuppl
y.

Pr
oduct
smustbepackedasshowni
nFi
g7.
3.6t
oav
oidf
reezebur
n.

Fi
g7.
3.6 Fr
eezi
ngmeatwi
thaf
reezer

Fr
eezebur
nistheprocesswherebyf
oodpi
gment
sbecomeconcent
rat
edont
he
surf
aceduetodehydrat
ion.

Thequal
i
tyoft
hef
rozenf
oodi
sinf
luencedbyt
her
ateoff
reezi
ng.

Sl
owfr
eezingproducesl
argei
cecr
yst
alswher
easf
astf
reezi
ngpr
oducesnumer
ous
smal
licecry
stals.

Meatwi
thsmalli
cecr
yst
alshasadesir
abl
eli
ghtcol
ourascompar
edt
osl
owf
rozen
meat(meatwit
hsmal
licecry
stal
s).

Sl
owfreezingmaycausephy
sical
damaget
omuscul
art
issuer
esul
ti
ngi
ndi
stor
ted
appearance.
6.Dr
yingmet
hod
Dr
yingrefer
stotheprocesswher
ebyt
hewat
erormoi
stur
econt
entoft
hef
oodi
s
reducedorremoved.

Dr
yingoff
oodr
educesmi
cro-
organi
sm mul
ti
pli
cat
ionandi
nact
ivat
esenzy
mes.

Whenf
oodisdehy
dratedtoamoi
stur
econt
entofabout10%t
o20%oft
hewei
ght
,
mostoft
hemicro-
organi
smsdi
e.

Dr
yingcanbeappl
i
edt
onear
lyev
eryki
ndofani
mal
product
sincl
udi
ngmi
l
k.

Thi
smet
hodmayr
esul
tinphy
sical
andchemi
cal
changeoff
oodst
uff
.

Somet
imesdr
yingcanchangest
hecol
our
,fl
avourandnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueoft
hef
ood.

Ani
mal
product
ssuchasmeatcanbesundr
iedorai
rdr
iedt
opr
oducebi
l
tong.

Fi
g7.
3.7 Sundr
iedBeef

Meatcanbedr
iedmechani
cal
l
ythr
ought
heuseofmi
crowav
e,f
ir
eorpassi
ngofhot
air
.

I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttodr
ymeatwi
thmor
efat
.

Thi
sisbecausef
atf
ormsabar
ri
ert
olossofmoi
stur
e.

Meatt
obedri
edmustbef
ir
stcuti
ntost
ri
p-l
i
kepi
ecesandt
henboi
l
edf
or30mi
nut
es
at105°
C.

Sal
tisaddedf
ort
ast
eandal
sot
ohel
pint
hedr
yingpr
ocess.

Whenist
obedr
iedt
hroughsunorai
rdry
ing,
themeati
shungonhooksorst
ri
ngsi
n
suchawayt
hatt
hepiecesdonott
ouch.

Thi
sal
lowsai
rtoci
rcul
atef
reel
yal
lar
oundt
hemeatsot
hatt
hemeatwi
l
ldr
yqui
ckl
y
anduni
for
mly.

Themeatcanbespoi
l
edi
fther
eisnof
reeai
rci
rcul
ati
on.

Car
eshouldal
sobet
akent
oav
oidt
oomuchheatsucht
hatacr
usti
sfor
medont
he
sur
face.
Whenacrustisfor
med,
thei
nsi
deoft
hemeatwi
l
lst
aymoi
standt
hiscancausei
tto
spoi
lquickl
y.

Thesmel
landt
ast
eofdr
iedmeati
sdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hatoff
reshmeat
.

Meatcanbepackedandst
oredaf
tersuccessf
uldr
ying.

I
nhotr
egionsdr
iedmeatcanbest
oredi
nvent
il
atedcont
ainer
sorcl
osedbagshung
f
rom t
heceil
i
ng.

I
nhumi
dr egi
onsmeatmustbest
oredi
nai
rt
ightcont
ainer
ssot
hati
tcannotpi
ckup
moi
sture.

Wel
ldr
iedmeatcanbekeptf
ormont
hsundergoodst
orage.

7.Sal
ti
ngmet
hod
Sal
ti
ngi
stheaddi
ti
onofsodi
um chl
ori
de(
sal
t)t
oapr
oductsoast
opr
eser
vei
t.

Sodi
um chl
ori
deinhi
bit
sthegrowt
hofmi
cro-
organi
sm bydr
awi
ngwat
eroutoft
he
f
oodandpathogencel
ls.

Thi
scausest
hepat
hogent
obecomedehy
drat
edanddi
e.

Sal
ti
ngcanbedonei
ntwoways,
thatis,
adequateappl
i
cat
ionofdr
ysal
tint
ofoodor
soaki
ngthef
oodi
naconcent
ratedsaltsol
uti
on.

I
.Dr
ysal
ti
ng
Dr
ysal
ti
ngi
sdonet
opr
eser
vepr
oduct
ssuchasani
mal
hides.

Fi
rst
ly,
athi
ckl
ayerofsal
t(1-
2cm)shoul
dbeputont
heconcr
etesl
ab.

Thehidesmustbeputont
opoft
hesal
tlay
er.Anot
herl
ayerofsal
tmustbeputon
hides’l
ayer
.

Thepr
ocessofalt
ernati
ngonelayerofsal
twi
thonel
ayerofhi
desmustber
epeat
ed
unt
iladesi
redheighti
sreached.

Usual
l
ythepi
l
eshoul
dbeabout1-
1.5met
reshi
gh.

Thepi
l
emustbecov
eredwi
thapl
ast
ic.

Fi
g7.
3.8 Sal
ti
ngofcat
tl
ehi
des
Thelay
erscanber
otat
edbyput
ti
ngt
hebot
tom l
ayeront
het
opandt
het
opl
ayer
son
thebott
om.

Mor
edr
ysal
tshoul
dbeappl
i
edunt
iladesi
reddr
yingper
cent
agei
nachi
eved.

I
I.Wetsal
ti
ngorsoaki
ng
Wetsal
ti
ngorsoaki
ngi
sdonet
opr
oduct
ssuchasmeatandf
ish.

Whensoaki
ngf
ood,
iti
simpor
tantt
opr
act
isegoodhy
gienet
oav
oidcont
ami
nat
ion.

Forexampl
e,handsshoul
dbewashedbef
orehandl
i
ngmeat
.

Themeatshoul
dbecutandwashedundercl
eanr
unni
ngwat
erandt
hendr
ainedi
na
shade.

Sal
tsat
urati
onsol
ution(br
ine)i
smadebydi
ssol
vi
ngatl
east360gr
amsofsal
tin
ever
ylit
reofwater.

Thesal
tshoul
ddi
ssol
vecompl
etel
ybef
oret
hemeati
npl
ace.

Themeatmustbepl
acedi
nthebr
inef
oronehour
.

Af
tersoaking,
themeati
nhungt
oleti
tdr
ipdr
yandbydoi
ngt
his,
theshel
f-
li
fei
n
extended.

8.Smoki
ngmet
hods
Smokingi
soneofthemethodsusedt
oimpr
ovet
hequal
i
tyofmeatandi
nhi
bitt
he
growthofmi
cro-or
gani
sms.

Thepr
ocessi
nvol
vesexposi
ngmeatt
osmokef
rom bur
ningwood.

Thesmokepar
ti
clesi
nhi
bitt
hegr
owt
hofmi
cro-
organi
smsont
hesur
faceont
he
product
.

I
naddi
ti
on,t
hesmokepar
ti
cleshav
eaposi
ti
veef
fectont
het
ast
eandcol
ouroft
he
pr
oduct
.

Smoki
ngpar
ti
all
ypr
eser
vest
hemeatbyr
emov
ingmoi
stur
efr
om t
hesur
faceofmeat
.

Thi
smet
hodi
snotar
eli
abl
emet
hodofpr
eser
vat
ionunl
esscombi
nedwi
thot
her
 met
hodssuchasdr
yingorsal
ti
ng.

Smoki
nganddr
yingcannotbesepar
ated.

Dur
ingsmoki
ng,
theheatdr
iesandcookst
hemeat
.

Smoki
ngcanbedonei
nthr
eeway
snamel
ycol
d,hotanddr
ysmoki
ng.

I
.Col
dsmoki
ng
Dur
ingcol
dsmoki
ng,
thepr
oductdoesnotgetcookedandi
tissmokedat30°
Cor
below.

Col
dsmokingr
esul
tinuncookedpr
oduct
sthatar
esuscept
ibl
etospoi
l
ageandmust
bekepti
nacoolplace.

I
I.Hotsmoki
ng
Foodi
scookedatar
ound65°
Cto100°
Cbuti
tisnotdr
ied.

I
II
.Dr
ysmoki
ng
Ondr
ysmoki
ngt
hef
oodi
sfi
rstcookedandt
hendr
iedatar
ound45°
Cto85°
C.

Whenmeati
sbei
ngsmokedf
ordr
ying,
itmustbecuti
ntost
ri
ps.

Thegr
eatert
hesurf
acear
ea,t
hegreat
ert
heamountofsmokepar
ti
clest
hatcanbe
absor
bedduri
ngdrysmoki
ng.

Sal
tcanbeaddedt
othemeatbef
oresmoki
ngsoast
oext
endt
heshel
f-
li
fe.

Fi
g7.
3.9 Smoki
ngofbeef

Toav
oidahar
dsur
facel
ayerdur
ingsmoki
ng,
themeatcanbesundr
iedf
oranhour
.

I
fthemeati
swel
ldr
ied,
itmusthav
eacl
earbr
owncol
ourandahar
dst
ruct
ure.

I
V.Fer
ment
ati
onmet
hod
Fer
mentat
ioni
sapr ocessofanaer
obi
coxi
dat
ionofcar
bohy
drat
est
hatpr
oduces
aci
dsandalcohol.
Foodpreserv
ati
onisachi
evedbythepresenceofaci
dwhi chcreat
eunfavour
abl
e
env
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsfordecomposingandotherundesir
ablebact
eri
a.

Fer
ment
ati
oni
soneoft
heol
destmet
hodsusedt
opr
eser
vemi
l
k.

Fer
ment
edmi
l
kissemi
-per
ishabl
ehencei
tmustbepr
otect
edf
rom moul
ds.

Mi
l
kisfermentedt
opr
oduce,
sourmi
l
k,y
oghur
t,cheese,
but
ter
mil
kandot
hermi
l
k
pr
oducts.

Sourmi
l
kispr
oducedbybact
eri
alf
erment
ati
onoraddi
ti
onofanaci
d.

Bacter
iai
nthemil
k( Lact
obacil
lus)pr
oducesanaci
d(l
act
icaci
d)whi
chcausest
he
mil
ktocoagul
ateandthicken.

Thi
sal
soi
nhi
bit
sthegr
owt
hofhar
mful
bact
eri
aandt
hisr
esul
tinext
endedshel
f-
li
fe.

Fer
ment
ati
onenhancet
het
ast
eanddi
gest
ibi
l
ityofmi
l
k.

Tr
adi
ti
onal
ly
,sourmi
l
kwaspr
oducedsi
mpl
ybyl
eav
ingf
reshmi
l
kinawar
m pl
acef
or
aday.

Atcommerci
all
evel
,anaci
dormi
cro-
organi
smsar
eaddedi
nor
dert
opr
oducesour
mi
lk.

Lactobaci
l
lusandLact
ococcusar
esomeoft
hecommonbact
eri
ausedt
opr
oduce
sourmil
k.

Fi
g7.
3.10 Sourmi
l
k

Compar
isonofsomel
ocal
preser
vat
ionmet
hods
Theadv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofsomel
ocal
preser
vat
ionmet
hodsar
e
summari
sedbel
ow.

I
.Canni
ngmet
hod
St
orageofcannedf
oodi
seasy
.

Thef
oodhasal
ongshel
f-
li
fepossi
bly24mont
hs,
especi
all
ymeatpr
oduct
s.

Al
lmi
cro-
organi
smsar
eki
l
led.
Thenut
ri
ti
vev
alueandqual
i
tyoft
hepr
oductwi
l
lgood.

Howev
er,t
hecanni
ngprocessi
nquiteexpensi
veandl
abouri
ntensi
vecompar
edt
o
cur
ing,
dry
ingandf
ermentat
ion.

Thepr
ocessr
equi
resmuchenergy,wat
er,equi
pment(
ster
il
iser
s,cooker
s,canni
ngand
packi
ngmachi
nes)andcont
ainers(
cans).

I
I.Fer
ment
ati
onmet
hod
Thepr
ocessi
sof
tencheapandl
essener
gyi
sneeded.

Nut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueoffer
ment
edproduct
sisoft
enhi
ght
handr
yfoods,
forexampl
e,sour
mil
kismorenut
ri
ti
oust
hanpowdermil
k.

Howev
er,
thet
ast
eandodouroft
hef
oodmaychange.

Fer
ment
edpr
oduct
sli
kesourmi
l
khav
eshor
tst
oragel
i
fecompar
etodr
iedpr
oduct
s.

I
II
.Cur
ingmet
hod
Sal
ti
ngandsmokingoff
oodisl
essexpensi
vet
hanchi
l
li
ng,
freezi
ng,
canni
ng,
past
euri
sat
ionandst
eri
l
isat
ion.

Cur
ingr
equi
resnoorl
essener
gy.

Sal
ti
ngdoesnotneedheat
ingwher
eassmoki
ngneedsl
i
ttl
eheat
ing.

Li
tt
leequi
pmentisr
equi
redwhencur
ingf
oodandsal
tedmeatcanbest
oredatr
oom
temperat
ure.

Howev
er,
thef
lav
our
,col
ourandnut
ri
ti
vev
alueoft
hepr
oductmaybechanged.

Smoki
ngpart
ial
l
ypreser
vesmeat,t
herefor
eiti
snotar
eli
abl
emet
hodofpr
eser
vat
ion
unl
esscombinedwit
hothermethods.

I
V.Dr
yingmet
hod
Dr
yingi
slessexpensi
ve.

I
trequi
resl
essequi
pment
.

Dr
yingpr
ocesski
l
lsal
loft
hemi
cro-
organi
smspr
esenti
nthef
ood.

Dr
iedpr
oduct
ssuchasbi
l
tonghav
elongshel
f-
li
fet
hanchi
l
ledorf
rozenpr
oduct
s.
Howev
er,
thepr
ocessmayr
esul
tinphy
sical
andchemi
cal
changeoff
oodst
uff
.

Thecol
our
,fl
avourandnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueoft
hef
oodchangesduet
odr
ying.

V.Chi
l
li
ngandf
reezi
ngmet
hods
Fl
avour,col
ourandnutr
iti
onal
val
ueoft
hef
ooddoesnotchangewhent
hef
oodi
s
preservedcor
rect
ly.

Thequal
i
tyoft
hef
oodunderchi
l
li
ngandf
reezi
ngi
sgood.

Howev
er,
thesepr
ocessesdonotki
l
lmi
cro-
organi
smspr
esenti
nthef
ood.

Chi
l
ledorfrozenpr
oduct
shav
eshor
tshel
fli
fecompar
edt
ocannedordr
iedani
mal
product
s.

Thepr
ocessi
sexpensi
veandr
equi
resener
gyal
lthet
imef
ort
hef
oodt
obepr
eser
ved.

I
nvest
menti
sneededt
obuychi
l
ler
s,f
reezer
sandi
nst
all
asour
ceofpower
.

VI
.Past
eur
isat
ionandst
eri
l
isat
ionmet
hods
Thesemet
hodski
l
lmi
cro-
organi
sm i
nthef
oodandst
openzy
mat
icspoi
l
age.

Pasteuri
sat
ionandst
eri
l
isat
iondoesnotaf
fectt
hecol
our
,fl
avourandnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ue
ofthepr
oduct.

Thest
oragel
i
feofpasteuri
sedandst
eri
l
isedpr
oduct
sisl
ongert
hant
hatoff
erment
ed,
chi
ll
edorfr
ozenproducts.

Howev
er,
thesemet
hodsar
ever
yexpensi
veandr
equi
remuchener
gy.

Lar
geinvest
menti
sneededi
nbuy
ingofequi
pmentandmachi
ner
yandbui
l
dingof
processi
ngpl
ant
s.

Act
ivi
ti
es
Buyakil
ogram ofbeefatal
ocal
but
cher
yandpr
eser
vei
tusi
nganyt
womet
hodsof
yourchoice.

Recor
dt hebenef
it
sandchal
l
engesencount
eredwhenpr
act
isi
ngt
hesepr
eser
vat
ion
methods.
Mar
ket
ingofani
mal
product
s
Mar
keti
ngrefer
stoasocialandmanager
ial
processbywhichindi
vi
dual
sandgroups
obt
ainwhattheyneedandwantthr
oughcreati
ngandexchangi
ngproduct
sand
val
uewithother
s.

I
tsi
mpl
yref
erst
othesel
l
ingandpur
chasi
ngofani
mal
sandt
hei
rpr
oduct
s.

Theplay
ersinvolv
edinthemarket
ingofani
mal pr
oductsar
epr
oducer
s,t
rader
s,
processors,whol
esal
ers,
ret
ail
ersandconsumers.

Mar
ket
scanbef
ormal
ori
nfor
mal
.

For
malmarketoccur
swhenpr oducer
ssel
lthei
rani
mal
stor
egi
ster
edcent
ressuchas
abat
toi
rsandbutcher
iesorthr
oughauct
ions.

I
nformalmarketoccur
swhenproducer
ssel
lthei
rani
mal
stounr
egi
ster
edbuy
erssuch
asnei
ghbouri
ngproducer
s.

Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentt
ypesofmar
ket
sforl
i
vest
ockandwi
l
dli
fe.

Ty
pesofmar
ket
s
Thesemar
ket
sincl
udepr
ocessi
ngcompani
es,
abat
toi
rs,
auct
ionsandonf
arm.

Pr
ocessi
ngcompani
es
Manydi
ff
erentact
ivi
ti
esar
einv
olv
edi
ntheani
mal
processi
ngi
ndust
ry

Li
vest
ockbuy
ersar
eresponsi
blef
ort
hepur
chasi
ngofani
mal
sfort
hepr
ocessi
ng
company.

Li
vest
ockbuyer
smustbeski
ll
edi
nanimalev
aluat
ionandmeatgr
adinginor
dert
o
deter
mineafai
rmar
ketval
uef
orthel
iv
estockthatt
heyar
epurchasi
ng.

But
chersareresponsi
bleforpr
ocessi
ngli
veani
mal
sint
ocar
cassesandcut
ti
ng
carcassesint
oretai
landwholesal
ecuts.

Someprocessi
ngcompani
espurchasether
awanimalpr
oduct
ssuchasani
mal
,mi
l
k,
oreggsfrom t
hepr
oducerandprocessi
tint
owhol
esal
eproduct
s.

Pr
ocessor
sdonotonl
ypr
ocesst
heedi
blepr
oduct
sbutpr
ocesst
heby
-pr
oduct
ssuch
 asbonesandbl
oodi
ntoboneandbl
oodmeal
.

Somepr
ocessi
ngcompani
esbuyani
mal
ski
nst
opr
oducel
eat
her
.

Thepr
iceofapr
oductdependont
henumberofst
epsi
nvol
vedi
npr
ocessi
ng.

Themor
epr
ocessi
ngst
epsi
nvol
ved,
thehi
ghert
hecostoft
heendpr
oduct
.

Consumer
sarewill
i
ngtopaymoreforprocessedani
malp1r
oduct
sbecausel
esst
ime
wi
ll
berequi
redfort
hem t
opr
eparetheseproduct
stoeat
.

Abat
toi
rs
Pr
oducerst
aketheircat
tl
etoabat
toi
rsandar
epai
daccor
dingt
owei
ghtandcar
cass
gradi
ngaft
erslaught
er.

Mostf
armer
slackaccesst
otr
anspor
tther
efor
ebecomi
ngv
ulner
abl
etomi
ddl
emen.

Themi
ddl
emencanal
sobuyani
mal
sfr
om pr
oducer
sandsel
lthem t
oabat
toi
rs.

Abatt
oir
sarei
nvol
vedi
nsl
aught
eri
nganddi
str
ibut
ionofl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
ssuchas
meat.

Ani
mal
sar
esl
aught
eredonbehal
foft
hesuper
mar
ket
s.

Auct
ionmar
ket
Auct
ionmar
keti
sat
radi
ti
onal
andpr
imar
ymar
ket
ingmet
hodf
orl
i
vest
ockandwi
l
dli
fe.

Anauct
ioncanbeconduct
edatnat
ional
ori
nter
nat
ional
lev
el.

I
tisusual
l
ydonef
orl
i
veani
mal
snott
hei
rpr
oduct
s.

I
.Li
vest
ockauct
ion
Pr
oducer
swi
l
ltaket
heani
mal
sthatar
ereadyf
ormar
ket
ingt
otheauct
ion.

Theauct
ionpr
omot
est
heani
mal
sandbr
ingsbestpr
icesf
ort
hepr
oducer
s.

Ani
mal
saresorti
ngroupsaccor
dingt
oage,
sexandbr
eedi
nor
derf
ort
hepr
oducer
s
tof
etchgoodpri
ces.

Fi
g7.
4.1 Cat
tl
eauct
ion
Pr
icef
ort
heani
mal
sisdet
ermi
nedbyt
hemar
ketoft
heday
.

Far
mer
sorpr
oducer
shav
etheopt
iont
odecl
i
neoracceptt
hesal
espr
ice.

Usuall
ytheauct
ionsubt
ractsacer
tai
nper
cent
agef
rom t
hepr
oducer
’sov
eral
lsal
est
o
covert
heaucti
onexpenses.

Thebuy
ermustpayacer
tai
ncommi
ssi
onaf
terasuccessf
ulpur
chase.

Onanaucti
onthemai
nbuy
ersar
epr
oducer
s,t
rader
s,but
cher
s,f
eedl
otandabat
toi
r
oper
ators.

Themai
npurposeoft
hepur
chasecoul
dbest
ockr
epl
acement
,resal
e,f
att
eni
ngor
sl
aught
er.

I
I.Wi
l
dli
feauct
ion
Hunt
erswi
thshoot
ingper
mit
sbi
dtoki
l
lanani
mal
.

Auct
ionmar
keti
sonl
yappl
i
cabl
etol
i
vewi
l
dli
feani
mal
snott
hei
rpr
oduct
s.

Theauct
ionmar
keti
sor
gani
sedbyaboar
dwhi
chi
sresponsi
blef
ormar
ket
ingwi
l
dli
fe.

Wi
l
dli
feauct
ioni
ngi
sgov
ernedbyt
hequot
asy
stem.

Aquotasyst
em i
sasyst
em thatdet
erminesthenumberofani
mal
stobeki
l
ledper
yearonaspeci
fi
cecosy
stem orwil
dli
fepark.

Thehunt
erbidsforshoot
ingper
mitsofdi
ff
erentani
mal
speci
esl
i
kel
i
on,
elephant
,
rhi
nocer
os,leopar
dandbuffal
o.

Thef
actorst
hati
nfl
uencemar
ket
ingoft
heseani
mal
sincl
udeani
mal
speci
es,
sex,
age
andsize.

Mal
ecarniv
oreswithl
argebodysi
zesandnott
oooldhav
eahi
ghermar
ket
ingv
aluei
n
auct
ionsbecauset
heirt
rophi
esareofhi
ghval
ue.

Thehunt
erwil
lchooset
hecount
rywi
ththeani
malshe/
shewi
shest
ohuntandhe/
she
musthaveakill
i
ngpermi
tfr
om t
hatcount
ry.

I
nZimbabwethehunt
erissupposedt
ohavetheki
l
li
ngpermi
tfr
om t
heZi
mbabwe
Par
ks(Zi
mparks)andWildl
if
eManagementAut
hori
ty.

Thehi
ghestbidderwi
l
lbegi
vent
heki
l
li
ngper
mituponpay
mentoft
hepr
icet
othe
Zimparks.
Thehunt
erwi
l
lbegi
vent
het
rophy
,whi
chi
susual
l
ytheheadandski
nori
vor
yoft
he
hunt.

Gamemeatbel
ongst
othegamepar
kandi
tisr
esponsi
blef
ormar
ket
ingt
hemeat
.

Onf
arm mar
ket
ing
I
tinv
olv
esbr
ingi
ngbuy
ersont
othef
armt
obuyani
mal
sandani
mal
product
s.

Thebuy
erusual
l
ycov
erst
hecostoft
ranspor
ti
ngt
hepr
oduct
sandani
mal
s.

Pr
icecanbenegot
iat
edbet
weent
hepr
oducerandt
hebuy
er.

Usual
l
ythepr
icesar
elowersi
ncet
hepr
oducerwi
l
lnoti
ncurt
ranspor
tcost
s.

Di
rectmar
ket
Di
rectmarket
ingoccur
swhenapot
ent
ial
buy
erof
fer
stobuyt
heani
mal
orpr
oductf
or
anagreedprice.

Di
rectmarket
ingi
sthebasi
candt
radi
ti
onal
mar
ket
ingst
rat
egyf
orl
i
vest
ockand
wil
dli
fe.

I
.Di
rectmar
ketf
orl
i
vest
ockandt
hei
rpr
oduct
s
Di
rectmar
ketf
orli
vest
ockoccur
swhenapot
ent
ial
buy
erof
fer
stobuyt
heani
mal
sfor
acert
ainpr
ice.

Pr
icef
orl
i
veani
mal
sar
enegot
iat
edbasedonr
ecentauct
ionav
eragepr
ices.

Pot
ent
ial
buy
ersar
eot
herpr
oducer
s,t
rader
s,but
cher
s,f
eedl
otandabat
toi
roper
ator
s.

Thesebuy
erspur
chasel
i
veani
mal
sei
thert
orepl
acest
ocks,
resal
e,f
att
enorsl
aught
er.

Whent
heani
malsar
ereadyf
orsel
ltheproducerwi
lldel
ivert
hel
i
vest
ockt
othebuy
er
ort
hebuy
ercant
aketheani
malsfrom t
heproducer.

Onfar
m mar ket
ingoccur
swhent
hebuy
erv
isi
tst
hepr
oduceront
hef
armf
ora
purchase.

I
nmanycases,
theproducerdel
i
ver
stheani
mal
stot
hebuy
erandi
sresponsi
blef
or
t
hetr
ansportcost
.

Di
rectmar
ketf
orl
iveanimalshasanadvantageov
erauct
ioni
nthesenset
hati
tav
oids
commissi
oncostchargedbyauct
ions.
However
,di
rectmarketpr
icesarel
owert
hanauct
ionpr
icessi
ncet
her
eisno
competi
ti
onbetweenbuy er
s.

Di
rectmarketi
ngofl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
soccur
swhenconsumer
sof
fer
stobuypr
oduct
s
from t
raders.

Li
vest
ockpr
oduct
spr
icesar
edet
ermi
nedbyt
hegr
adeoft
hepr
oduct
.

Themai
nsel
l
ersofl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
sar
eabat
toi
rs,
but
cher
iesandr
etai
lshops.

Ani
mal
product
ssuchasmeatandof
fal
sar
esol
ddi
rect
lyt
othepubl
i
cconsumer
s.

However
,productssuchashidesar
esoldbyabat
toi
rst
othepr
ocessi
ngcompani
es
formanufactur
ingofl
eatherpr
oduct
s.

I
I.Di
rectmar
ketf
orwi
l
dli
fepr
oduct
s
Di
rectmar
ket
ingofgameproduct
sinv
olv
essal
esofi
vor
y,ski
ns,
freshmeat
,fr
ozen
anddri
edmeat(bi
lt
ong)
.

I
nZimbabwe,i
vorywassoldonthei
nter
nat
ional
mar
ketbutcur
rent
lyi
tispr
ohi
bit
ed
duetoeconomicr
estr
ict
ions.

Ani
malskinsaresoldonbothl
ocalandi
nter
nat
ional
mar
ket
sandt
heyf
etchagood
pri
ce,especi
all
ycrocodi
l
eskins.

Thepr
oduct
sofendanger
edani
mal
sar
est
atecont
rol
l
ed.

Thegov
ernmentcansel
lthesepr
oduct
sthr
oughi
tssubsi
diar
ysuchasZi
mpar
ks.

Howev
er,
gamemeatcanbesol
dbypr
ivat
egamepar
ksorpr
oducer
s.

Al
thoughbi
l
tongcanbeexpor
ted,
iti
smai
nlysol
dlocal
l
ytoget
herwi
thf
reshorf
rozen
gamemeat.

Pr
ivat
egamepar
kshav
eper
mit
stosel
lgamemeatei
therasf
reshorbi
l
tong.

Themeati
ssol
dtot
our
ist
sint
hel
odgesandhot
elsi
ngamepar
ks.

Pr
ivat
egamepr
oducer
sli
kecr
ocodi
l
efar
mer
scanal
sosel
lfr
eshmeatt
oret
ail
shops.

Consumer
scanbuygamemeatf
rom t
heser
etai
lshops.

Mar
ketf
unct
ions
 Mar
ket
ingofani
mal
spr
oduct
sinv
olv
esanumberofact
ivi
ti
es.

Thecompanyorani
ndi
vi
dual
maydeci
det
otar
getgr
oupofcust
omer
stobeser
ved.

Thegroupshoul
dbeprovi
dedwi
tht
her
ightpr
oduct
,pr
ice,
dist
ri
but
ionand
promoti
onaleff
ort
s.

Whenmarketi
ngli
vest
ockandwil
dli
fepr
oduct
s,amar
ket
ingmi
x(pr
ice,
place,
product
,
promot
ion,pr
ocessandpeopl
e)i
sappli
ed.

Mar
keti
ngmixist
hesetofact
ivi
ti
esusedbycompani
esori
ndi
vi
dual
stopr
omot
eit
s
pr
oducti
nthemarket
.

Pr
ice
Pr
icei
sthev
aluet
hati
sputf
ort
hepr
oduct
.

I
tist
hemosti
mpor
tantel
ementi
nthemar
ket
ingmi
x.

Therecanbenumeroustypesofpr
ici
ngst
rat
egi
esandeachst
rat
egyi
sti
edi
nwi
than
over
all
busi
nessplan.

Pr
icingisav er
yimpor
tantcomponentbecauseithasanef
fectondemandf
ort
he
productandal
soontheprofi
tabi
l
ityofthebusi
ness.

Fact
orsaf
fect
ingpr
ices
Factor
swhichaf
fectpr
ici
ngincl
udet
hecostofpr
oduct
ion,
tar
get
edpopul
ati
onand
abi
li
tyoft
hemarkettopay.

Pr
icingcanalsobeaffect
edbysuppl
yanddemand,
gov
ernmentr
est
ri
cti
onsand
pri
ceschargedbycompeti
tor
s.

a.Costofpr
oduct
ion

Thehi
ghert
hecostofpr
oduct
iont
hehi
ghert
hepr
iceofapr
oduct
.

Thi
sisbecausetheproducerwoul
dwantt
ocov
ert
hepr
oduct
ioncost
sandhav
e
prof
it
saftersel
li
ngtheirpr
oduct
s.

b.Tar
get
edpopul
ati
on

Whent
het
arget
edpopul
ati
oni
shi
gh,
itmeanst
hatdemandf
orapr
oductwi
l
lbehi
gh.

Whent
hedemandi
shi
ght
henpr
icest
endt
obehi
gh.
c.Theabi
l
ityoft
hemar
kett
opay

Whenthetargetedcust
omer sar
eablebuyexpensi
veproduct
s,t
hepri
cest
endtobe
high,
forexample,product
sfoundinmarket
slocat
edinareaswi
thri
chpeopl
etend
tobechar gedhi
ghpr i
ces.

d.Pr
iceschar
gedbycompet
it
ors

Whenthecompetit
orschar
gelowpr
icest
heni
tmeanst
hatgener
all
ypr
iceswi
l
lbe
lowerf
orthoseproduct
s.

e.Suppl
yanddemand

Whent
her
eisl
i
mit
edsuppl
yofapr
oduct
,thendemandf
ort
hatpr
oductwi
l
lbehi
gh.

Thi
sresul
tsi
nani
ncr
easei
npr
iceoft
hepr
oduct
.

f
.Gov
ernmentr
est
ri
cti
ons

Thegov
ernmentcanhav
eacont
rol
oft
hepr
icesofcer
tai
nani
mal
product
s.

g.Ageoft
heani
mal

Mat
uredani
mal
stendt
ohav
ehi
gherpr
icest
hany
oungi
mmat
ureani
mal
s.

h.Season

Theseasonal
patter
nsi
navail
abi
li
tyofl
ivest
ockaf
fectpr
ices,
forexampl
ecat
tl
e
pri
cesarelowerdur
ingt
hedryseason.

Pr
oduct
Pr
oducti
sthei
tem t
hati
sact
ual
l
ybei
ngsol
d.

Ani
mal
product
sincl
udemeat
,mi
l
k,eggs,
wool
,ski
nandhi
des.

Aproductmusthaveamini
mum lev
el ofper
for
mance,other
wiseev
ent
hebestwor
k
ontheotherel
ementsofthemarketi
ngmixcannotdoanygood.

Ani
mal
product
sar
eboughtbecauset
heysat
isf
yoneormor
ehumanneeds.

Forexampl
e,meati
sboughtt
osat
isf
yhungerandpr
ovi
depr
otei
n.

Pl
ace
Pl
acer
efer
stot
hepoi
ntofsal
e.
 Pr
oduct
sar
epr
oducedt
obesol
dtoconsumer
satdi
ff
erentpl
aces.

Howev
er,
ani
mal
andwi
l
dli
fepr
oduct
sshoul
dbesol
dataconv
eni
entpl
ace.

I
tistheaim ofever
yindustr
ytocat
cht
heat
tent
ionoft
heconsumerandmakei
teasy
f
orthem tobuytheproduct
.

Thi
sinv
olv
esachai
nofpeopl
e,di
str
ibut
ors,
whol
esal
ersandr
etai
l
ers.

Thei
ndustr
yorcompanycandeci
dewhethertosel
lthepr
oduct
sdi
rect
lyt
othe
consumersort
hroughr
etai
l
ersanddi
stri
butor
s.

Ret
ail
ersanddi
str
ibut
orspayapr
emi
um f
ort
hebestl
ocat
ion.

I
not
herwor
ds,
themai
nconcer
nofasuccessf
ulbusi
nessi
slocat
ion.

Pr
omot
ion
Pr
omoti
oncanbedef
inedast
heact
ivi
ti
eswhi
char
etakent
omakeapr
oductknown
tot
heuser
sorbuyers.

I
tincl
udesadv
erti
si
ng,pressr
epor
ts,
incent
ives,
wor
dofmout
h,commi
ssi
onsand
awar
dstothebuyer
.

Pr
omot
ioncanal
soi
ncl
udeconsumerschemes,
dir
ectmar
ket
ing,
cont
est
sandpr
izes.

Mar
keti
ngeffor
tsofaproductmaynotbesuccessful
ifconsumer
sar
enotmade
awareabouti
tspr
ice,f
eatur
esandavai
labi
li
ty.

Therefore,
promotionofapr
oductisacruci
alelementofmarketi
ngmixasi
tincl
udes
processofinf
orming,
per
suadingandinf
luencingconsumerstobuyt
hepr
oduct.

Pr
omot
ionmet
hods
a.Sal
espr
omot
ion

Thesearepr
omot
ionswhenapr
oducti
sboughtf
orexampl
e,‘
buyoneandgetone
f
ree’
.

Thereareseveralt
ypesofsal espr
omot i
onandt heseincl
udecouponsandloyal
ty
cards(t
oencourager epeatpur
chases),compet i
ti
ons(usedt
oboostsalesas
customersareenteredintowinaprize)
, pr
oductendorsementsbycel
ebri
ti
es,f
ree
off
ers,merchandi
singandpr i
cereducti
ons/discount
s.

b.Adv
ert
isi
ng
 I
tcanbeei
theri
nfor
mat
iveorper
suasi
veadv
ert
isi
ng.

I
nformat i
veadverti
si
nginfor
msandeducat espotenti
alcust
omer
saboutt
he
product/
servi
cewhilepersuasi
veadv
ertisi
ngtri
estouseemoti
onst
oinfl
uenceor
persuadecustomerstopurchaseaproductorservi
ce.

Adv
ert
isi
ngcanbedonet hr
oughuseofmedi
asuchast
elev
isi
on,
radi
o,newspaper
,
magazinesandi
nter
net.

c.Sponsor
shi
p

I
tinvol
vessupport
inganev
ent,
anacti
vi
tyororgani
sat
ioninexchangeforhavi
ngi
ts
nameorproductbr
andnameli
nkeddi
rect
lywithwhateveri
sbeingsponsor
ed.

d.Publ
i
crel
ati
ons

Thi
sinv
olv
est
heuseofedi
tor
ial
spaceandbr
oadcastt
imet
hati
snotpai
dfordi
rect
ly.

I
tisnotadv
ert
isi
ng.

e.Di
rectmar
ket
ing

Thi
sinv
olv
escommuni
cat
ingdi
rect
lywi
thcust
omer
sint
het
argetmar
ket
.

Peopl
e
Peopl
eincl
udebot
hthet
arget
edmar
ketandt
hepr
oductmar
ket
ingt
eam.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oknowi
fther
ear
eenoughpeopl
einneedoft
hepr
oduct
.

Ontheotherhand,themarket
ingt
eam i
simpor
tantbecauset
heyar
etheoneswho
deli
vertheproductst
otheconsumers.

I
tisimport
antt
ohirewel
l
-tr
ainedpr
ofessi
onal
sort
otr
ainpeopl
etomar
kett
he
pr
oduct
sbeingsol
d.

Whenpeoplewhoareint
omar ket
ingofproduct
sgenuinel
ybeli
evei
nthepr
oduct
s,i
tis
hi
ghlyl
ikel
ythatt
hesepeoplewil
lperf
ormt othei
rbestabi
l
ity
.

Ther
eput
ati
onandpr
opermar
ket
ingofpr
oduct
sresti
nthehandsofmar
ket
ingt
eam.

Therefore,t
heymustbeappr
opr
iat
elyt
rai
ned,
wel
l
-mot
ivat
edandhav
ether
ight
att
itude.

Pr
ocess
Pr
ocessrefer
stothewayoract
ionst
akenbyt
hecompanyorf
armer
stomar
kett
hei
r
product
ssuccessf
ull
y.

Pr
ocessesoft
hecompanyaf
fectt
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
heser
vices.

Thepr
ocessofdel
i
veri
ngaproductandthebehav
iouroft
hosewhodel
i
veri
sver
y
impor
tantt
ocustomersat
isf
acti
on.

Customersat
isf
act
ioni
scentr
edoni
ssuessuchaswai
ti
ngt
imeandhel
pgi
vent
othe
cust
omerbythemarket
er.

Therefore,
acompanyori
ndust
ryshoul
dmakesur
ethatt
her
ehav
ewel
l
-tai
l
ored
processesi
npl
acetosat
isf
yit
scustomer
s.

Pr
ocessessuchasgoodpayi
ngsyst
em andworki
ngconditi
onst
othemar
ket
ersar
e
quit
eimport
antf
oranindust
ryt
obemor esuccessf
ul.

Pr
ocessesatacompanycoul
dbet
heent
ir
esal
es,
pay
mentanddi
str
ibut
ionsy
stem.

Fact
orst
hataf
fectpr
oductqual
i
ty
Qual
i
tyofanimal
pr oductsref
erstothechar
act
eri
sti
cssuchascol
our
,tender
ness,
fl
avourandwaterholdingcapaci
ty.

Factor
swhichinf
luencet
hequal
it
yofanimalpr
oduct
sarecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hree
cat
egor
iesnamelyani
mal,managementandmort
em f
act
ors.

Ani
mal
fact
ors
Ani
mal
fact
orsi
ncl
udeani
mal
speci
es,
sex,
ageandbr
eed.

I
.Speci
es
Thequal
i
tyofani
mal
product
sdi
ff
erf
rom ani
mal
speci
est
oani
mal
speci
es.

Buf
fal
ohasl
eanmeatwhi
chi
slowi
nchol
est
erol
.

Buf
fal
omeathasexcel
l
entbl
endi
ngqual
i
tyf
orcor
nbeef
,hotdogandsausage
product
ion.

Ont
heotherhand,
goatshavemoref
ati
nof
fal
thancar
casswher
eassheephav
e
mor
ef ati
nthecar
cassthanof
fal
.

Sheephasthetendencytodeposi
tsub-
cut
aneousf
atpar
ti
cul
arl
yov
ert
hel
oinr
egi
on
ascomparedtogoats.
Goatmeati
sleancompar
edt
osheepmeat
.

Goat
shav
ethi
ckermuscl
efi
brecompar
edt
osheepofsi
mil
arageandwei
ght
.

Meatf
rom l
argeani
malssuchascatt
leandbuf
fal
oar
ecoar
seri
ntext
urecompar
edt
o
small
stocksuchasgoatsandsheep.

Goatmi
l
khasmor
eheal
thbenef
it
scompar
edt
ocowmi
l
k.

I
I.Br
eed
Di
ff
erentbr
eedsdi
ff
eri
nthequal
i
tyoft
hei
rpr
oduct
s,wi
thi
nthesamespeci
es.

I
ncatt
le,
bestbeefqual
i
tiesar
eobt
ainedf
rom t
radi
ti
onal
breedsl
i
keHer
efor
dand
Angus.

Thesebr
eedsmat ureearl
yandtheyt
endtodeposi
tsubcut
aneousandmarbli
ngf
atin
t
hecarcassesatearl
i
eragecomparedt
odairybr
eedssuchasJerseyandHol
stei
n.

Beefbr
eedshav
emor
etenderandj
uicymeatt
handai
rybr
eeds.

Exot
icbeefbr
eedshav
etendermeatt
hani
ndi
genousbr
eeds.

Jer
seycowsproducel
essmilkwithhi
ghf
atcont
entwhi
l
eFr
iesl
andcowspr
oduce
moremilkwit
hlowfatcontent
.

Therefor
e,mi
lkf
rom Jer
seycowst
endt
obeofhi
ghqual
i
tycompar
edt
omi
l
kfr
om
Fri
esl
andcows.

I
II
.Age
Mat
uri
tyi
sver
ycl
osel
yrel
atedt
omeatt
ender
ness.

Gener
all
ytender
nessdecr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
nage.

Meatfrom ay
oungani
mal
ist
ender
ert
hanmeatf
rom amat
ureani
mal
oft
hesame
breedandspeci
es.

Tender
nessi
sdet
ermi
nedbyi
nter
-mol
ecul
arcr
oss-
li
nkagesi
ncol
l
agenf
ibr
es.

Ol
derani
mal
shav
emor
ecr
oss-
li
nkagest
hatar
enoteasi
l
y.

Agehasanef
fectont
hecol
ourandf
lav
ouront
hepr
oduct
.

Ol
derani
mal
shav
edar
kermuscl
ecol
ourduet
oincr
easedmy
ogl
obi
nconcent
rat
ion.
Ast
heani
malgetsol
derconcent
rat
ionofnucl
eot
idesi
nmuscl
eincr
easer
esul
ti
ngi
n
i
ncr
easedf
lav
ourint
ensi
ty.

I
V.Sex
Gr
owthrat
e,f
atdeposi
ti
onanddevelopmentofsomeodor
ouscompoundsi
nthebody
ofani
malsar
erelat
edtosexual
mat ur
it
y.

Thesedev
elopment
sreal
l
yaf
fectt
hequal
i
tyofmeat
.

Femal
eshav
emor
eint
ramuscul
arf
att
hanmal
es.

Cast
rat
edani
mal
shav
emor
eint
ramuscul
arf
att
hanbot
hfemal
esandi
ntactmal
es.

I
ntactmal
espr
oducesuper
iorcar
cassl
eannesst
hancast
rat
edmal
es.

Muscl
esofmal
eani
mal
stendt
obel
argert
hani
nfemal
esandcast
rat
edmal
es.

Managementf
act
ors
Themanagementf
act
orsi
ncl
uder
ear
ingandf
eedi
ngsy
stem andt
reat
ment
.

I
.Rear
ingandf
eedi
ngsy
stem
Ani
mal
sar
eei
therr
ear
edunderi
ntensi
ve,
semi
-i
ntensi
veorext
ensi
vesy
stem.

Ani
malsfr
om extensi
vegrazi
ngsy
stem haveaccesstoavari
etyoffeedstuff
sandas
aresul
tthei
rproduct
shaveabetterf
lav
ourthanthosef
rom int
ensivesyst
em.

However
,themeatt
endst
obel
esst
endert
hant
hemeatf
rom ani
mal
srai
sedunder
int
ensi
vesyst
em.

Agoodf
eedi
ngsy
stem r
esul
tsi
nhi
ghgr
owt
hrat
eandf
atdeposi
ti
oni
nani
mal
s.

Abnormalf
lav
our(t
aint
)inmeatcanr
esul
tfr
om f
eedi
ngani
mal
swi
thf
ishmeal
,st
ing
weedorst
rai
nsofcloves.

I
I.Tr
eat
ment
Dr
ugresi
duesaf
teranani
mal
hasbeent
reat
edmyl
eadt
oabnor
mal
flav
ouroft
he
meatandmil
k.

Theref
orepropercar
emustbetakentoprov
ideenoughgapsbet
weenmedi
cat
ionand
sl
aught
erormedicat
ionandmilki
ng.
I
nsomecasesaf f
ectedproduct
smaybechil
l
edtomanaget
heaf
fect
edpr
oduct
s
especi
all
yinbeef
, meatcanbechi
l
ledf
or24hour
s.

Ant
e-mor
tem f
act
ors
Thesef
act
orsi
ncl
udeani
mal
handl
i
ngandt
ranspor
tat
ionaswel
lasst
unni
ngmet
hod.

I
.Ani
mal
handl
i
ngandt
ranspor
tat
ion
Thehandli
ngofanimal
sbef
oremil
ki
ngorslaughterexposestheani
maltoawi
de
vari
etyofst
ressor
sandthi
scanadv
ersel
yaffectquali
tyofthepr
oduct.

Tr
anspor
tat
ionofani
mal
sbef
oresl
aught
err
eal
l
yaf
fect
sthequal
i
tyoft
hei
rpr
oduct
s.

Poort
ranspor
tat
ioncanr
esul
tinst
ress,
tissuebr
uisi
ngorev
endeat
hinsomecases.

Whentr
ansport
inganimal
stoabatt
oir
s,ani
malsexposedtolongt
erm pr
e-sl
aught
er
st
resshavereducedgl
ycogencont
entinthemuscleatsl
aught
er.

Thi
swi
l
lresul
tindar
k,f
ir
m anddr
ymeatwhi
chhasanundesi
rabl
ecol
ourandf
lav
our
.

Shor
tter
m st
ressr
esul
tinpal
e,sof
tandexudat
ivemeatwhi
chhasal
owpH.

Themeatwi
l
lbepal
eincol
ourwi
thv
erypoorwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty.

I
I.St
unni
ngmet
hod
St
unni
ngi
sapr
ocessofmaki
nganani
mal
unconsci
ousj
ustbef
oresl
aught
eri
ng.

Thest
unni
ngmet
hodusedhasanef
fectonmeatqual
i
ty.

St
ressdur
ingst
unni
ngcannotbeav
oidedcompl
etel
y,buti
tcanber
educed.

Bol
tpi
stol
andel
ect
ri
cal
stunni
ngar
ethecommonmet
hodsusedt
osl
aught
erani
mal
s.

Bot
hmethodscanpr
oducesmal
lbl
oodspoti
nmuscl
esi
fther
eisadel
ayi
nbl
eedi
ng
aft
erst
unni
ng.

Asdi
scussedear
li
er,
str
essaf
fect
smeatqual
i
tyi
ntwoway
s.

Shor
tter
m st
ressr
esul
tsi
npal
e,sof
tandexudat
ivemeat(
PSE)
.

Longt
erm st
ressr
esul
tsi
ndar
k,f
ir
m anddr
ymeat(
DFM)
.

Post
-mor
tem f
act
ors
Thesei
ncl
udehandl
i
ng,
processi
ngandst
orageoft
heani
mal
product
s.

I
.Handl
i
ngofpr
oduct
s
Thehandl
i
ngofpr
oduct
sal
sodet
ermi
nest
hei
rqual
i
ty.

Cont
ami
nat
ionmayoccurdur
inghandl
i
ngoft
hesepr
oduct
sifpr
opercar
eisnott
aken.

Meati
smoresuscept
ibl
etocont
ami
nat
iondur
ingcut
ti
nganddeboni
ngduet
o
massi
vehandl
ing.

Cont
ami
nat
ionmayr
esul
tinani
ncr
easeofmi
cro-
organi
smsi
nthepr
oduct
.

Ani
ncreasei
nthenumberofmi
cro-
organi
smsi
napr
oductr
educest
heshel
fli
feoft
he
pr
oduct.

Thedegreeofcont
aminat
iondependsont
hecl
eanl
i
nessoft
hepeopl
e,equi
pmentand
theroomsbeingused.

I
I.Pr
ocessi
ngandst
orageoft
hepr
oduct
s
Thepr
ocessi
ngofani
malpr
oduct
ssuchasmeatf
orpr
eser
vat
ionmayaf
fectt
he
qual
it
yofthepr
oduct
.

Dr
yingmet
hodmayr
esul
tinphy
sical
andchemi
cal
changeoft
hepr
oduct
.

Somet
imesdr
yingcanchanget
hecol
our
,fl
avourandnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueoft
hef
ood.

Themet
hodusedt
ost
oreani
mal
product
scani
nfl
uencet
hei
rqual
i
ty.

Fr
eezi
ngofunpackedmeatr
esul
tsi
nfr
eezebur
nandt
hiswi
l
laf
fectt
hequal
i
tyof
meat.

Thequal
i
tyoft
hef
rozenmeati
sinf
luencedbyt
her
ateoff
reezi
ng.

Sl
owfreezingmaycausephysi
cal
damaget
omuscul
art
issuer
esul
ti
ngi
ndi
stor
ted
appearanceoft
hefrozenmeat
.

Mar
ketsur
vey
Amarketsur
veyisaresear
chandanaly
sisofthemarketf
orapar
ticul
arpr
oductor
ser
vicewhichi
nvolv
esthei
nvest
igati
onint
oconsumerincl
i
nat
ions.

Amarketsurveyi
sat oolusedtodir
ectl
ycoll
ectfeedbackfr
om thet
arget
ed
popul
ationtounderst
andt hei
rchar
acter
ist
ics,expect
ati
onsandrequi
rement
s.
Mar
ketersshoul
ddetermi
nethecategor
yandf
eat
uresofpr
oduct
sthatcanber
eadi
l
y
acceptedbythet
arget
edpopulati
on.

Thedatacol
l
ecteddur
ingmar ketsur
veysi
ncludepr
ici
ngtr
ends,
cust
omer
requi
rement
s,competi
toranalysi
sandotherdet
ail
s.

I
mpor
tanceofmar
ketsur
vey
s
I
thel
pst
ounder
standcust
omeri
ncl
i
nat
iont
owar
dspur
chasi
ngpr
oduct
s.

I
thel
psi
ngai
ningcr
it
ical
cust
omerf
eedback.

I
thel
pst
oenhancet
heexi
sti
ngpr
oduct
s.

I
thel
pst
omakewel
l
-inf
ormedbusi
nessdeci
sions.

I
thel
psi
ndev
elopi
ngwel
l
-thoughtmar
ket
ingpl
ans.

I
thel
psi
ndet
ermi
ningcust
omerexpect
ati
onsandneeds.

I
thel
psi
naccur
atel
aunchi
ngofnewpr
oduct
s.

I
thel
psi
nobt
aini
ngi
nfor
mat
ionaboutcust
omerdemogr
aphi
cs.

Act
ivi
ti
es
Conductmar
ketsur
veyf
orl
i
vest
ockandwi
l
dli
fepr
oduct
s.

Compil
ear epor
tonthet
ypesofmar
ketf
orl
i
vest
ockandwi
l
dli
fepr
oduct
sav
ail
abl
ein
yourlocalar
ea.

Sal
esr
ecor
ds
Sal
esrecor
dsar
edocument
sthatar
eusedt
okeepi
nfor
mat
ionr
egar
dingsal
esof
product
s.

Goodsal
esr
ecor
d-keepi
ngst
artwi
thpr
operdocument
ati
on.

Ev
erysal
etr
ansact
iont
hatt
akespl
aceshoul
dber
ecor
ded.

Sal
esofani
mal
product
scanbedonei
ncashoroncr
edi
t.

Cashsal
esoccur
swhent
hepr
oduct
sar
esol
dandpay
menti
sdonei
mmedi
atel
y.
Cr
edi
tsal
esoccur
swhenpr
oduct
sar
esol
dandt
hepay
menti
sdoneatal
aterdat
e.

Thebuy
erget
sthepr
oduct
sfr
om t
hesel
l
erandpaywi
thi
nanagr
eedt
imef
rame.

Cashsal
esar
erecor
dedsepar
atel
yfr
om cr
edi
tsal
es.

Receiptsareusedt
orecor
dcashsal
eswher
easi
nvoi
cesar
eusedt
orecor
dcr
edi
t
sales.

Keepi
ngofsal
esr
ecor
ds
Sal
esr
ecor
dsneedt
obekeptsaf
ely
.

Theycanbekeptusi
ngt
wosy
stems;
namel
ypaperorcomput
ersy
stem.

I
npapersy
stem,al
lsal
esar
ewr
it
tenbyhandonar
ecei
ptori
nvoi
ceast
hesel
l
ing
pr
ocessoccur
s.

I
nfor
mat
ioni
sst
oredonar
ecei
ptori
nvoi
cebooki
nthef
orm ofadupl
i
cat
e.

Paperbasedsy
stem r
equi
resonet
okeept
her
ecor
dsi
nacl
earandwel
lor
gani
sed
manner.

Papersy
stem i
ssi
mpl
e,cheapandeasyt
oimpl
ementcompar
edt
ocomput
ersy
stem.

However,papersy
stem i
sti
meconsumi
ng,
andt
her
ear
ehi
gherchancesofmaki
ng
mistakes.

Computersy
stem i
nvol
vesthecapt
uri
ngofal
lsal
esact
ivi
ti
esi
ntocomput
ersof
twar
e
asthesell
ingpr
ocessoccur
s.

Thi
ssy
stem cansi
mpl
i
fyandi
mpr
ovet
heaccur
acyofr
ecor
dkeepi
ng.

Recor
dedi
nfor
mat
ioncanbef
oundmor
equi
ckl
ywhenneeded.

Thesy
stem i
sfast
,accur
ateandcanbeapower
ful
anal
ysi
stool
.

However
,thecomput
ersyst
em isexpensi
vesincei
trequir
esthebuyi
ngofa
computers,
sof
twarei
nstal
l
ationandhir
ingofmoretrai
nedworkers.

Keepi
ngofr ecor
dsonacomput err
equi
resabackupbecausewi
thoutbackupt
he
sy
stem canbedisast
rousi
fthecomputermal
funct
ions.

I
mpor
tanceofkeepi
ngsal
esr
ecor
ds
Recor
dsar
eusedasabasi
sfort
axat
ion(
theyar
eusedt
ocal
cul
atev
alueaddedt
ax)
.

Theycanbeusedbypr
oducer
stoknowcashonhandandcasht
iedupi
ncr
edi
ts.

Sal
esr
ecor
dshel
pint
hecal
cul
ati
onofl
oss,
grossandnetpr
ofi
t.

Theyhel
pproducer
stoknowincomebei
nggener
atedatt
hatpr
esentmomentand
howmuchisexpect
edinf
uture.

Sal
esrecordscanbeusedtocompar
edi
ff
erentf
arm ent
erpr
isesandt
hiscanhel
pin
handli
ngcompetit
ion.

Theycanbeusedi
nmoni
tor
ingandev
aluat
ionofdi
ff
erentpr
oductsal
es.

Theyhel
pinaccur
atehandov
er/
takeov
erf
orcont
inui
typur
poses.

Sal
esrecordscanbeusedt
ocompi
l
eandpubl
i
shf
inanci
alst
atement
sfor
shareholder
s.

Theser
ecor
dscanal
sobeusedi
nloanappl
i
cat
ionorsour
cingf
undsf
rom donor
s.

Sal
esr
ecor
dscanbeusedi
npr
epar
ati
onofv
ari
ousbudget
sfort
hef
arm ent
erpr
ises.

Ty
pesofsal
esr
ecor
ds
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofsal
esr
ecor
dst
hatcanbekeptbyf
armer
sorpr
oducer
s.

Thesear
ecashsal
eandcr
edi
tsal
esr
ecor
ds.

Cashandcr
edi
tsal
esar
erecor
deddai
l
yandev
aluat
ioncanbedoneonay
ear
lybasi
s.

1.Cashsal
erecor
ds
Cashsal
escanber
ecor
dedonr
ecei
pts.

Ar
ecei
pti
sanot
eshowi
ngt
hemoney
,goodsori
nfor
mat
iont
hathav
ebeenr
ecei
ved.

Af
terasal
e,t
her
ecei
pti
sissuedt
othebuy
erandt
hesel
l
err
emai
nswi
tht
hedupl
i
cat
e.

Recei
ptsf
orani
mal
product
sar
eusedt
orecor
dal
lsumsofmoneyr
ecei
ved.

Pr
e-pri
ntedandnumber
edr
ecei
ptswi
thdupl
i
cat
esar
ethemostsui
tabl
ety
pesof
recei
pts.

Recei
ptsf
orani
mal
product
scanbekeptashar
dcopy(
recei
ptbook)orsof
tcopy(
in
 comput
ers)
.

Anexampl
eofani
mal
productsal
esr
ecor
disbeefsal
esr
ecor
ds.

Thesal
esrecor
dshouldincl
udethenameoftheent
erpr
ise,
address,
contactdet
ail
s,
dateofsal
e,pr
oductsoldandamountpai
dasshowni nTabl
e7.5.1.

Tabl
e7.
5.1Year
lycashr
ecor
dforbeefandpor
ksal
es.
SuperMeat sAbat
toi
rs
75BinduraRoad
Mazowe
Cell:
+263770111111
Date Product Quant i
ty(
kg) Pr
ice(
$)/kg Tot
alsal
es(
$)
Jan2017 Beef 39080 2.
50 97700.
00
Jan2017 Pork 5760 2.
90 16704.
00
Feb2017 Beef 38770 2.
50 96925.
00
Feb2017 Pork 4995 2.
90 14485.
50
Mar2017 Beef 27301 2.
80 76442.
80
Mar2017 Pork 7809 3.
25 25379.
25
Apr2017 Beef 27817 2.
80 77887.
60
Apr2017 Pork 7946 3.
30 26221.
80
May2017 Beef 32671 3.
20 104547.
20
May2017 Pork 8768 3.
50 30688.
00
Jun2017 Beef 31167 3.
40 105967.
80
Jun2017 Pork 7632 3.
50 26712.
00
Jul2017 Beef 29781 3.
65 108700.
65
Jul2017 Pork 9931 3.
45 34261.
95
Aug2017 Beef 28765 3.
55 102115.
75
Aug2017 Pork 7897 3.
45 27244.
65
Sep2017 Beef 25456 3.
55 90368.
00
Sep2017 Pork 9467 3.
60 34081.
20
Oct2017 Beef 23817 3.
60 85741.
20
Oct2017 Pork 6723 3.
80 25547.
40
Nov2017 Beef 29732 4.
10 121901.
20
Nov2017 Pork 8821 3.
85 33960.
85
Dec2017 Beef 32910 4.
25 139867.
50
Dec2017 Pork 9876 4.
00 39504.
00
Subtot
al Beef 327267 1208164.
70
Pork 95625 570786.
80
GrandTotal 422892 1778951.
50
Ev
aluat
ionofy
ear
lycashr
ecor
dforbeefandpor
ksal
es
At
otal
of327267kgofbeefand95625kgofpor
kwer
esol
din2017.

Year
lyi
ncomef
rom beefandpor
kwer
e$1208164.
70and$570786.
80,
respect
ivel
y.

Thecompanygott
het
otal
incomeof$1778951.
50f
rom beefandpor
k.

Thecompanysol
ditshi
ghestquant
it
yofbeefi
nJanuar
yandFebr
uar
yatt
hel
owest
pri
ceof$2.
50/kg.

Thehi
ghestsuppl
yofbeefJanuar
yandFebr
uar
yresul
tedi
nlowmar
ketpr
ices.

Beefsal
esdecreasedi
nMarchandApri
landt
hiscoul
dbebecauset
hecompany
r
ecei
vedfewercatt
lef
rom t
hefar
mers.

Lesssuppl
yofani
mal
stot
heabat
toi
rscoul
dbeduet
other
est
ri
cti
onofcat
tl
e
movement
s.

Ani
malmovement
scanber
est
ri
ctedi
fther
eisadi
seaseout
break,
forexampl
e,f
oot
andmouth.

Thel
owersupplyofbeefresul
tedi
nit
shighdemandwhi
chcausedani
ncr
easeon
pr
iceofbeeffr
om $2.50/kgto$2.
80/
kg.

Fr
om Mayt
oAugust
,thesal
eswer
ehi
ghercompar
edt
oMar
chandApr
il
.

Thei
ncreaseofsal
escoul
dbeduet
hei
ncr
easei
ncat
tl
esuppl
yasar
esul
tof
unrest
ri
ctedcat
tl
emovement
.

Beefpr
icesincr
easedfr
om $2.
80/kginMar
chandApr
ilt
o$3.
20,
$3.
40and$3.
60/
kg
i
nMay ,JuneandJul
y,r
espect
ivel
y.

Thei
ncr
easei
nbeefpr
icescoul
dbeduet
olowsuppl
yofbeefandhi
ghdemandf
or
beef
.

Beefsal
esdecr
easedi
nSeptemberandOct
ober
,thi
smi
ghtbeduet
oal
owersuppl
yof
ani
malst
otheabat
toi
rs.

Thel
owsuppl
yofani
mal
stoabat
toi
rcoul
dbear
esul
toft
hedr
yseason.

Ther
eisl
ackofpast
uresorv
eget
ati
ondur
ingt
hedr
yseason.

Dur
ingt
hedryseasonf
armer
smi ghtnotbewil
l
ingtosel
lthei
rani
mal
sduet
opoor
bodycondi
ti
onswhi
chcanreducethepri
ceofanimal
s.
Hi
ghestpr
icesofbeefwererecor
dedinNovemberandDecemberwi
tht
hecompany
sel
li
ngbeefat$4.10/kgand$4.25/
kg.

Thepr
icei
ncr
easedduet
oincr
easeddemandsi
ncei
twast
hef
est
iveseason.

Thepr
iceofpor
kincr
easedf
rom $2.
90i
nFebr
uar
yto$3.
50i
nJune.

Thei
ncr
easei
npor
kpr
icemi
ghtbeduel
owsuppl
yandhi
ghdemandf
orpor
k.

Thepr
iceofpor
ksl
i
ght
lydecr
easedf
rom $3.
50/
kgi
nJunet
o$3.
45kgi
nAugust
.

Thedecr
easecoul
dbeduet
othehi
ghsuppl
yofpi
gst
otheabat
toi
rsbyf
armer
s.

Decemberr
ecor
dedt
hehi
ghestpor
kpr
ice(
$4/
kg)
.

Thehi
ghestporkpricewasr
ecor
dedi
nDecemberduet
ohi
ghdemandf
orpor
kdur
ing
thefest
iveseason.

Cr
edi
tsal
esr
ecor
ds
Cr
edi
tsal
esar
erecor
dedonsequent
ial
l
ynumber
edi
nvoi
ces.

Cr
edi
tsal
esmaybeusedt
oret
ainol
dcust
omer
sandt
oat
tr
actnewcust
omer
s.

Ani
nvoi
ceisadocumentt
hatl
ist
sall
theproduct
sthathav
ebeensuppl
i
edandt
he
amountofmoneyt
hebuyerowesthesel
ler
.

Thei
nvoi
cei
sissuedt
othebuy
erandt
hesel
l
err
emai
nswi
tht
hedupl
i
cat
e.

I
nvoicesf
orani
mal
product
scanbekeptashar
dcopy(
recei
ptbook)orsof
tcopy
(computer
).

Anexampl
eofani
mal
product
ssal
esr
ecor
dismeatcr
edi
tsal
esr
ecor
ds.

Thepr
oducerwi
l
ldel
i
vermeatandani
nvoi
cet
oret
ail
shops.

Thei
nvoi
ceshoul
dincl
udeinv
oicenumber
,nameoftheenter
pri
se,
addr
ess,cont
act
det
ail
s,dat
eofsal
e,pr
oductsol
dandamounttobepaidasshowninTable7.
5.2.

Tabl
e7.
5.2Year
lycr
edi
trecor
dsf
orbeefandpor
ksal
es.
Suppl
iedbySuperMeat
s Suppl
i
edt
oS
H
SuperMeatsAbatt
oir
s Samai
tahol
ding
(SH)
 75Bindur
aRoad 11Dender
a
way
Mazowe Chi
tungwi
za

Cell
:+263770111111 Cel
l
:+263771111
111
Date Product Quanti
ty(
kg) Pr
ice(
$)/
kg Tot
alsal
es(
$)
Jan2017 Beef 49333 2.
50 123332.
50
Jan2017 Pork 15706 2.
90 45547.
40
Feb2017 Beef 48707 2.
50 121767.
50
Feb2017 Pork 14005 2.
90 40614.
50
Mar2017 Beef 37331 2.
80 104526.
80
Mar2017 Pork 17891 3.
25 58145.
75
Apr2017 Beef 37817 2.
80 105887.
60
Apr2017 Pork 17976 3.
30 59320.
80
May2017 Beef 42619 3.
20 136380.
80
May2017 Pork 18781 3.
50 65733.
50
Jun2017 Beef 41716 3.
40 141834.
40
Jun2017 Pork 17621 3.
50 61673.
50
Jul2017 Beef 39781 3.
65 145200.
65
Jul2017 Pork 19193 3.
45 66215.
85
Aug2017 Beef 38324 3.
55 136050.
20
Aug2017 Pork 17789 3.
45 61372.
05
Sep2017 Beef 35111 3.
55 124644.
05
Sep2017 Pork 19473 3.
60 70102.
80
Oct2017 Beef 34447 3.
60 124009.
20
Oct2017 Pork 16237 3.
80 61700.
60
Nov2017 Beef 40732 4.
10 167001.
20
Nov2017 Pork 18812 3.
85 72426.
20
Dec2017 Beef 42091 4.
25 178886.
75
Dec2017 Pork 19687 4.
00 78748.
00
Subt
otal Beef 488009 1609521.
65
Pork 213171 741600.
95
GrandTotal 701180 2351122.
60

Table7.
5.2showsthatthecompanyr
ecor
dedy
ear
lyi
ncomeof$1609521.
65f
orbeef
and$741600.
95f orpor
k.

At
otal
of$2351122.
60wasr
ecor
dedf
oral
lcr
edi
tsal
esi
n2017.

Thel
owestpr
iceswer
erecor
dedi
nJanuar
yandFebr
uar
y.
Thi
scoul
dbeduel owdemandf
orbeefsi
ncepeopl
ewoul
dhav
espentmoneydur
ing
thef
esti
veseason.

Thehi
ghestpr
iceswer
erecor
dedi
nNov
emberandDecemberduehi
ghdemandf
or
beef
.

Thei
ncr
easeinpor
kpri
ceinDecembercouldbeduet
othel
owsuppl
yandhi
gher
demandforpor
kdur
ingthefest
iveseason.

I
ncr
easei
npor
kpr
icemi
ghtbeduet
oincr
easei
nfeedpr
icesandt
ranspor
tcost
s.

Bot
hbeefandpor
ktonnagesol
doncr
edi
twashi
ghercompar
edt
ocashsal
esoft
he
sameyear.

Thi
smeanst
hatt
hecompanyhasmor
ecr
edi
tcust
omer
sthancashones.

Thecompanymayf
acear
iskofbaddebtwhent
hecust
omer
sfai
ltopayt
hecr
edi
t.

Act
ivi
ti
es
Compi
l
eacashsal
esr
ecor
dformi
l
ksal
esusi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom al
ocal
dai
ryf
arm.

Af
tercompil
i
ngthecashsal
esr
ecor
donpaper
,tr
ansf
ert
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
ntoa
computer.