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By : Siddhant
1. Continuous Groups and Their Representations
Continuous groups, or Lie groups, are sets of elements that can be parameterized continuously.
These groups are particularly useful in physics and mathematics because they describe symmetries,
such as rotations and transformations that change continuously.

Representation of a group refers to a way of describing group elements as matrices that act on
vector spaces, facilitating calculations and providing insights into the group's structure.

Key Aspects of Continuous Groups:

1. Elements Parameterized Continuously: Unlike discrete groups, continuous groups can have an
infinite number of elements connected by continuous transformations.
2. Examples:
R: Real numbers under addition (a one-parameter continuous group).
SO(2): Rotation group in 2D defined by a single continuous angle θ.
3. Representations: Continuous groups are represented by matrix groups where elements vary
smoothly with respect to parameters like angles.

Types of Representations:

Trivial Representation: Every element of the group is mapped to the identity.

Faithful Representation: Injective mappings where each group element has a unique
representation.
Irreducible Representation: Cannot be decomposed into smaller representations; essential for
understanding symmetry.

2. Topology and Topological Groups

A topological group is a group that also has a topological structure, allowing for the definition of
continuous maps and limiting processes within the group.

Key Features of Topological Groups:

1. Continuous Operations: The group operations (multiplication and inversion) are continuous
with respect to the topology.
2. Common Examples:
Rn with addition and the standard Euclidean topology.
SO(2) and SO(3) with their respective topologies as rotation groups.
3. Compactness and Connectedness:
A group is compact if every sequence has a convergent subsequence (finite volume for
integration).
Connected groups, like SO(2), cannot be divided into disjoint open subsets, a property
significant for continuous transformations in physics.

3. Lie Groups and Their Representation

A Lie group is both a group and a smooth differentiable manifold. It has a structure that enables the
application of calculus, making it essential for studying continuous symmetries.

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 Key Concepts:

1. Lie Algebra: Associated with each Lie group is a Lie algebra, which describes the group's local
structure through generators and commutation relations.
2. Generative Elements and Lie Bracket: Lie algebras have basis elements called generators,
denoted typically by Ta , with commutation relations:
​

[Ta , Tb ] = ifabc Tc
​ ​ ​ ​

where fabc are the structure constants of the group.

​

3. Exponential Map: Connects Lie algebras to Lie groups. Any element g in a Lie group can be
expressed as:

g = eiαT

where α is a real parameter, and T is a generator of the group.

Representation of Lie Groups:

Representations map elements of the Lie group to matrices, allowing group elements to act on
vector spaces.
Irreducible Representations: Cannot be decomposed further, and are useful in physics for
labeling quantum states.

4. Special Orthogonal Group SO(2)

Definition: SO(2) is the group of rotations in a 2-dimensional plane, parameterized by an angle θ :

cos θ − sin θ
R(θ) = ( )
sin θ cos θ
​ ​

Key Aspects:

1. Abelian Group: All elements commute, as rotation by θ followed by ϕ is the same as ϕ followed
by θ .
2. Representations:
The irreducible representations of SO(2) are given by complex exponentials eimθ , where m
is an integer.
3. Applications: Models rotational symmetries in 2D, useful in wave functions and angular
momentum in quantum mechanics.

5. Special Orthogonal Group SO(3)

Definition: SO(3) represents rotations in 3-dimensional space, with three parameters (often Euler
angles α, β, γ ).

Key Aspects:

1. Non-Abelian: Elements generally do not commute; order of operations affects the result.

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 2. Representation:
Representations are labeled by an integer l, with each representation space having
dimension 2l + 1.
3. Relation to Angular Momentum:
SO(3) representations correspond to the possible angular momentum states in quantum
mechanics.
Example: For l = 1, we get the three states corresponding to spin-1 particles.

6. Special Unitary Group SU(2)

Definition: The group SU(2) includes all 2 × 2 unitary matrices with determinant 1. It is a double
cover of SO(3), meaning that each SO(3) rotation corresponds to two SU(2) elements.

Key Aspects:

1. Non-Abelian and Complex: Matrix entries can be complex, with transformations sensitive to the
quantum mechanical concept of spin.
2. Representation:
Representations of SU(2) are labeled by a half-integer j and have dimension 2j + 1.
1
Example: The fundamental (spin- 2 ) representation describes electron spin states.
​

3. Applications: Describes spin-1/2 particles (like electrons) and is foundational for quantum
mechanics.

7. Special Unitary Group SU(3)

Definition: SU(3) includes all 3 × 3 unitary matrices with determinant 1. It is an eight-parameter Lie
group with applications in particle physics.

Key Aspects:

1. Representation Structure:
Representations are labeled by two indices, (p, q), corresponding to the weights or
quantum numbers of particles.
2. Examples:
The fundamental representation of dimension 3 is used to represent quarks, while the
adjoint representation of dimension 8 describes gluons.
3. Applications: Central to Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), where SU(3) symmetry explains
the strong interactions between quarks.

8. Lorentz Group

Definition: The Lorentz group consists of all transformations that preserve the spacetime interval in
special relativity, combining rotations and boosts (transformations between inertial frames moving at
constant velocities relative to each other).

Key Aspects:

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 1. Generators:
Three rotation generators (Jx , Jy , Jz ) and three boost generators (Kx , Ky , Kz ).
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2. Non-Compact Group: Unlike the compact groups above, the Lorentz group includes unbounded
transformations (boosts), complicating the construction of unitary representations.
3. Representations:
Used to describe how particles transform under changes in the observer’s frame of
reference.
Representations split into irreducible representations under spatial rotations, relevant for
quantum field theory.

Applications:

The Lorentz group is crucial in relativistic physics and quantum field theory, as it governs
transformations in Minkowski spacetime.

Summary Table of Groups

Group Type Parameters Key Representations Application

imθ
SO(2) Abelian 1 e 2D rotations

3D rotations, angular
SO(3) Non-Abelian 3 2l + 1
momentum
SU(2) Non-Abelian 3 2j + 1 Spin-1/2 particles

SU(3) Non-Abelian 8 (p, q) Quantum Chromodynamics

Non- Irreducible reps under

Lorentz 6 Relativistic physics
compact rotations

These notes encapsulate the structure, representation, and physical significance

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