Fundamentals of Data

Science
21CSS202T
Unit I
Unit-1: INTRODUCTION TO DATA SCIENCE 9 hours
Benefits and uses of Data science, Facets of data, The data
science process

Introduction to Python Libraries: Numpy, creating array,

attributes, Numpy Arrays objects: Creating Arrays, basic
operations (Array Join, split, search, sort), Indexing, Slicing
and iterating, copying arrays, Arrays shape manipulation,
Identity array, eye function, Universal function, Linear
algebra with Numpy, eigen values and eigen vectors with
Numpy, Numpy Random: Data Distribution, Normal,
Exponential, Binomial, Poisson, Uniform and ChiSaquare
distributions.

T1: Using Numpy implement Array Indexing and slicing

T2: Using Numpy implement Array basic operations
T3: Using Numpy implement Linear algebra and Random
package
Big Data vs Data Science
• Big data is a blanket term for any collection of data sets so
large or complex that it becomes difficult to process them
using traditional data management techniques such as, for
example, the RDBMS (relational database management
systems).

• Data science involves using methods to analyze massive

amounts of data and extract the knowledge it contains.

You can think of the relationship between big data and data
science as being like the relationship between crude oil and
an oil refinery.
Characteristics of Big Data
• Volume—How much data is there?
• Variety—How diverse are different types of data?
• Velocity—At what speed is new data generated?
Benefits and uses of data
science and big data
1. It’s in Demand
2. Abundance of Positions
3. A Highly Paid Career
4. Data Science is Versatile
5. Data Science Makes Data Better
6. Data Scientists are Highly Prestigious
7. No More Boring Tasks
8. Data Science Makes Products Smarter
9. Data Science can Save Lives
Facets of data
■ Structured
■ Unstructured
■ Natural language
■ Machine-generated
■ Graph-based
■ Audio, video, and images
■ Streaming
Structured Data
• Structured data is data that depends on a data model and
resides in a fixed field within a record.
Unstructured data
• Unstructured data is data that isn’t easy to fit into a data
model because the content is context-specific or varying.
Natural language
• Natural language is a special type of unstructured data; it’s
challenging to process because it requires knowledge of
specific data science techniques and linguistics.

• The natural language processing community has had

success in entity recognition, topic recognition,
summarization, text completion, and sentiment analysis,
but models trained in one domain don’t generalize well to
other domains.
Machine-generated data
• Machine-generated data is information that’s automatically
created by a computer, process, application, or other
machine without human intervention.
• Machine-generated data is becoming a major data resource
and will continue to do so.
Machine-generated data
Graph-based or network
data
• “Graph data” can be a confusing term because any data can
be shown in a graph.
• “Graph” in this case points to mathematical graph theory.
• In graph theory, a graph is a mathematical structure to
model pair-wise relationships between objects.
• Graph or network data is, in short, data that focuses on
the relationship or adjacency of objects.
• The graph structures use nodes, edges, and properties to
represent and store graphical data.
• Graph-based data is a natural way to represent social
networks, and its structure allows you to calculate specific
metrics such as the influence of a person and the shortest
path between two people.
Graph-based or network
data
Audio, video and image
• Audio, image, and video are data types that pose specific
challenges to a data scientist.
Streaming
• While streaming data can take almost any of the previous
forms, it has an extra property.
• The data flows into the system when an event happens
instead of being loaded into a data store in a batch.
The Data Science
Process
The Data Science Process
• The data science process typically consists of six steps, as
you can see in the mind map
The Data Science Process
Setting the research goal
Setting the research goal
• Data science is mostly applied in the context of an
organization.
• A clear research goal
• The project mission and context
• How you’re going to perform your analysis
• What resources you expect to use
• Proof that it’s an achievable project, or proof of concepts
• Deliverables and a measure of success
• A timeline
Retrieving data
Retrieving data
• Data can be stored in many forms, ranging from simple text
files to tables in a database.
• The objective now is acquiring all the data you need.

• Start with data stored within the company

• Databases
• Data marts
• Data warehouses
• Data lakes
Data Lakes
• A data lake is a centralized storage repository that holds a
massive amount of structured and unstructured data.
• According to Gartner, “it is a collection of storage instances
of various data assets additional to the originating data
sources.”
Data warehouse
• Data warehousing is about the collection of data from
varied sources for meaningful business insights.
• An electronic storage of a massive amount of information, it
is a blend of technologies that enable the strategic use of
data!
Data Mart
DWH vs DM
• Data Warehouse is a large repository of data collected from
different sources whereas Data Mart is only subtype of a data
warehouse.
• Data Warehouse is focused on all departments in an
organization whereas Data Mart focuses on a specific group.
• Data Warehouse designing process is complicated whereas the
Data Mart process is easy to design.
• Data Warehouse takes a long time for data handling whereas
Data Mart takes a short time for data handling.
• Comparing Data Warehouse vs Data Mart, Data Warehouse size
range is 100 GB to 1 TB+ whereas Data Mart size is less than
100 GB.
• When we differentiate Data Warehouse and Data Mart, Data
Warehouse implementation process takes 1 month to 1 year
whereas Data Mart takes a few months to complete the
implementation process.
DWH vs DL
Data Lakes
• Data lakes are a fairly new concept and experts have
predicted that it might cause the death of data warehouses
and data marts.
• Although with the increase of unstructured data, data lakes
will become quite popular. But you will probably prefer
keeping your structured data in a data warehouse.
Data Providers
Cleansing, integration and
transformation
Cleansing data
• Data cleansing is a sub process of the data science
process that focuses on removing errors in your data
so your data becomes a true and consistent
representation of the processes it originates from.
• True and consistent representation
• interpretation error
• inconsistencies
Outliers
Data Entry Errors
• Data collection and data entry are error-prone processes.
• They often require human intervention, and because
humans are only human, they make typos or lose their
concentration for a second and introduce an error into
the chain. But data collected by machines or computers
isn’t free from errors either.
• Errors can arise from human sloppiness, whereas others
are due to machine or hardware failure.
Data Entry Errors
Redundant Whitespaces
• Whitespaces tend to be hard to detect but cause errors like
other redundant characters would.
• Capital letter mismatches are common.
• Most programming languages make a distinction between
“Brazil” and “brazil”. In this case you can solve the problem
by applying a function that returns both strings in
lowercase, such as .lower() in Python. “Brazil”.lower() ==
“brazil”.lower() should result in true.
Impossible values and
Sanity checks
• Sanity checks are another valuable type of data check.
• Sanity checks can be directly expressed with rules:
check = 0 <= age <= 120
Outliers
• An outlier is an observation that seems to be distant from
other observations or, more specifically, one observation
that follows a different logic or generative process than the
other observations.
• Find outliers Use a plot or table
Outliers
Handle missing data
Deviations from a code
book
• A code book is a description of your data, a form of
metadata.
• It contains things such as the number of variables per
observation, the number of observations, and what each
encoding within a variable means.(For instance “0” equals
“negative”, “5” stands for “very positive”.)
Combining data from
different data sources
• Joining enriching an observation from one table with
information from another table
• Appending or Stacking adding the observations of one
table to those of another table.
Joining
• Joining focus on enriching a single observation
• To join tables, you use variables that represent the same
object in both tables, such as a date, a country name, or a
Social Security number. These common fields are known as
keys.
• When these keys also uniquely define the records in the table
they are called Primary Keys
Appending
• Appending effectively adding observations from one
table to another table.
Views
• To avoid duplication of data, you virtually combine data
with views
• Existing needed more storage space
• A view behaves as if you’re working on a table, but this
table is nothing but a virtual layer that combines the tables
for you.
Views
Enriching aggregated
measures
• Data enrichment can also be done by adding calculated
information to the table, such as the total number of sales
or what percentage of total stock has been sold in a certain
region
Transforming data
• Certain models require their data to be in a certain shape.
• Transforming your data so it takes a suitable form for data
modeling.
Reducing the number of
variables
• Too many variables
don’t add new information to the model
model difficult to handle
certain techniques don’t perform well when you overload
them with too many input variables
• Data scientists use special methods to reduce the number
of variables but retain the maximum amount of data.
Turning variables into
dummies
• Dummy variables can only take two values: true(1) or
false(0). They’re used to indicate the absence of a
categorical effect that may explain the observation.
Data Exploration
Data Exploration
• Information becomes much easier to grasp when shown in
a picture, therefore you mainly use graphical techniques to
gain an understanding of your data and the interactions
between variables.
• Visualization Techniques
• Simple graphs
• Histograms
• Sankey
• Network graphs
Bar Chart
Line Chart
Distribution
Overlaying
Brushing and Linking
STEP 5: BUILD THE MODELS
Data modeling
Data modeling
• Building a model is an iterative process.
• The way you build your model depends on whether you go
with classic statistics or the somewhat more recent
machine learning school, and the type of technique you
want to use.
• Models consist of the following main steps:
• 1 Selection of a modeling technique and variables to enter
in the model
• 2 Execution of the model
• 3 Diagnosis and model comparison
Model and variable
selection
❖ Must the model be moved to a production environment
and, if so, would it be easy to implement?
❖ How difficult is the maintenance on the model: how
long will it remain relevant if left untouched?
❖ Does the model need to be easy to explain?
Model execution
Model execution
Model execution
 Introduction to
Python Libraries
NumPy Arrays
NumPy
•Numerical Python
• General-purpose array-processing package.
• High-performance multidimensional array object, and
tools for working with these arrays.
• Fundamental package for scientific computing with
Python.
• It is open-source software.
NumPy - Features
• A powerful N-dimensional array object
• Sophisticated (broadcasting) functions
• Tools for integrating C/C++ and Fortran code
• Useful linear algebra, Fourier transform, and random
number capabilities
Choosing NumPy over Python
list
Array
• An array is a data type used to store multiple values
using a single identifier (variable name).
• An array contains an ordered collection of data
elements where each element is of the same type and
can be referenced by its index (position)
Array
• Similar to the indexing of lists
• Zero-based indexing
• [10, 9, 99, 71, 90 ]
NumPy Array
• Store lists of numerical data, vectors and matrices
• Large set of routines (built-in functions) for creating,
manipulating, and transforming NumPy arrays.
• NumPy array is officially called ndarray but commonly
known as array
Creation of NumPy Arrays
from List
• First we need to import the NumPy library
import numpy as np
Creation of Arrays
1. Using the NumPy functions
a. Creating one-dimensional array in NumPy
import numpy as np
array=np.arange(20)
array

Output:
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19])
1. Using the NumPy functions
a. check the dimensions by using array.shape.
(20, )

Output:
array([ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13 14,15, 16, 17, 18, 19])
1. Using the NumPy functions
b. Creating two-dimensional arrays in NumPy
array=np.arange(20).reshape(4,5)

Output:
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
[15, 16, 17, 18, 19]])
1. Using the NumPy functions
c. Using other NumPy functions
np.zeros((2,4))
np.ones((3,6))
np.full((2,2), 3)

Output:
array([[0., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0.]])
array([[1., 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.],
[1., 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.],
[1., 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.]])
1. Using the NumPy functions
1. Using the NumPy functions
1. Using the NumPy functions
[[0. 0. 0. 0.]
[0. 0. 0. 0.]]
c. Using other NumPy
functions [[1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.]
import numpy as np [1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.]
[1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.]]
a=np.zeros((2,4))
b=np.ones((3,6)) [[1.14137702e-316 0.00000000e+000
c=np.empty((2,3)) 6.91583610e-310]
[6.91583609e-310 6.91583601e-310
d=np.full((2,2), 3)
6.91583601e-310]]
e= np.eye(3,3)
f=np.linspace(0, 10, num=4) [[3 3]
[3 3]]

print(a) [[1. 0. 0.]

print(b) [0. 1. 0.]
[0. 0. 1.]]
print(c)
print(d) [ 0. 3.33333333 6.66666667 10.
]
1. Using the NumPy functions
Sr No. Function Description
Return a new array with the same shape
1 empty_like()
and type

Return an array of ones with the same

2 ones_like()
shape and type.

Return an array of zeros with the same

3 zeros_like()
shape and type

Return a full array with the same shape

4 full_like()
and type
5 asarray() Convert the input to an array.
Return evenly spaced numbers on a log
6 geomspace()
scale.
7 copy() Returns a copy of the given object
1. Using the NumPy functions
Sr No. Function Description

8 diag() a diagonal array

9 frombuffer() buffer as a 1-D array

10 fromfile() Construct an array from text or binary file

Build a matrix object from a string, nested

11 bmat()
sequence, or array
12 mat() Interpret the input as a matrix

13 vander() Generate a Vandermonde matrix

14 triu() Upper triangle of array

1. Using the NumPy functions
Sr No. Function Description

15 tril() Lower triangle of array

An array with ones at & below the given

16 tri()
diagonal and zeros elsewhere

two-dimensional array with the flattened

17 diagflat()
input as a diagonal

18 fromfunction() executing a function over each coordinate

Return numbers spaced evenly on a log

19 logspace()
scale
Return coordinate matrices from
20 meshgrid()
coordinate vectors
 2. Conversion from Python structure like lists

import numpy as np
array=np.array([4,5,6]) [4 5 6]
[4, 5, 6]
print(array)
list=[4,5,6]
print(list)
Working with Ndarray
• np.ndarray(shape, type)
• Creates an array of the given shape with random numbers.
• np.array(array_object)
• Creates an array of the given shape from the list or tuple.
• np.zeros(shape)
• Creates an array of the given shape with all zeros.
• np.ones(shape)
• Creates an array of the given shape with all ones.
• np.full(shape,array_object, dtype)
• Creates an array of the given shape with complex
numbers.
• np.arange(range)
• Creates an array with the specified range.
NumPy Basic Array Operations
There is a vast range of built-in operations that we can
perform on these arrays.
1. ndim – It returns the dimensions of the array.
2. itemsize – It calculates the byte size of each element.
3. dtype – It can determine the data type of the element.
4. reshape – It provides a new view.
5. slicing – It extracts a particular set of elements.
6. linspace – Returns evenly spaced elements.
7. max/min , sum, sqrt
8. ravel – It converts the array into a single line.
Arrays in NumPy
Checking Array Dimensions in
NumPy
import numpy as np
a = np.array(10)
b = np.array([1,1,1,1])
c = np.array([[1, 1, 1], [2,2,2]])
d = np.array([[[1, 1, 1], [2, 2, 2]], [[3, 3, 3], [4, 4, 4]]])
print(a.ndim) #0
print(b.ndim) #1
print(c.ndim) #2
print(d.ndim) #3
Higher Dimensional Arrays in NumPy

import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1], ndmin=10)
print(arr)
print('number of dimensions :', arr.ndim)

[[[[[[[[[[1 1 1 1 1]]]]]]]]]]
number of dimensions : 10
Indexing and Slicing in NumPy
Indexing & Slicing
Indexing
import numpy as np
arr=([1,2,5,6,7])
print(arr[3]) #6

Slicing
import numpy as np
arr=([1,2,5,6,7])
print(arr[2:5]) #[5, 6, 7]
Indexing and Slicing
Indexing and Slicing in 2-D
Copying Arrays
Copy from one array to another
• Method 1: Using np.empty_like() function
• Method 2: Using np.copy() function
• Method 3: Using Assignment Operator
Using np.empty_like( )
• This function returns a new array with the same shape and
type as a given array.
Syntax:
• numpy.empty_like(a, dtype = None, order = ‘K’, subok = True)
 Using np.empty_like( )
import numpy as np
ary = np.array([13, 99, 100, 34, 65, 11, 66, 81, 632, 44])

print("Original array: ")

# printing the Numpy array
print(ary)

# Creating an empty Numpy array similar to ary

copy = np.empty_like(ary)

# Now assign ary to copy

copy = ary

print("\nCopy of the given array: ")

# printing the copied array

print(copy)
Using np.empty_like( )
 Using np.copy() function
• This function returns an array copy of the given object.
Syntax :
• numpy.copy(a, order='K', subok=False)

# importing Numpy package

import numpy as np
org_array = np.array([1.54, 2.99, 3.42, 4.87, 6.94, 8.21, 7.65, 10.50,
77.5])
print("Original array: ")
print(org_array)
# Now copying the org_array to copy_array using np.copy() function
copy_array = np.copy(org_array)
print("\nCopied array: ")
# printing the copied Numpy array
print(copy_array)
Using np.copy() function
# importing Numpy package
import numpy as np
org_array = np.array([1.54, 2.99, 3.42, 4.87, 6.94, 8.21, 7.65, 10.50,
77.5])
print("Original array: ")
print(org_array)
copy_array = np.copy(org_array)
print("\nCopied array: ")
# printing the copied Numpy array
print(copy_array)
Using Assignment Operator
import numpy as np
org_array = np.array([[99, 22, 33],[44, 77, 66]])
# Copying org_array to copy_array using Assignment operator
copy_array = org_array

# modifying org_array
org_array[1, 2] = 13

# checking if copy_array has remained the same

# printing original array

print('Original Array: \n', org_array)

# printing copied array

print('\nCopied Array: \n', copy_array)
Iterating Arrays
• Iterating means going through elements one by one.
• As we deal with multi-dimensional arrays in numpy, we can do
this using basic for loop of python.
• If we iterate on a 1-D array it will go through each element one
by one.
• Iterate on the elements of the following 1-D array:
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])
for x in arr:
print(x)
Output:
1
2
3
Iterating Arrays
• Iterating 2-D Arrays
• In a 2-D array it will go through all the rows.
• If we iterate on a n-D array it will go through (n-1)th
dimension one by one.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

for x in arr:
print(x)
Output:
[1 2 3]
[4 5 6]
Iterating Arrays
• To return the actual values, the scalars, we have to iterate
the arrays in each dimension.
arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
for x in arr:
for y in x:
print(y)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Iterating Arrays
• Iterating 3-D Arrays
• In a 3-D array it will go through all the 2-D arrays.

• import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])

for x in arr:
print(x)

[[1 2 3] [4 5 6]]
[[ 7 8 9] [10 11 12]]
Iterating Arrays
• Iterating 3-D Arrays
• To return the actual values, the scalars, we have to iterate the
arrays in each dimension.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]])

for x in arr:
for y in x:
for z in y:
print(z)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Iterating Arrays Using

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

nditer()
• The function nditer() is a helping function that can be
used from very basic to very advanced iterations. 1
2
• Iterating on Each Scalar Element 3
• In basic for loops, iterating through each scalar of an array 4
we need to use n for loops which can be difficult to write 5
for arrays with very high dimensionality. 6
7
8
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[5, 6], [7, 8]]])

for x in np.nditer(arr):
print(x)
Identity array
• The identity array is a square array with ones on the main
diagonal.
• The identity() function return the identity array.
Identity
• numpy.identity(n, dtype = None) : Return a identity
matrix i.e. a square matrix with ones on the main daignol

• Parameters:
• n : [int] Dimension n x n of output array
• dtype : [optional, float(by Default)] Data type of returned
array
Identity array
# 2x2 matrix with 1's on main diagonal
b = geek.identity(2, dtype = float)
print("Matrix b : \n", b)
a = geek.identity(4)
print("\nMatrix a : \n", a)

Output:
Matrix b :
[[ 1. 0.]
[ 0. 1.]]
Matrix a :
[[ 1. 0. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 0. 1.]]
eye( )
• numpy.eye(R, C = None, k = 0, dtype = type <‘float’>)
: Return a matrix having 1’s on the diagonal and 0’s
elsewhere w.r.t. k.
• R : Number of rows
C : [optional] Number of columns; By default M = N
k : [int, optional, 0 by default]
Diagonal we require; k>0 means diagonal above main
diagonal or vice versa.
dtype : [optional, float(by Default)] Data type of returned
array.
eye( )
Identity( ) vs eye( )
• np.identity returns a square matrix (special case of a
2D-array) which is an identity matrix with the main
diagonal (i.e. 'k=0') as 1's and the other values as 0's. you
can't change the diagonal k here.
• np.eye returns a 2D-array, which fills the diagonal, i.e. 'k'
which can be set, with 1's and rest with 0's.
• So, the main advantage depends on the requirement. If you
want an identity matrix, you can go for identity right away,
or can call the np.eye leaving the rest to defaults.
• But, if you need a 1's and 0's matrix of a particular
shape/size or have a control over the diagonal you can go
for eye method.
Identity( ) vs eye( )
import numpy as np
print(np.eye(3,5,1))
print(np.eye(8,4,0))
print(np.eye(8,4,-1))
print(np.eye(8,4,-2))
Print(np.identity(4)
Shape of an Array
• import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 6, 7, 8]])

print(arr.shape)

• Output: (2,4)
Reshaping arrays
• Reshaping means changing the shape of an array.
• The shape of an array is the number of elements in each
dimension.
• By reshaping we can add or remove dimensions or change
number of elements in each dimension.
Reshape From 1-D to 2-D
• import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

newarr = arr.reshape(4, 3)

print(newarr)

• Output:
• [[ 1 2 3]
• [ 4 5 6]
• [ 7 8 9]
• [10 11 12]]
Reshape From 1-D to 3-D
• The outermost dimension will have 2 arrays that contains 3 arrays, each
with 2 elements
• import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])
newarr = arr.reshape(2, 3, 2)
print(newarr)

Output:
[[[ 1 2]
[ 3 4]
[ 5 6]]

[[ 7 8]
[ 9 10]
[11 12]]]
Can we Reshape into any
Shape?
• Yes, as long as the elements required for reshaping are equal in
both shapes.
• We can reshape an 8 elements 1D array into 4 elements in 2
rows 2D array but we cannot reshape it into a 3 elements 3
rows 2D array as that would require 3x3 = 9 elements.
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

newarr = arr.reshape(3, 3)

print(newarr)

• Traceback (most recent call last): File

"demo_numpy_array_reshape_error.py", line 5, in <module>
ValueError: cannot reshape array of size 8 into shape (3,3)
Flattening the arrays
• Flattening array means converting a multidimensional
array into a 1D array.
• import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

newarr = arr.reshape(-1)

print(newarr)
• Output: [1 2 3 4 5 6]
• There are a lot of functions for changing the shapes of
arrays in numpy flatten, ravel and also for rearranging the
elements rot90, flip, fliplr, flipud etc. These fall under
Intermediate to Advanced section of numpy.
Operations on NumPy
1.NumPy Arithmetic
Operations
1.NumPy Arithmetic
Operations
import numpy as np [6 7 8 9]
a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4]) [-1 0 1 2]
# add 5 to every element [10 20 30 40]
[0.5 1. 1.5 2. ]
print ( a+5)
# subtract 2 from each element
print ( a-2)
# multiply each element by 5
print (a*10)
# divide each element by 2
print ( a/2)
2. NumPy Unary Operators
import numpy as np
arr = np.array([[1,5, 12], [2,32, 20], [3, 40, 13]])
print(arr.max(axis = 1))
print(arr.max(axis = 0))
print (arr.min(axis = 0))
print(arr.min(axis = 1))
print (arr.sum( ))
print ( arr.sum(axis=0))
print( arr.sum(axis=1))
[12 32 40]
[ 3 40 20]
[ 1 5 12]
[1 2 3]
128
[6 77 45]
[18 54 56]
3. NumPy Binary Operators
import numpy as np
a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
b = np.array([[4, 3], [2, 1]])
print (a + b)
print (a*b)

[[5 5]
[5 5]]

[[4 6]
[6 4]]
NumPy Universal Functions
import numpy as np
a = np.array([0, np.pi/2, np.pi])
print ( np.sin(a))
a = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])
print ( np.exp(a))
print ( np.sqrt(a))

[0.0000000e+00 1.0000000e+00 1.2246468e-16]

[ 1. 2.71828183 7.3890561 20.08553692]

[0. 1. 1.41421356 1.73205081]

Arithmetic Operators &
Functions
Mathematical Functions
NumPy functions
import numpy as np
a = np.array([7,3,4,5,1])
b = np.array([3,4,5,6,7])
np.add(a, b) #([ 10, 7, 9, 11, 8])
np.subtract(a,b) #[ 4,-1,-1,-1,-6]
np.multiply(a, b) #[21, 12, 20, 30, 7]
np.divide(a, b) #[2.33333333, 0.75 , 0.8 , 0.83333333, 0.14285714]
np.remainder(a,b) #[1, 3, 4, 5, 1]
np.mod(a,b) #[1, 3, 4, 5, 1]
np.power(a,b) #[ 343, 81, 1024, 15625, 1]
np.reciprocal(a) #[0, 0, 0, 0, 1]
NumPy Add Operator
import numpy as np
a = np.array([10,20,100,200,500])
b = np.array([3,4,5,6,7])
print(a+b) #[ 13 24 105 206 507]
print(a-b)
print(a*b)
print(a/b)
Types of Array
Creating a 1-D Array
Creating a 1-D Array
Creation of a multidimensional
array(ndarray)
Creation of a multidimensional
array(ndarray)
Creation of a multidimensional
array(ndarray)
Program to illustrate Indexing in
Ndarrays
Program to illustrate Indexing in
Ndarrays
Program to illustrate Indexing
in a 3D array
Program to illustrate Indexing
in a 3D array
Operations on Ndarray
Operations on Ndarray
Add two 1d arrays
element-wise
Add two 1d arrays
element-wise
import numpy as np

# create numpy arrays x1 and x2

x1 = np.array([1, 3, 0, 7])
x2 = np.array([2, 0, 1, 1])
# elementwise sum with np.add()
x3 = np.add(x1, x2)
# display the arrays
print("x1:", x1)
print("x2:", x2)
print("x3:", x3)
Add two 1d arrays
element-wise
import numpy as np
x1: [1 2 0 3]
# create numpy arrays x1 and x2
x2: [4 1 2 2]
x1 = np.array([1, 2, 0, 3])
x3: [5 3 2 5]
x2 = np.array([4, 1,2, 2])
# elementwise sum with np.add()
x3 = np.add(x1, x2)
# display the arrays
print("x1:", x1)
print("x2:", x2)
print("x3:", x3)
x3 = x1 + x2
# display the arrays
print("x1:", x1)
print("x2:", x2)
print("x3:", x3)
 Add two 2d arrays elementwise
# create 2d arrays x1 and x2 x1:
x1 = np.array([[1, 0, 1], [2, 1, 1], [3, 0, 3]]) [[1 0 1]
[2 1 1]
x2 = np.array([[2, 2, 0], [1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0]]) [3 0 3]]
# elementwise sum with np.add() x2:
[[2 2 0]
x3 = np.add(x1, x2) [1 0 1]
# display the arrays print("x1:\n", x1) [0 1 0]]
print("x2:\n", x2) x3:
[[3 2 1]
print("x3:\n", x3) [3 1 2]
[3 1 3]]
Add more than two arrays elementwise

# create numpy arrays x1, x2, and x3 x1: [1 3 0 7]

x1 = np.array([1, 3, 0, 7]) x2: [2 0 1 1]
x3: [0 1 3 1]
x2 = np.array([2, 0, 1, 1]) x4: [3 4 4 9]
x3 = np.array([0, 1, 3, 1])
# elementwise sum with +
x4 = x1+x2+x3
# display the arrays
print("x1:", x1)
print("x2:", x2)
print("x3:", x3)
print("x4:", x4)
 NumPy Array attributes
1. ndarray.flags- It provides information about memory
layout
2. ndarray.shape- Provides array dimensions
3. ndarray.strides- Determines step size while traversing
the arrays
4. ndarray.ndim- Number of array dimensions
5. ndarray.data- Points the starting position of array
6. ndarray.size- Number of array elements
7. ndarray.itemsize- Size of individual array elements in
bytes
8. ndarray.base- Provides the base object, if it is a view
9. ndarray.nbytes- Provides the total bytes consumed by
the array
10. ndarray.T- It gives the array transpose
11. ndarray.real- Separates the real part
12. ndarray.imag- Separates the imaginary
 NumPy Array attributes
1. ndarray.flags- It provides information about memory
layout
2. ndarray.shape- Provides array dimensions
3. ndarray.strides- Determines step size while traversing
the arrays
4. ndarray.ndim- Number of array dimensions
5. ndarray.data- Points the starting position of array
6. ndarray.size- Number of array elements
7. ndarray.itemsize- Size of individual array elements in
bytes
8. ndarray.base- Provides the base object, if it is a view
9. ndarray.nbytes- Provides the total bytes consumed by
the array
10. ndarray.T- It gives the array transpose
11. ndarray.real- Separates the real part
12. ndarray.imag- Separates the imaginary
JOIN, SPLIT, SEARCH AND
SORT
Joining
• Joining means putting contents of two or more arrays in a
single array.
• In SQL we join tables based on a key, whereas in NumPy we
join arrays by axes.
• We pass a sequence of arrays that we want to join to
the concatenate() function, along with the axis. If axis is not
explicitly passed, it is taken as 0.
Join
Join two arrays
import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.concatenate((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Output:[1 2 3 4 5 6]
Join two 2-D arrays along
rows (axis=1)
import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

arr2 = np.array([[5, 6], [7, 8]])

arr = np.concatenate((arr1, arr2), axis=1)

print(arr)

Output:[[1 2 5 6] [3 4 7 8]]
stack( )
• Stacking is same as concatenation, the only difference is
that stacking is done along a new axis.
• We can concatenate two 1-D arrays along the second axis
which would result in putting them one over the other, ie.
stacking.
• We pass a sequence of arrays that we want to join to
the stack() method along with the axis. If axis is not
explicitly passed it is taken as 0.
stack( )
import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.stack((arr1, arr2), axis=1)

print(arr)

Output: [[1 4] [2 5] [3 6]]

hstack( ) - Stacking Along Rows
• NumPy provides a helper function: hstack() to stack along
rows.

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.hstack((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Output: [1 2 3 4 5 6]
vstack( ) - Stacking Along
Columns
• NumPy provides a helper function: vstack() to stack along
columns.

import numpy as np

arr1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])

arr2 = np.array([4, 5, 6])

arr = np.vstack((arr1, arr2))

print(arr)

Output: [[1 2 3] [4 5 6]]

Split
Splitting
• Splitting is reverse operation of Joining.
• Joining merges multiple arrays into one and Splitting
breaks one array into multiple.
Split
• split( )

• array_split( )
Split
• hsplit( )

• vsplit( )
Splitting
• We use array_split() for splitting arrays, we pass it the
array we want to split and the number of splits.
• Note: The return value is an array containing three arrays.
• If the array has less elements than required, it will adjust
from the end accordingly.

Note: We also have the method split() available but it will

not adjust the elements when elements are less in source
array for splitting like in example
above, array_split() worked properly but split() would fail.
array_split( )
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

Output:
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4]), array([5, 6])]
split( )
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

Output:
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4]), array([5, 6])]
array_split( )
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 4)

print(newarr)

Output:[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4]), array([5]), array([6])]

split( )
import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.split(arr, 4)

print(newarr)

Output:
Error
Split Into Arrays
• The return value of the array_split() method is an array
containing each of the split as an array.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr[0])
print(newarr[1])
print(newarr[2])

Output:[1 2] [3 4] [5 6]
Splitting 2-D Arrays
• Use the same syntax when splitting 2-D arrays.
• Use the array_split() method, pass in the array you want to
split and the number of splits you want to do.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8], [9, 10], [11, 12]])

newarr = np.array_split(arr, 3)

print(newarr)

Output:[array([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), array([[5, 6], [7, 8]]),

array([[ 9, 10], [11, 12]])]
hsplit( ) and vsplit( )
• The hsplit() function is used to split an array into
multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).

• hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is always

split along the second axis regardless of the array
dimension.

• The vsplit() function is used to split an array into

multiple sub-arrays vertically (row-wise).
• Note: vsplit is equivalent to split with axis=0 (default), the
array is always split along the first axis regardless of the
array dimension.
hsplit
[array([[ 1],
import numpy as np [ 4],
[ 7],
arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [10],
[4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12], [13],
[16]]), array([[ 2],
[13, 14, 15], [16, 17, 18]])
[ 5],
[ 8],
newarr = np.hsplit(arr, 3) [11],
[14],
print(newarr) [17]]), array([[ 3],
[ 6],
[ 9],
[12],
[15],
[18]])]
vsplit
[array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]),
import numpy as np array([[ 7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12]]),
array([[13, 14, 15], [16, 17,
18]])]
arr = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5,
6], [7, 8, 9], [10, 11, 12], [13,
14, 15], [16, 17, 18]])

newarr = np.vsplit(arr, 3)

print(newarr)
Searching
• You can search an array for a certain value, and return the
indexes that get a match.
• To search an array, use the where() method.

Find the indexes where the value is 4

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4])

x = np.where(arr == 4)

print(x)

Output:(array([3, 5, 6]),)
Sorting
• Sorting means putting elements in an ordered sequence.
• Ordered sequence is any sequence that has an order
corresponding to elements, like numeric or alphabetical,
ascending or descending.
• The NumPy ndarray object has a function called sort(), that will
sort a specified array.
• Note: This method returns a copy of the array, leaving the
original array unchanged.

import numpy as np

arr = np.array([3, 2, 0, 1])

print(np.sort(arr))

Output:[0 1 2 3]
Search
 ARRAY SHAPE
MANIPULATION
Reshaping Array
List and Array
Linear Algebra with Numpy
Linear Algebra Module
• The Linear Algebra module of NumPy offers various
methods to apply linear algebra on any numpy array.
One can find:
• rank, determinant, trace, etc. of an array.
• eigen values of matrices
• matrix and vector products (dot, inner, outer,etc.
product), matrix exponentiation
• solve linear or tensor equations and much more!
Example
# Importing numpy as np
import numpy as np

A = np.array([[6, 1, 1],
[4, -2, 5],
[2, 8, 7]])

# Rank of a matrix
print("Rank of A:", np.linalg.matrix_rank(A))

# Trace of matrix A
print("\nTrace of A:", np.trace(A))

# Determinant of a matrix
print("\nDeterminant of A:", np.linalg.det(A))

# Inverse of matrix A
print("\nInverse of A:\n", np.linalg.inv(A))

print("\nMatrix A raised to power 3:\n",

np.linalg.matrix_power(A, 3))
Output
Rank of A: 3
Trace of A: 11
Determinant of A: -306.0
Inverse of A:
[[ 0.17647059 -0.00326797 -0.02287582]
[ 0.05882353 -0.13071895 0.08496732]
[-0.11764706 0.1503268 0.05228758]]

Matrix A raised to power 3:

[[336 162 228]
[406 162 469]
[698 702 905]]
Eigen values and
Eigen vectors
Eigen values and vectors
• The Python Numpy linear algebra package can find the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix.
• We calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
import numpy as np
from numpy import linalg as LA
A = np.array([[1,2,3],[3,2,1],[1,0,-1]])
w, v = LA.eig(A)
print(w)
[ 4.31662479e+00 -2.31662479e+00 3.43699053e-17] print(v)
[[ 0.58428153 0.73595785 0.40824829] [ 0.80407569
-0.38198836 -0.81649658] [ 0.10989708 -0.55897311
0.40824829]]
Eigen values and vectors
• The numpy.linalg.eig function returns a tuple
consisting of a vector and an array
• The vector (here w) contains the eigenvalues.
• The array (here v) contains the corresponding
eigenvectors, one eigenvector per column.
• The eigenvalue w[0] goes with the 0th column of v. The
eigenvalue w[1] goes with column 1, etc.
• To extract the ith column vector, we use
• u = v[:,i]
Eigen values
# importing numpy library
import numpy as np

# create numpy 2d-array

m = np.array([[1, 2], [2, 3]])

print("Printing the Original square array:\n",m)

# finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors

w, v = np.linalg.eig(m)

# printing eigen values

print("Printing the Eigen values of the given square array:\n", w)

# printing eigen vectors

print("Printing Right eigenvectors of the given square array:\n“,v)
Eigen values
Printing the Original square array:
[[1 2]
[2 3]]

Printing the Eigen values of the given square array:

[-0.23606798 4.23606798]

Printing Right eigenvectors of the given square array:

[[-0.85065081 -0.52573111]
[ 0.52573111 -0.85065081]]
Eigen vectors
# importing numpy library
import numpy as np

# create numpy 2d-array

m = np.array([[1, 2, 3],[2, 3, 4],[4, 5, 6]])

print("Printing the Original square array:\n",m)

# finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors

w, v = np.linalg.eig(m)

# printing eigen values

print("Printing the Eigen values of the given square array:\n",w)

# printing eigen vectors

print("Printing Right eigenvectors of the given square array:\n",v)
Eigen vectors
Printing the Original square array:
[[1 2 3]
[2 3 4]
[4 5 6]]
Printing the Eigen values of the given square array:
[ 1.08309519e+01 -8.30951895e-01 1.01486082e-16]
Printing Right eigenvectors of the given square array:
[[ 0.34416959 0.72770285 0.40824829]
[ 0.49532111 0.27580256 -0.81649658]
[ 0.79762415 -0.62799801 0.40824829]]
 Numpy Random
Data Distribution, Normal,
Exponential, Binomial, Poisson,
Uniform and ChiSquare
distributions.
Random
• Random number does NOT mean a different number every
time. Random means something that can not be predicted
logically.

• Pseudorandom
• Computers work on programs, and programs are definitive
set of instructions. So it means there must be some
algorithm to generate a random number as well.
• If there is a program to generate random number it can be
predicted, thus it is not truly random.
• Random numbers generated through a generation
algorithm are called pseudo random.
Random
• Random number does NOT mean a different number every
time. Random means something that can not be predicted
logically.

• Truerandom
• In order to generate a truly random number on our
computers we need to get the random data from some
outside source. This outside source is generally our
keystrokes, mouse movements, data on network etc.
• We do not need truly random numbers, unless its related to
security (e.g. encryption keys) or the basis of application is
the randomness (e.g. Digital roulette wheels).
Generate Random number
from numpy import random

x = random.randint(100)

print(x)

Output:45
Generate Random Float
from numpy import random

x = random.rand()

print(x)

Output:0.20589891226659818
Generate Random Array
• In NumPy we work with arrays, and you can use the two
methods from the above examples to make random arrays.

Integers
• The randint() method takes a size parameter where you
can specify the shape of an array.

from numpy import random

x=random.randint(100, size=(5))

print(x)

Output:[61 66 32 13 16]
Data Distribution
• Data Distribution is a list of all possible values, and how
often each value occurs.
• Such lists are important when working with statistics and
data science.
• The random module offer methods that returns randomly
generated data distributions.
Random Distribution
• A random distribution is a set of random numbers that
follow a certain probability density function.
• Probability Density Function: A function that describes a
continuous probability. i.e. probability of all values in an
array.
• We can generate random numbers based on defined
probabilities using the choice() method of
the random module.
• The choice() method allows us to specify the probability for
each value.
• The probability is set by a number between 0 and 1, where
0 means that the value will never occur and 1 means that
the value will always occur.
Example
• Generate a 1-D array containing 100 values, where each
value has to be 3, 5, 7 or 9.
• The probability for the value to be 3 is set to be 0.1
• The probability for the value to be 5 is set to be 0.3
• The probability for the value to be 7 is set to be 0.6
• The probability for the value to be 9 is set to be 0

from numpy import random

x = random.choice([3, 5, 7, 9], p=[0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0.0],

size=(100))

print(x)
Example

[3 7 5 7 7 7 5 7 3 7 3 7 7 7 7 5 7 5 7 7 7 7 7 5 3 7 5 7 7 7 3 5
37577575757757735357757777575355
77737777577577777755355755775337
7 5 7 7]
Example
• You can return arrays of any shape and size by specifying
the shape in the size parameter.
• Same example as above, but return a 2-D array with 3 rows,
each containing 5 values.

from numpy import random

x = random.choice([3, 5, 7, 9], p=[0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0.0],
size=(3, 5))
print(x)

[[7 7 7 7 7]
[5 3 5 7 5]
[5 7 5 7 5]]
Normal Distribution
• The Normal Distribution is one of the most important
distributions.
• It is also called the Gaussian Distribution after the German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.
• It fits the probability distribution of many events, eg. IQ
Scores, Heartbeat etc.
• Use the random.normal() method to get a Normal Data
Distribution.
• It has three parameters:
• loc - (Mean) where the peak of the bell exists.
• scale - (Standard Deviation) how flat the graph distribution
should be.
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Normal Distribution
from numpy import random

x = random.normal(size=(2, 3))

print(x)

Output:
Run1:
[[ 0.15001821 -1.31355388 -1.35020654] [-1.31067087
-0.48537757 -0.02052509]]
Run2:
[[-2.0610908 -0.3081812 0.99886608] [ 0.56001902
0.38363428 -0.07954767]]
 Visualization of Normal
Distribution
from numpy import random
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
sns.distplot(random.normal(size=1000), hist=False)
plt.show()
Exponential Distribution
• Exponential distribution is used for describing time till next
event e.g. failure/success etc.
• It has two parameters:
• scale - inverse of rate ( see lam in poisson distribution )
defaults to 1.0.
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Exponential Distribution
Time Between Customers
• The number of minutes between customers who enter a certain shop
can be modeled by the exponential distribution.
• For example, suppose a new customer enters a shop every two
minutes, on average. After a customer arrives, find the probability
that a new customer arrives in less than one minute.

To solve this, we can start by knowing that the average time between
customers is two minutes. Thus, the rate can be calculated as:
• λ = 1/μ
• λ = 1/2
• λ = 0.5
• We can plug in λ = 0.5 and x = 1 to the formula for the CDF:
• P(X ≤ x) = 1 – e-λx
• P(X ≤ 1) = 1 – e-0.5(1)
• P(X ≤ 1) = 0.3935
The probability that we’ll have to wait less than one minute for the
next customer to arrive is 0.3935.
Exponential Distribution
• Draw out a sample for exponential distribution with 2.0
scale with 2x3 size:

from numpy import random

x = random.exponential(scale=2, size=(2, 3))

print(x)

Output:[[0.16401759 5.71219287 1.20149124]

[2.51527074 2.13596927 1.04229153]]
Binomial Distribution
• A binomial distribution can be thought of as simply the
probability of a SUCCESS or FAILURE outcome in an
experiment or survey that is repeated multiple times.
• The binomial is a type of distribution that has two possible
outcomes (the prefix “bi” means two, or twice).
• For example, a coin toss has only two possible outcomes:
heads or tails and taking a test could have two possible
outcomes: pass or fail.
Binomial Distribution
Example
• For example, let’s suppose you wanted to know the
probability of getting a 1 on a die roll. if you were to roll a
die 20 times, the probability of rolling a one on any throw
is 1/6. Roll twenty times and you have a binomial
distribution of (n=20, p=1/6). SUCCESS would be “roll a
one” and FAILURE would be “roll anything else.”
• If the outcome in question was the probability of the die
landing on an even number, the binomial distribution
would then become (n=20, p=1/2). That’s because your
probability of throwing an even number is one half.
•
Binomial Distribution
• Binomial Distribution is a Discrete Distribution.
• It describes the outcome of binary scenarios, e.g. toss of a
coin, it will either be head or tails.
• It has three parameters:
• n - number of trials.
• p - probability of occurence of each trial (e.g. for toss of a coin
0.5 each).
• size - The shape of the returned array.
• Discrete Distribution:The distribution is defined at
separate set of events, e.g. a coin toss's result is discrete as
it can be only head or tails whereas height of people is
continuous as it can be 170, 170.1, 170.11
Binomial Distribution
• Given 10 trials for coin toss generate 10 data points:

from numpy import random

x = random.binomial(n=10, p=0.5, size=10)

print(x)

Output:[5 7 6 5 4 7 5 4 6 5]

[5 3 6 4 3 3 3 5 5 5]
Visualization of Binomial Distribution

from numpy import random

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
sns.distplot(random.binomial(n=10, p=0.5, size=1000),
hist=True, kde=False)
plt.show()
Poisson Distribution
• Poisson Distribution is a Discrete Distribution.
• It estimates how many times an event can happen in a
specified time. e.g. If someone eats twice a day what is
probability he will eat thrice?

• It has two parameters:

• lam - rate or known number of occurences e.g. 2 for above
problem.
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
• Poisson Distribution is a Discrete Distribution.
• It estimates how many times an event can happen in a
specified time. e.g. If someone eats twice a day what is
probability he will eat thrice?

• It has two parameters:

• lam - rate or known number of occurences e.g. 2 for above
problem.
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Poisson Distribution
• Generate a random 1x10 distribution for occurence 2:

from numpy import random

x = random.poisson(lam=2, size=10)

print(x)
Uniform Distribution
• Used to describe probability where every event has equal
chances of occurring.
• E.g. Generation of random numbers.

• It has three parameters:

• a - lower bound - default 0 .0.
• b - upper bound - default 1.0.
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Uniform Distribution
• Create a 2x3 uniform distribution sample:

from numpy import random

x = random.uniform(size=(2, 3))

print(x)

Output:[[0.21295952 0.57512648 0.39384297]

[0.7543237 0.80233051 0.53264002]]
Chi Square Distribution
• Chi Square distribution is used as a basis to verify the
hypothesis.
• It has two parameters:
• df - (degree of freedom).
• size - The shape of the returned array.
Chi Square Distribution
• Draw out a sample for chi squared distribution with degree
of freedom 2 with size 2x3:

from numpy import random

x = random.chisquare(df=2, size=(2, 3))

print(x)

Output:[[0.01738909 9.73650152 0.87953635]

[0.14366152 0.98102103 2.72668685]]