Pneumatic Engineering

Name
Class
Teacher Ellon Academy
Technical Faculty
Learning Intentions
 To know what Pneumatic Systems are and how they are used
 To know how to be safe when using pneumatics
 To know what cylinders are and how they are used
 To know what a valve is and how it is used
 To know how to create pneumatic circuits to complete every day
tasks

Success Criteria
1 Investigate a range of complex mechanisms and structures by:
 Describing and producing diagrams of a range of complex
pneumatic mechanisms

2 Develop mechanical solutions to solve complex problems by:

 Identifying key aspects of the problem
 Applying knowledge and understanding of mechanisms
 Designing mechanisms
 Simulating or building mechanisms
 Testing and evaluating solutions

To access video clips that will help on this course

go to www.youtube.com/MacBeathsTech

1
 Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatics is something that you probably know very little about yet
come across everyday without ever realising it. Some examples are
shown below.

Pneumatics are used a lot in industry and you would expect to see
pneumatics systems in factories, production lines and processing
plants. It can be used to do lots of different jobs such as moving,
holding or shaping objects.
Every one of these pneumatic systems makes use of compressed air.
In the classroom you are supplied with compressed air through a
manifold. The manifold lets you connect lots of components to the
compressed air.

Safety Rules
Safety rules help keep us safe. The highlight dangers and this helps to
prevent accidents.
When we are using pneumatics we must follow these rules.

1. Never blow compressed air at anyone, not even yourself

2. Never let compressed air come into contact with your skin, as
this can be very dangerous.
3. Always wear safety goggles when you are connecting and
operating circuits.
4. Check that all airlines are connected before turning on the main
air supply.
5. Always turn off the main air supply before changing circuit.
6. Keep you hands away from moving parts.
7. Avoid having airlines trailing across the floor or where someone
could trip or become entangled.

2
 Advantages of Pneumatic Systems
 Clean
Pneumatic systems contain air, so a leak doesn't cause mess.
Hydraulic systems contain oil, so leaks are messy, making them
unsuitable for clean environments such as food factories.

 Safe
Pneumatic systems don't produce sparks so there is no fire or
explosion hazard. Compressed air, unlike oil or high voltage
electricity, does not create any major environmental or accident
hazard. Compared with electrical systems, pneumatic systems
have an extremely high safety record. However they must still
be treated responsibly. See the Safety section for more
information.

 Dependable
Pneumatic components are relatively simple and contain few
moving parts. This means that they tend to last a long time and
are generally easy to maintain. A pneumatic cylinder provides
the simplest source of linear movement and force. It will
operate continuously in a fast-cycling machine that is required
to run 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

 Available
The basic raw material is air which is available everywhere.
Compressors can easily be made portable. Compressed air can be
transported through piping over considerable distances, whereas
each piece of hydraulic equipment in a factory generally needs its
own power pack.

3
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems

 Small Forces
Pneumatic components produce relatively small forces.
Whenever large forces are required, hydraulic systems are used.
Hydraulic systems contain liquid which, unlike air, cannot be
compressed. This means they can create large forces, and that the
force and speed of movement are more controllable.

 Not Energy Efficient

Compared with an electrical system, a pneumatic system is not
very energy-efficient.
A lot of energy is converted in the production of compressed air
at the input end of the system, compared with the amount of
energy finally converted into movement at the output end of
the system.

4
 Components
The equipment you will use in this area of engineering can be split up
into two basic categories - cylinders and valves.

Cylinders are the ‘muscles’ of pneumatic systems as they are used to

move, hold or lift objects, or even used to operate other pneumatic
components. Cylinders are operated by compressed air and they covert
the stored energy in the compressed air into linear motion.

Valves are used to control the flow of compressed air to a cylinder.

They can be used to either turn the air on or off, change the direction
in which the air is flowing, or even slow down the airflow.

3/2 Valves
This component is known as a 3/2 valve – or to be
specific a ‘Push Button actuated, Spring Return, 3/2
Valve’. It gets its name because it has 3 ports (3
connections),and 2 states (on or off).

A port is where we can connect a pipe. In this example,

our 3 ports are:

Port 1 – Mains Air

Port 2 – Output Connections

Port 3 – Exhaust Air

5
For this 3/2 valve to work the push button actuator is pressed. When
this is pressed, imagine that the top square gets pushed down. This will
then replace the bottom section and connect the mains air to the
output, allowing air to flow. When the button is released, the spring
return actuator will push it back up, reconnecting the output to the
exhaust, stopping air from flowing.

Air
flows
to
output

Actuators
Actuators are what will switch the valve on or off. A number of
different ways we can operate a 3/2 valve.

Push Button Spring Plunger

Roller Roller Trip Pilot Air Diaphragm

Solenoid Lever Foot Pedal

When naming a component you have to state its FULL name – that
means stating what actuators are used. For example a ‘Roller Trip
Actuated, Spring Return 3/2 Valve’. Look at the top and bottom of
the valve to see what actuators are used.

6
 Single Acting Cylinder
A Single-acting cylinder requires only one air supply for it to work.
When air is put into the cylinder, it will ‘outstroke’. If the air stops, it
will ‘instroke’. It will do this automatically,
due to the spring being in place forcing it
back.

This can then be connected to other components to create movement.

Task 1
Build and test the circuit below.

Valve A

Explain using the correct terminology how this circuit works.

Task 2
Build this circuit using the Airways software. Open unit 2 and select
task 2.1.

7
 Logic Control with Pneumatics
AND Control
A simple circuit like the one previous can also be expanded to create a
pneumatic version of an AND gate. By adding another push button
3/2 Valve, the first AND second valves needs to be pressed for the
single acting cylinder to outstroke.

Task 3
a) Using the Pneumatic components available, build and test an AND
circuit.
Attach a photo of the circuit below

b) Complete a truth table for this circuit and describe, using the
appropriate terminology, how the circuit works.

A B Z
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

8
OR Control
OR Gate control is also possible with 3/2 valves and a single acting
cylinder. This is useful as sometimes we need to control a pneumatic
circuit from more than one position. To do this we need to use
another component called a shuttle valve.

A shuttle valve is used to change the direction of air in a circuit. A

small ball inside the component gets blown from side to side allowing
air to pass through to the cylinder.

Valve A Valve B

If Valve A OR Valve B is pressed it will cause the Single Acting Cylinder

to outstroke. Once the buttons are released, it will instroke.

9
Task 4
a) Using the Pneumatic components available, build and test an OR
circuit below
Attach a photo of the circuit below

b) Complete a truth table for this circuit and describe, using the
appropriate terminology, how the circuit works.

A B Z
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Task 5
Using the Airways software open unit 4 and complete task 4.3

10
 Double Acting Cylinder
Unlike a Single Acting Cylinder, It does not have a spring inside to
return it to its original position. Instead it has 2 air supplies – one that
will Cause it to outstroke, and another that will cause it to instroke.

As a push button, spring return 3/2 valve (Valve A) is pressed the

double acting cylinder outstrokes. Once the other the other push
button, spring return 3/2 valve (Valve B) is pressed, the cylinder will
instroke.

Valve Valve B
A

11
Task 6
a) Using the Pneumatic components available, build and test a double
acting cylinder circuit
Attach a photo of the circuit below

b) Explain using the correct terminology how this circuit works.

Task 7
Using the Airways software open unit 3 and read through task 3.1

12
 5/2 valve
There are many problems when controlling a double acting cylinder
with 2 3/2 valves, with the main one being that after you have
actuated the 3/2 valve, it returns to the off state and therefore the air
is no longer being supplied to the cylinder. This means the pressure will
have dropped and it can be moved easily by hand.
4 2

3 1 5

Another disadvantage is that the 3/2 valve needs to be actuated until

the cylinder is fully out/in stroked. Releasing the valve will mean the
piston will stop short of its final position.

We have greater control over a double-acting cylinder if we control its

out/in stroke with a 5/2 valve.
The ports are numbered in the same way as a 3/2 valve except there are
2 exhaust ports and 2 output connections.

*A 5/2 Valve is usually actuated by Pilot air, as shown by a dashed line.

Pilot air is a short burst of air that will activate the valve.*

13
If air is supplied from this side it will connect using that sides
connections, sending output air to the right hand side output
connection, and allowing air to come in from the other output, going
straight through to the exhaust.

Output Output
Connections Connections

If the air is supplied from the other side, that side of the valve ‘slides’
over and creates new connections to the output, mains air and
exhausts. This means that air will now be supplied to the left hand
output connection, and air can come back into the valve through the
right connection, and into the exhaust.

Task 8
a) Using the Pneumatic components available, build and test the
circuit below

Cylinder D

Valve A Valve B
Valve C

14
Task 8 Continued)
b) Take a photo of your model and glue to the space below

c) Explain using the correct terminology how this circuit works.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/design/systemscontrol/pneumaticsrev1.shtml

Task 9
Using the Airways software open unit 3 and complete task 3.2

15
 Speed Control
So far every circuit we have looked at cause the pistons to move very
quickly. In a real world situation this could be very dangerous, or could
even cause the circuit to stop working correctly. To solve this problem
we can use certain components to control the flow of air through the
valves.

One way of doing this is using a restrictor.

This will slow down the air in both directions, meaning it will slow the
down instroke and the outstroke. This is essentially like a screw going
into the wire. If the screw is tightened it gives a smaller area for the air
to get through, hence slowing it down.

The other way of controlling speed is by using

a unidirectional restrictor.

This will slow down the air in 1 direction only. This is dependent on the
bottom section. As the air flows through the component it gets split
between 2 paths. If the air flows from this direction, the ball is blown
into the valve, blocking this path for the air to follow. This in turn will
slow it down.

16
If it flows from the other direction, the ball instead is blown away from
the entrance, allowing air to flow unrestricted.

The unidirectional restrictor is placed so that it will slow down the

exhaust air coming from the cylinder. When valve A is pressed, the 5/2
valve will change state and start to supply the double acting cylinder
with air, causing it outstroke. Air trapped on the other side of the
cylinder will escape slowly because of the unidirectional restrictor. This
in turn makes the piston outstroke slowly and smoothly, without
effecting the force exerted.

Valve A Valve B

17
Task 10
a) Using the Pneumatic components available, build and test this
circuit.
Attach a photo of the circuit below

b) Explain using the correct terminology how this circuit works.

c) Move the unidirectional restrictor onto the other input for the
Double acting Cylinder. What happens?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcZcSKUwzjo

18
 Time Delay
Sometimes it is desired for there to be a time delay between when the
valve is actuated, and the cylinder to respond. This pause can be created
by a component known as a reservoir.

This is simply a container for the compressed air. By connecting this to

a pipe, it increases the space that has to be pressurised before the next
component is operated. This will create a time delay.

Air Bleeds
Sometimes with the pneumatics we find that the actuators on valves
can get in the way of the circuit. Also some actuators need large forces
to make them operate which is not always possible. An air bleed is
simply an open pipe that allows the air in the circuit to escape. This air
must be at a low pressure, otherwise the pipe would ‘wave’ about and
be dangerous.

Air bleeds are often used to overcome this problem in

conjunction with s diaphragm valve. This valve is capable of
detecting small changes in air pressure. A diaphragm is a
piece of rubber stretched inside the valve. When air flows
into the top of the valve, the rubber expands much in the
same way as when a balloon is blown up. When the
diaphragm expands, it presses down inside the valve and
changes its state.

19
The circuit below shows a circuit, which uses an air bleed to actuate a
cylinder.
When the air bleed is blocked the air is diverted down to the
diaphragm valve, which activates the 3/2 valve, and in turn the cylinder
out strokes.

20
 Automatic Circuits
Automatic circuits are how pneumatics are mostly used in industry.
They not only help speed up production, but they allow for
uniformity, making sure that goods are all made to the same standard.
There are two types of automatic circuits that could be used:

Semi-Automatic Circuits
A semi-automatic circuit is one which will complete a set process once
a human operator has started it.

Valve A Valve B

Within this circuit, it will start when the operator presses the push
button on the 3/2 Valve (valve A). This will change the state of the
5/2 valve, causing the double acting cylinder to outstroke. The
cylinder, when outstroked far enough, will activate the roller trip
actuated 3/2 valve (Valve B). This will then change the state of the 5/2
valve, causing the cylinder to instroke. The process is then ready to
begin again.

21
Fully Automatic Circuits
A fully automatic circuit is one that will continue to work, performing
the task over and over again, without manual intervention. When
mains air is supplied, it will start and continue to work.

Valve A

Valve B

This circuit works by the double acting cylinder instroking. This will
activate the roller on the 3/2 Valve (Valve A) and cause the 5/2 valve
to change state. This will then outstroke the double acting cylinder.
When it is fully outstroked, it trips the roller on the other 3/2 valve
(Valve B). This will change the state of the 5/2 valve again, causing the
cylinder to instroke. The process then begins over, and will continue
to operate in this fashion.

22
A fully automatic circuit can be interrupted though in case of an
accident or emergency. This can be done by putting a lever-lever 3/2
valve in one pilot line. This can then act as an on/off switch.
Valve A

Valve B

23
 Sequential Control
Many pneumatic systems are designed to perform a multiple tasks, and
design to be completed in a particular sequence. For example, a
company uses cylinders to press metal dies into hot plastic to create
parts for a children’s toy. As each cylinder is lowered individually it
presses the plastic into shaped recesses.

Cylinder A Cylinder B

Plastic Sheet

The sequence of operations for this process is as follows.

 An operator pushes a button to start the process.

 Cylinder A lowers
 Cylinder B lowers
 Cylinder A raises

 Cylinder B raises

* Sometimes it will describe a cylinder as + or -. If it is + this means it is

outstroking. If it is – it means it is instroking.*

24
The circuit diagram for the circuit is below.
3/2 Valve C

Cylinder A
3/2 Valve A

5/2 Valve A

Cylinder B

3/2 Valve B

5/2 Valve B

In an exam it is very possible you will be asked to describe how a circuit

works. An explanation for this circuit is below.

When the push button, spring return 3/2 valve is activated, it will
change the state of 5/2 valve A, causing the double acting cylinder
(Cylinder A) to outstroke. This will hit the roller on 3/2 valve A,
sending pilot air to 5/2 Valve B. This causes the valve to change state
sending air to the double acting cylinder (Cylinder B) causing this to
outstroke. This will hit the roller on 3/2 valve B, sending pilot air to
5/2 Valve A. This causes Cylinder A to instroke, hitting the roller on
3/2 Valve C. This in turn sends pilot air to 5/2 Valve B, instroking
Cylinder B. The system now waits for a user to press the button again.

25
Task 11
A pneumatic circuit used in a production line as shown below

(a) State the full name of the following pneumatic components.

Component 5:

Component 2:

(b) Describe, using appropriate terminology, the operation of the

pneumatic circuit.

An increase in pressure is sensed . . .

26
Task 12
The pneumatic circuit for a door system is shown below

(a)State the name of component 1

(b) Draw, in the position shown in the above circuit the components
required to create a controlled time delay when closing the door.

(c) Describe, using appropriate terminology, the operation of the door

system.

When is actuated….

27
Task 13
The pneumatic circuit shown is used to test the life span of a chair

(a) State the full name of the following pneumatic components.

Valve 1:
Valve 3:
(b) Describe, with reference to Figure Q8, the operation of the
pneumatic circuit.
Valve is actuated….

28
Task 14

Cylinder A
Valve
B

Valve
C
Valve
A

Valve
F
Cylinder B

Valve
E

Valve
D
Using the proper terminology, explain how this circuit works.

29
Task 15
A train door is controlled by a pneumatic circuit. It opens when a
passenger presses the outside button (valve A) or the outside button
(valve B). It closes when the train driver presses the inside button.
Complete the wiring of the diagram below, then describe using the
appropriate terminology how it works.

30
 Interfacing and Electronic Control
Although pneumatic circuits have many advantages, they can become
complicated and expensive when lots of components are needed. They
can also be difficult to set up and control. One possible way of
overcoming these problems is to use electronics or a computer
interface to control the operation of pneumatic circuits. The
advantage of this is that electronic signals can be transmitted over
much greater distances than pneumatic signals. However, the main
advantage is that electronic signals respond faster than pneumatic
signals and use less energy.

To control a pneumatic system electronically, we require the use of a

solenoid operated 3/2 valve. This valve is actuated when an electric
current energises the coil of the solenoid. If we can control the
current flowing to the coil, then we can control the operation of the
entire circuit. This can be achieved easily by connecting switches or
sensors in series with the solenoid.

For example, a ten-pin bowling complex uses double acting cylinders

to set up the skittles once they have been knocked down. The cylinder
is controlled by an electric switch arrangement which energises
solenoid operated 3/2 valves.

31
 The circuit diagram is shown for this system is shown below.

12V dc 12V dc

C
B

Task 14
a) Build and test the electrical and pneumatic circuit shown above.
Attach a photo of your circuit

b) What advantages are there of controlling pneumatic circuits

electronically?

32
Reprogrammable Interfacing
Most industrial pneumatic systems include a number of cylinders
working together in sequence. Certain sequences of operation are
difficult to control using the equipment we have come across so far.
The circuits also become expensive to build and are difficult to set up.
However, we can overcome these problems by using a computer
interface to control complex tasks.

For example, a post office sorting

system is used to separate three
different sizes of packages. The
packages are carried on a conveyor belt
to the first sort. At this point, a single
acting cylinder removes the largest
packages, which are detected by use of
a switch. At the second stage, the
medium packages are separated from
the smaller size ones, which continue to the end of the conveyor.

As the content of the packages is START

unknown, they should be removed

carefully from the conveyor. For
safety reasons, the system should not IS NO
GUARD
operate unless the guard around the DOWN?
conveyor is in position.
YES

IS
The operation of this circuit can be PACKAGE YES
LARGE?
summarised in a flow chart.
EJECT
NO PACKAGE

IS
PACKAGE YES
MEDIUM?

EJECT
NO PACKAGE

33
 Force in a Single Acting Cylinder
As we know pneumatic components and circuits that are controlled by
pressured air. This air pressure is measured in Nm-2. We know the
pressure going through the system as there will be a pressure gauge on
the compressor that supplies the air. These can be found on any system
that relies on compressed gases or fluids. For example it is more than
likely there will be one on the boiler in your house for the central
heating. This helps to detect leaks, as the pressure in the system would
begin to fall if air was escaping from the pipes.

[DF] The unit can change to suit the question. For example if the
question uses millimetres, your answer may be in Nmm-2.

The force you get out of a cylinder depends on the air pressure inside
it, and the size of the piston. To calculate this pressure we multiply the
pressure by the area of the cylinder. This is measured in Newtons.

Force = Pressure x Area

As you can see the surface of the cylinder is circular. This means we have to use one of these
calculations to work out the area:
Area = r 2
or d 2

34
 Force in a Double Acting Cylinder
As we know, a double-acting cylinder is of more use in practical
applications due to the fact that both the input and output can be
controlled by compressed air. However, the outstroke force is greater
than the input force. This is due when it is instroking, the piston is at
this side taking up space. This means that there is less area for the
compressed air to fill, meaning less force created.

Therefore, we have to find the ‘effective area’. This is done by

calculating the area of the piston rod and subtracting it from the area
of the piston know it.

Effective Area = piston area – piston rod area

35
EXAMPLE
A car park barrier uses a double acting cylinder to raise and lower the
barrier. The cylinder has a diameter of 60 mm, with piston rod being
20 mm in diameter. The air pressure is 0.7 N/mm2. What forces are
produced when the piston outstrokes and instrokes?

OUTSTROKE
Area =  d2 = 3.14 x (60 x 60) = 3.14 x 3600 = 11304
4 4 4 4

= 2826 mm2

Force = Pressure x Area = 0.7 x 2826 = 1978.2N

INSTROKE
Cylinder area = 2826mm2

Cylinder Rod Area =  d2 = 3.14 x (20 x 20) = 3.14 x 400

4 4 4

= 314mm2

Effective area = Piston area – Piston rod area

= 2826 - 314
=2512 mm2

Force = Pressure x Effective Area = 0.7 x 2512 = 1758.4N

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xOds3rR5ew

36
Task 16
Using the Airways software, complete unit 8

Task 17
A piston has a diameter of 30 mm and is supplied with air at a pressure
of 3.2 Nmm−2.
Calculate the outstroking force of the cylinder.

37
Task 18
The cylinder shown is used to open and close a greenhouse window.

45mm

10mm

Calculate:
(i) The effective area of the piston when it instrokes.

(ii) The force supplied to the cylinder when the air pressure is 0.7
Nmm−2.

38
Task 19
A pneumatic cylinder is shown below

90mm

25mm

Calculate the air pressure required to produce an instroking force of

2450 N.

39
Task 20
A pneumatic circuit is used to serve tennis balls during practice
sessions.
The system will serve automatically when a lever is actuated or
manually each time a button is pressed. There is a delay between each
ball being served.

(a) Complete the piping of the pneumatic circuit.

(b) State the full name of the following components.

Component A:

Valve 1:

40
Task 20 (Continued)

The piston below instrokes when air is supplied at a pressure of

0.5N/mm2 to the cylinder.

(c) Calculate the in-stroking force.

(d) Describe two ways of reducing the out-stroking force applied by a

piston.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/apps/ifl/schools/gcsebitesize/design/quizengine?quiz=pneumaticstest&templateStyle=design

41
Task 21
Below shows an incomplete pneumatic circuit used to fix tops on
shampoo bottles.

Valve is to be actuated by an electrical signal.

(a) (i) State the name of this actuator.

(ii) Sketch the symbol for this actuator below.

(b) (i) Sketch on the circuit above the pneumatic device that will
create an adjustable time delay after the piston outstrokes.

(ii) State the name of component

42
Task 21 (Continued)
A 10 mm diameter cylinder has air supplied at a pressure of
0.25N/mm2.

(c) Calculate the force of the piston as it outstrokes.

(d) Explain why the in-stroke force of the piston will be less than the
out-stroke force.

(e) State a reason, other than cost, for using pneumatic systems in an
industrial environment.

43
Task 22
A pneumatic circuit is used to control the
operation of an automatic door

When a person steps on to the pressure

sensor, the piston will in-stroke and open
the door. After an 8 second delay, the
piston will automatically outstroke and
slowly close the door.

(a) Complete the piping of the pneumatic circuit below.

b) Calculate the in-stroking force when the air pressure is 2.32

N/mm2.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=clvwU-tVGtM

44
Task 23
The symbol for a pneumatic valve is shown below

(a)
(i) State the full name of the pneumatic valve.

(ii) Complete the table below for the valve ports.

45
Task 23 (Continued)
Below shows the dimensions of a double acting cylinder.

(b) Calculate:
(i) The effective area of the piston as it in-strokes;

(ii) the in-stroking force of the piston if air is supplied at a pressure of

0·6N/mm2.

46
Task 24
An engineering lab tests the materials and construction used in a range
of furniture to see if they conform to the
European Union’s safety standards.
As part of this process, the lab runs a series of
automatic pneumatic test rigs which have
reciprocating piston rods simulating different
wear and loadings on the furniture.

Design a pneumatic circuit to control the

operation of a furniture test rig.
The sequence for the pneumatic circuit is as
follows:

 A 5/2 valve will operate a double acting cylinder and cause the
piston rod to out-stroke. (The speed of this out-stroking
movement must be adjustable.)
 An actuator will sense when the piston rod has fully out-stroked
and the 3/2 valve will send a signal to cause the piston to in-
stroke at full speed.
 The sequence will repeat until the air supply is switched off.

a) Apply your knowledge to design a possible solution to the problem

brief.

47
Task 24 (Continued)
b) Build a model of your solution.
Attach a photo below

c) Describe the tests you carried out and how the solution actually
performed. Suggest possible improvements or further work.

48
Task 25
The computer-controlled milling machine shown below uses a
rotating head to cut multiple
slots. A motor moves the
cutter head horizontally in the
x-axis into the correct
position. Two pneumatic
cylinders manoeuvre the
cutter to cut the slot.

Cylinder Z moves the cutter down in the z-axis to make a hole in the
work piece and then cylinder X moves the cutter in the x-axis to mill
out a slot. Cylinder X then returns the cutter to the start of the slot
and cylinder Z retracts the cutter up out of the work. To achieve this,
the cylinders are controlled sequentially in the order Z+, X+, X–, Z–
using the pneumatic circuit shown below.

49
Task 25 (Continued)
Describe, using appropriate terminology, how the circuit shown
achieves the given sequence.

50
Task 26
A pneumatically operated bridge is
designed to allow pedestrians to cross
a canal. It can be extended or retracted
by pressing buttons on either side.

The diagram below is a simplified

circuit that shows how two of the bridge’s cylinders are controlled. As
the cylinders instroke the bridge will retract.

(a) Describe, using appropriate terminology, the operation of the

pneumatic circuit.

b) Describe two modifications that would allow the pneumatics to be

controlled electronically.

51