5 provides flow control provides no flow control

6 more overhead than UDP (less efficient) low overhead - faster than TCP
7 Examples:HTTP, NFS, SMTP Eg. VOIP,DNS,TFTP

Internet Layer:
The purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path through the network for packets to travel. The main
protocol that functions at this layer is IP. Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
The following protocols operate at the TCP/IP Internet layer:
 IP provides connectionless, best-effort delivery routing of packets. IP is not concerned with the content
of the packets but looks for a path to the destination.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides control and messaging capabilities.
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) determines the data link layer address, or MAC address, for known
IP addresses.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) determines the IP address for a known MAC address.
IP performs the following operations:
 Defines a packet and an addressing scheme
 Transfers data between the Internet layer and network access layer
 Routes packets to remote hosts

Network Access Layer:

The network access layer allows an IP packet to make a physical link to the network media. It includes the LAN
and WAN technology details and all the details contained in the OSI physical and data link layers.
Drivers for software applications, modem cards, and other devices operate at the network access layer. The
network access layer defines the procedures used to interface with the network hardware and access the
transmission medium. Modem protocol standards such as Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) provide network access through a modem connection. Many protocols are required to determine
the hardware, software, and transmission-medium specifications at this layer. This can lead to confusion for
users. Most of the recognizable protocols operate at the transport and Internet layers of the TCP/IP model.
Network access layer protocols also map IP addresses to physical hardware addresses and encapsulate IP packets
into frames. The network access layer defines the physical media connection based on the hardware type and
network interface.

Comparison of OSI Model and TCP/IP Model:

The OSI and TCP/IP models have many similarities:
 Both have layers.
 Both have application layers, though they include different services.
 Both have comparable transport and network layers.
 Both use packet-switched instead of circuit-switched technology.
 Networking professionals need to know both models.

Page: 91 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Here are some differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models:
 TCP/IP combines the OSI application, presentation, and session layers into its application layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into its network access layer.
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
 When the TCP/IP transport layer uses UDP it does not provide reliable delivery of packets. The transport
layer in the OSI model always does.
The Internet was developed based on the standards of the TCP/IP protocols. The TCP/IP model gains credibility
because of its protocols. The OSI model is not generally used to build networks. The OSI model is used as a
guide to help students understand the communication process.

IP Address:
Each computer in a TCP/IP network must be given a unique identifier, or IP address. This address, which
operates at Layer 3, allows one computer to locate another computer on a network. All computers also have a
unique physical address, which is known as a MAC address. These are assigned by the manufacturer of the NIC.
MAC addresses operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model.
An IP address (IPv4) is a 32-bit sequence of ones and zeros.To make the IP address easier to work with, it is
usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods. For example, an IP address of one computer is
192.168.1.2. Another computer might have the address 128.10.2.1. This is called the dotted decimal format. Each
part of the address is called an octet because it is made up of eight binary digits. For example, the IP address
192.168.1.8 would be 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001000 in binary notation. The dotted decimal notation
is an easier method to understand than the binary ones and zeros method. This dotted decimal notation also
prevents a large number of transposition errors that would result if only the binary numbers were used.

Page: 92 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Ipv4 Header:

Fig:IPV4 Header
Version:(4 bits): Indicates the version number, to allow evolution of the protocol.
Internet Header Lenght(IHL 4 bits): Length of header in 32 bit words. The minimum value is five for a
minimum header length of 20 octets.
Type-of-Service :
The Type-of-Service field contains an 8-bit binary value that is used to determine the priority of each packet.
This value enables a Quality-of-Service (QoS) mechanism to be applied to high priority packets, such as those
carrying telephony voice data. The router processing the packets can be configured to decide which packet it is
to forward first based on the Type-of-Service value.

Total length: total datagram length ,in octets.

Identifier (16 bits): A sequence number that, together with the source address, destination address, and user
protocol, is intended to uniquely identify a datagram. Thus, the identifier should be unique for the datagram's
source address, destination address, and user protocol for the time during which the datagram will remain in the
internet.

Fragment Offset : A router may have to fragment a packet when forwarding it from one medium to another
medium that has a smaller MTU. When fragmentation occurs, the IPv4 packet uses the Fragment Offset field and
the MF flag in the IP header to reconstruct the packet when it arrives at the destination host. The fragment offset
field identifies the order in which to place the packet fragment in the reconstruction.

Flags(3 bits): Only two of the bits are currently defined: MF(More Fragments) and DF(Don't Fragment):

More Fragments flag (MF):The More Fragments (MF) flag is a single bit in the Flag field used with the
Fragment Offset for the fragmentation and reconstruction of packets. The More Fragments flag bit is set, it
means that it is not the last fragment of a packet. When a receiving host sees a packet arrive with the MF = 1, it
examines the Fragment Offset to see where this fragment is to be placed in the reconstructed packet. When a
receiving host receives a frame with the MF = 0 and a non-zero value in the Fragment offset, it places that
fragment as the last part of the reconstructed packet. An unfragmented packet has all zero fragmentation
information (MF = 0, fragment offset =0).

Page: 93 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Don't Fragment flag (DF):The Don't Fragment (DF) flag is a single bit in the Flag field that indicates that
fragmentation of the packet is not allowed. If the Don't Fragment flag bit is set, then fragmentation of this packet
is NOT permitted. If a router needs to fragment a packet to allow it to be passed downward to the Data Link
layer but the DF bit is set to 1, then the router will discard this packet.

IP Destination Address
The IP Destination Address field contains a 32-bit binary value that represents the packet destination Network
layer host address.

IP Source Address
The IP Source Address field contains a 32-bit binary value that represents the packet source Network layer host
address.

Time-to-Live
The Time-to-Live (TTL) is an 8-bit binary value that indicates the remaining "life" of the packet. The TTL value
is decreased by at least one each time the packet is processed by a router (that is, each hop). When the value
becomes zero, the router discards or drops the packet and it is removed from the network data flow. This
mechanism prevents packets that cannot reach their destination from being forwarded indefinitely between
routers in a routing loop. If routing loops were permitted to continue, the network would become congested with
data packets that will never reach their destination. Decrementing the TTL value at each hop ensures that it
eventually becomes zero and that the packet with the expired TTL field will be dropped.

Protocol:
This 8-bit binary value indicates the data payload type that the packet is carrying. The Protocol field enables the
Network layer to pass the data to the appropriate upper-layer protocol.

Example values are:

01 ICMP
06 TCP
17 UDP

Header checksum (16 bits): An error-detecting code applied to the header only. Because some header fields
may change during transit (e.g., time to live, segmentation-related fields), this is reverified and recomputed at
each router. The checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement addition of all 16-bit words in the header. For
purposes of computation, the checksum field is itself initialized to a value of zero .

Options (variable). Encodes the options requested by the sending user.

Padding (variable). Used to ensure that the datagram header is a multiple of 32 bits.
Data (variable). The data field must be an integer multiple of 8 bits. The max- imum length of the datagram
(data field plus header) is 65,535 octets.

IP addresses are divided into class:

IP Address First Octet Address Used for:

Class Range
Class A 0-127 Unicast (Very Large
Networks)
Class B 128-191 Unicast (Medium to large
network)

Page: 94 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

 Class C 192-223 Unicast (Small Network)
Class D 224-239 Multicast
Class E 240-255 Reserved

Class A Blocks
A class A address block was designed to support extremely large networks with more than 16 million host
addresses. Class A IPv4 addresses used a fixed /8 prefix with the first octet to indicate the network address. The
remaining three octets were used for host addresses.
The first bit of a Class A address is always 0. With that first bit a 0, the lowest number that can be represented is
00000000, decimal 0. The highest number that can be represented is 01111111, decimal 127. The numbers 0 and
127 are reserved and cannot be used as network addresses. Any address that starts with a value between 1 and
126 in the first octet is a Class A address.
No of Class A Network: 27
No. of Usable Host address per Network: 224-2 (Minus 2 because 2 addresses are reserved for network and
broadcast address)

Class B Blocks

Class B address space was designed to support the needs of moderate to large size networks with more than
65,000 hosts. A class B IP address used the two high-order octets to indicate the network address. The other two
octets specified host addresses. As with class A, address space for the remaining address classes needed to be
reserved.
The first two bits of the first octet of a Class B address are always 10. The remaining six bits may be populated
with either 1s or 0s. Therefore, the lowest number that can be represented with a Class B address is 10000000,
decimal 128. The highest number that can be represented is 10111111, decimal 191. Any address that starts with
a value in the range of 128 to 191 in the first octet is a Class B address.
No of Class B Network: 214
No. of Usable Host address per Network: 216-2

Class C Blocks:
The class C address space was the most commonly available of the historic address classes. This address space
was intended to provide addresses for small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.
Class C address blocks used a /24 prefix. This meant that a class C network used only the last octet as host
addresses with the three high-order octets used to indicate the network address.

A Class C address begins with binary 110. Therefore, the lowest number that can be represented is 11000000,
decimal 192. The highest number that can be represented is 11011111, decimal 223. If an address contains a
number in the range of 192 to 223 in the first octet, it is a Class C address.
No of Class C Network: 221
No. of Usable Host address per Network: 28-2

Page: 95 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Class D Blocks:
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a unique
network address that directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses.
Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of data to multiple recipients.
The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically constrained. The first four bits
of a Class D address must be 1110. Therefore, the first octet range for Class D addresses is 11100000 to
11101111, or 224 to 239. An IP address that starts with a value in the range of 224 to 239 in the first octet is a
Class D address.

Class E Block:
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these
addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet. The
first four bits of a Class E address are always set to 1s. Therefore, the first octet range for Class E addresses is
11110000 to 11111111, or 240 to 255.

Every IP address also has two parts. The first part identifies the network (Network ID)where the system is
connected and the second part identifies the system (Host ID).

Class A

Class B

Class C

Within the address range of each IPv4 network, we have three types of addresses:
Network address - The address by which we refer to the network
Broadcast address - A special address used to send data to all hosts in the network
Host addresses - The addresses assigned to the end devices in the network

Page: 96 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Special Ipv4 addresses:
Default Route: we represent the IPv4 default route as 0.0.0.0. The default route is used as a "catch all" route
when a more specific route is not available. The use of this address also reserves all addresses in the 0.0.0.0 -
0.255.255.255 (0.0.0.0 /8) address block.

Network and Broadcast Addresses: As explained earlier, within each network the first and last addresses
cannot be assigned to hosts. These are the network address and the broadcast address, respectively.

Loopback: One such reserved address is the IPv4 loopback address 127.0.0.1. The loopback is a special address
that hosts use to direct traffic to themselves. Although only the single 127.0.0.1 address is used, addresses
127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 are reserved. Any address within this block will loop back within the local host.
No address within this block should ever appear on any network.

Link-Local Addresses: IPv4 addresses in the address block 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0 /16)
are designated as link-local addresses. These addresses can be automatically assigned to the local host by the
operating system in environments where no IP configuration is available. These might be used in a small peer-to-
peer network or for a host that could not automatically obtain an address from a Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) server.

TEST-NET Addresses : The address block 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0 /24) is set aside for teaching and
learning purposes. These addresses can be used in documentation and network examples

Network Prefixes: An important question is: How do we know how many bits represent the network portion
and how many bits represent the host portion? When we express an IPv4 network address, we add a prefix length
to the network address. The prefix length is the number of bits in the address that gives us the network portion.
For example, in 172.16.4.0 /24, the /24 is the prefix length - it tells us that the first 24 bits are the network
address. This leaves the remaining 8 bits, the last octet, as the host portion.

Private and Public IP addresses:

Public IP addresses:Public IP addresses are assigned by the InterNIC (Internet's Network Information Centre)
and consists of class based network Ids or blocks of CIDR based addresses (called CIDR blocks) that are
globally rout-able to the Internet and are unique.
Private IP address:An address that is used for internal networks. These addresses are not rout-able to the Internet.
The private address blocks are:
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0 /8)
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0 /12)
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0 /16)

Subnet Mask:
To define the network and host portions of an address, the devices use a separate 32-bit pattern called a subnet
mask. We express the subnet mask in the same dotted decimal format as the IPv4 address. The subnet mask is
created by placing a binary 1 in each bit position that represents the network portion and placing a binary 0 in

Page: 97 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

each bit position that represents the host portion.
The prefix and the subnet mask are different ways of representing the same thing - the network portion of an
address.

Default Subnet Mask:

Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0

CIDR:
A routing system used by routers and gateways on the backbone of the Internet for routing packets. CIDR
replaces the old class method of allocating 8, 16, or 24 bits to the network ID, and instead allows any number of
contiguous bits in the IP address to be allocated as the network ID. For example, if a company needs a few
thousand IP addresses for its network, it can allocate 11 or 12 bits of the address for the network ID instead of 8
bits for a class C (which wouldn’t work because you would need to use several class C networks) or 16 bits for
class B (which is wasteful).
How It Works
CIDR assigns a numerical prefix to each IP address. For example, a typical destination IP address using CIDR
might be 177.67.5.44/13. The prefix 13 indicates that the first 13 bits of the IP address identify the network,
while the remaining 32 - 13 = 19 bits identify the host. The prefix helps to identify the Internet destination
gateway or group of gateways to which the packet will be forwarded. Prefixes vary in size, with longer prefixes
indicating more specific destinations. Routers use the longest possible prefix in their routing tables when
determining how to forward each packet. CIDR enables packets to be sent to groups of networks instead of to
individual networks, which considerably simplifies the complex routing tables of the Internet’s backbone routers.

How to Create Subnets

To create subnetworks, you take bits from the host portion of the IP address and reserve them to define the
subnet address.

How many bits to borrow?

1. No of subnetwork = 2BB
2. No. of usable hosts per subnetwork=2BR-2

TB=BR + BB
TB=Total bits in host portion
BB=Bits borrowed
BR=Bits Remaining

Subnetting Class C Addresses

There are many different ways to subnet a network. The right way is the way that works best
for you. In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts. Remember that
subnet bits start at the left and go to the right, without skipping bits. This means that the only

Page: 98 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Class C subnet masks can be the following:
Binary Decimal CIDR
---------------------------------------------------------
00000000 = 0 /24
10000000 = 128 /25
11000000 = 192 /26
11100000 = 224 /27
11110000 = 240 /28
11111000 = 248 /29
11111100 = 252 /30
We can’t use a /31 or /32 because we have to have at least 2 host bits for assigning IP addresses
to hosts.
All you need to do is answer five simple questions:
How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
What are the valid subnets?
1. What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
2. What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

Subnetting Class C Address: 192.168.10.0/26

255.255.255.192 (/26)
In this second example, we’re going to subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 using the
subnet mask 255.255.255.192.
192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
Now, let’s answer the big five:
How many subnets? Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer would be 2 2 = 4 subnets.

How many hosts per subnet? We have 6 host bits off (11000000), so the equation would
be 26 – 2 = 62 hosts.

What are the valid subnets? 256 – 192 = 64. Remember, we start at zero and count in our
block size, so our subnets are 0, 64, 128, and 192. (Magic Number=256-Subnet Mask)

What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of the next
subnet is all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address. For the zero subnet, the

Page: 99 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

next subnet is 64, so the broadcast address for the zero subnet is 63.

What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address.

The easiest way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address and the broadcast address.
This way, the valid hosts are obvious. The following table shows the 0, 64, 128, and 192 sub-
nets, the valid host ranges of each, and the broadcast address of each subnet:

The subnets (do this first) 0 64 128 192

The broadcast address 63 127 191 255
Usable Host Range 1 – 62 65 – 126 129 – 190 193 - 254

Subnetting Class B Address: 172.16.0.0/17

255.255.128.0 (/17)
172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.128.0 = Subnet mask
Subnets? 21 = 2 (same as Class C).
Hosts? 215 – 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth).

Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128. Remember that subnetting is performed in the third octet, so the subnet
numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0, as shown in the next table.

These are the exact numbers we used with Class C; we use them in the third octet and add a 0 in the fourth octet
for the network address.

Broadcast address for each subnet?

Valid hosts?
The following table shows the two subnets available, the valid host range, and the broad-
cast address of each:
Subnet 172.16.0.0 172.16.128.0
Broadcast 172.16.127.255 172.16.255.255
Usable Host Range 172.16.0.1 - 172.16.127.254 172.16.128.1 - 172.16.255.254

Another Example Subnetting Class B address: 172.16.0.0/18

255.255.192.0 (/18)
172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.192.0 = Subnet mask

Page: 100 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Subnets? 22 = 4.
Hosts? 214 – 2 = 16,382 (6 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth).

Valid subnets? 256 – 192 = 64. 0, 64, 128, 192. Remember that the subnetting is performed in the third octet, so
the subnet numbers are really 0.0, 64.0, 128.0, and 192.0,
as shown in the next table.

Broadcast address for each subnet?

Valid hosts?

The following table shows the four subnets available, the valid host range, and the broadcast address of each:

Subnet 0.0 64.0 128.0 192.0

Broadcast 63.255 127.255 191.255 255.255
First host 0.1 64.1 128.1 192.1
Last host 63.254 127.254 191.254 255.254

Another Example:172.16.0.0/25
255.255.255.128 (/25)
This is one of the hardest subnet masks you can play with. And worse, it actually is a really
good subnet to use in production because it creates over 500 subnets with 126 hosts for each
subnet—a nice mixture. So, don’t skip over it!
172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.255.128 = Subnet mask

Subnets? 29 = 512.
Hosts? 27 – 2 = 126.
Valid subnets? Okay, now for the tricky part. 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. for the third octet. But you can’t
forget the one subnet bit used in the fourth octet. You actually get two subnets for each third octet value, hence
the 512 subnets. For example, if the third octet is showing subnet 3, the two subnets would actually be 3.0 and
3.128.
Broadcast address for each subnet?
Valid hosts?

The following table shows how you can create subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses using the Class B
255.255.255.128 subnet mask (the first eight subnets are shown, and then the last two subnets):
Subnet 0.0 0.128 1.0 1.128 2.0 2.128 3.0 3.128 ... 255.0 255.128
Broadcast 0.127 0.255 1.127 1.255 2.127 2.255 3.127 3.255 ... 255.127 255.255
First host 0.1 0.129 1.1 1.129 2.1 2.129 3.1 3.129 ... 255.1 255.129
Last host 0.126 0.254 1.126 1.254 2.126 2.254 3.126 3.254 ... 255.126 255.254

Page: 101 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Subnetting Class A network: 10.0.0.0/16
255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for subnetting since you must leave 2
bits for host addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask with a Class A address is using 8 subnet bits.
Subnets? 28 = 256.
Hosts? 216 – 2 = 65,534.
Valid subnets? What is the interesting octet? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. (all in the second octet). The subnets
would be 10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up to 10.255.0.0.
Broadcast address for each subnet?
Valid hosts?
The following table shows the first two and last two subnets, valid host range, and broad-
cast addresses for the private Class A 10.0.0.0 network:
Subnet 10.0.0.0 10.1.0.0 ... 10.254.0.0 10.255.0.0
Broadcast 10.0.255.255 10.1.255.255 ... 10.254.255.255 10.255.255.255
First host 10.0.0.1 10.1.0.1 ... 10.254.0.1 10.255.0.1
Last host 10.0.255.254 10.1.255.254 ... 10.254.255.254 10.255.255.254

IPV6:
Features of IPV6:

• Larger address space Offers improved global reachability and flexibility; the aggregation of prefixes
that are announced in routing tables; multihoming to several Internet service providers (ISPs) auto
configuration that can include link-layer addresses in the address space; plug-and-play options; public-to
private readdressing end to end without address translation; and simplified mechanisms for address
renumbering and modification.

Page: 102 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

 • Simpler header: Provides better routing efficiency; no broadcasts and thus no potential threat of
broadcast storms; no requirement for processing checksums; simpler and more efficient extension header
mechanisms; and flow labels for per-flow processing with no need to open the transport inner packet to
identify the various traffic flows.

• Mobility and security: Ensures compliance with mobile IP and IPsec standards functionality; mobility
is built in, so any IPv6 node can use it when necessary; and enables people to move around in networks
with mobile network devices—with many having wireless connectivity.

Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard available for both IPv4 and IPv6. The
standard enables mobile devices to move without breaks in established network connections. Because
IPv4 does not automatically provide this kind of mobility, you must add it with additional
configurations.

IPsec is the IETF standard for IP network security, available for both IPv4 and IPv6. Although the
functionalities are essentially identical in both environments, IPsec is mandatory in IPv6. IPsec is
enabled on every IPv6 node and is available for use. The availability of IPsec on all nodes makes the
IPv6 Internet more secure. IPsec also requires keys for each party, which implies a global key
deployment and distribution.

• Transition richness: You can incorporate existing IPv4 capabilities in IPv6 in the following ways:
• Configure a dual stack with both IPv4 and IPv6 on the interface of a network device.
• Use the technique IPv6 over IPv4 (also called 6to4 tunneling), which uses an IPv4 tunnel to
carry IPv6 traffic. This method (RFC 3056) replaces IPv4-compatible tunneling (RFC 2893).
Cisco IOS Software Release 12.3(2)T (and later) also allows protocol translation (NAT-PT)
between IPv6 and IPv4. This translation allows direct communication between hosts speaking
different protocols.

IPv4 VS IPv6

Fig: IPV4 Header

Page: 103 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

An IPv4 header contains the following fields:
version The IP version number, 4.
lengthThe length of the datagram header in 32-bit words.
type of serviceContains five subfields that specify the precedence, delay, throughput, reliability, and cost desired
for a packet. (The Internet does not guarantee this request.) This field is not widely used on the Internet.
total length The length of the datagram in bytes including the header, options, and the appended transport
protocol segment or packet.
Identification An integer that identifies the datagram.
Flags:Controls datagram fragmentation together with the identification field. The flags indicate whether the
datagram may be fragmented, whether the datagram is fragmented, and whether the current fragment is the final
one.
fragment offset The relative position of this fragment measured from the beginning of the original datagram in
units of 8 bytes.
time to live How many routers a datagram can pass through. Each router decrements this value by 1 until it
reaches 0 when the datagram is discarded. This keeps misrouted datagrams from remaining on the Internet
forever.
Protocol The high-level protocol type.

header checksum A number that is computed to ensure the integrity of the header values.
source address The 32-bit IPv4 address of the sending host.
destination address The 32-bit IPv4 address of the receiving host.
Options A list of optional specifications for security restrictions, route recording, and source routing. Not every
datagram specifies an options field.
Padding Null bytes which are added to make the header length an integral multiple of 32 bytes as required by
the header length field.

Ipv6 header:

Fig: IPV6 Header

Specifically, IPv6 omits the following fields in its header.
• header length (the length is constant)
• identification
• flags

Page: 104 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

 • fragment offset (this is moved into fragmentation extension headers)
• header checksum (the upper-layer protocol or security extension header handles data integrity)
IPv6 options improve over IPv4 by being placed in separate extension headers that are located between the IPv6
header and the transport-layer header in a packet. Most extension headers are not examined or processed by any
router along a packet's delivery path until it arrives at its final destination. This mechanism improves router
performance for packets containing options. In IPv4, the presence of any options requires the router to examine
all options.
Another improvement is that IPv6 extension headers, unlike IPv4 options, can be of arbitrary length and the total
amount of options that a packet carries is not limited to 40 bytes. This feature, and the manner in which it is
processed, permit IPv6 options to be used for functions that were not practical in IPv4, such as the IPv6
Authentication and Security Encapsulation options.
By using extension headers, instead of a protocol specifier and options fields, newly defined extensions can be
integrated more easily into IPv6.

IPV6 Addressing:
Address Representation:
Represented by breaking 128 bit into Eight 16-bit segments (Each 4 Hex character each)
Each segment is written in Hexadecimal separated by colons.
Hex digit are not case sensitive.
Rule 1:
Drop leading zeros:
2001:0050:0000:0235:0ab4:3456:456b:e560
2001:050:0:235:ab4:3456:456b:e560
Rule2:
Successive fields of zeros can be represented as “::” , But double colon appear only once in the address.
FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:1
FF01::1
Note : An address parser identifies the number of missing zeros by separating the two parts and entering 0 until
the 128 bits are complete. If two “::” notations are placed in the address, there is no way to identify the size of
each block of zeros.
Ipv4 vs ipv6

IPV4 IPV6
1. source and destination addresses are 32 bits.) 1. Source and destination addresses are 128 bits.
2. ipv4 support small address space. 2. Supports a very large address space sufficeint for
each and every people on earth.
3. ipv4 header includes checksum. 3. ipv6 header doesn't includes the checksum. (the
upper-layer protocol or security extension header
handles data integrity)
4. addresses are represented in dotted decimal format. 4. Addresses are represented in 16-bit segments
(Eg. 192.168.5.1) Each segment is written in Hexadecimal separated by
colons. (Eg.
2001:0050:020c:0235:0ab4:3456:456b:e560
5. Header includes options. All optional data is moved to IPV6 extension header..
6. Broadcast address are used to send traffic to all 6. There is no IPV6 broadcast address. Instead a link

Page: 105 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

 nodes on a subnet. local scope all-nodes multicast address is used.
7. No identification of packet flow for QOS handling 7. Packet flow identification for QOS handling by
by router is present within the ipv4 header. routers is present within the IPV6 header using the
flow label field.
8. uses host address (A) resource records in the 8. Uses AAAA records in the DNS to map host names
Domain name system(DNS) to map host names to to ipv6 addresses.
ipv4 addresses.
9. Both routers and the sending host fragment 9. Only the sending host fragments packets; routers
packets. do not.
10. ICMP Router Discovery is used to determine the 10. ICMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router
IPv4 address of the best default gateway, and it is Advertisement messages are used to determine the IP
optional. address of the best default gateway, and they are
required.

IPV6 Transition Mechanism:

1. Dual Stack
2. Tunneling Technique
3. Translation technique

Dual Stack:
Dual stack is an integration method where a node has implementation and connectivity to both Ipv4 and ipv6
network. If both ipv4 and ipv6 are configured on an interface, this interface is dual-stacked.

Tunneling Technique
With manually configured IPv6 tunnels, an IPv6 address is configured on a tunnel interface, and manually
configured IPv4 addresses are assigned to the tunnel source and the tunnel destination. The host or router at each
end of a configured tunnel must support both the IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks.

Page: 106 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

NAT-Protocol Translation (NAT-PT)
is a translation mechanism that sits between an IPv6 network and an Ipv4 network. The translator translates
IPv6 packets into IPv4 packets and vice versa.

Page: 107 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki

Chapter: 7 Network and Internet Layer
Network Layer and Design Issues; Virtual Circuit and Data grams Subject; Introduction of Routing –
Shortest path Routing Algorithm, Flow Based Routing Algorithm. Distance Vector Routing Algorithm,
Spanning Tree Routing; Congestion Control; Traffic Shaping and Leaky Bucket Algorithm.

Design issues for the network layer.

The network layer has been designed with the following goals:
1. The services provided should be independent of the underlying technology. Users of the service need not
be aware of the physical implementation of the network - for all they know, they're messages could be
transported via carrier pigeon! This design goal has great importance when we consider the great variety
of networks in operation. In the area of Public networks, networks in underdeveloped countries are
nowhere near the technological prowess of those in the countries like the US or Ireland. The design of
the layer must not disable us from connecting to networks of different technologies.
2. The transport layer (that is the host computer) should be shielded from the number, type and different
topologies of the subnets he uses. That is, all the transport layer want is a communication link, it need
not know how that link is made.
3. Finally, there is a need for some uniform addressing scheme for network addresses.
With these goals in mind, two different types of service emerged: Connection oriented and connectionless. A
connection-oriented service is one in which the user is given a "reliable" end to end connection. To
communicate, the user requests a connection, then uses the connection to his hearts content, and then closes the
connection. A telephone call is the classic example of a connection oriented service.
In a connection-less service, the user simply bundles his information together, puts an address on it, and then
sends it off, in the hope that it will reach its destination. There is no guarantee that the bundle will arrive. So - a
connection less service is one reminiscent of the postal system. A letter is sent, that is, put in the post box. It is
then in the "postal network" where it gets bounced around and hopefully will leave the network in the correct
place, that is, in the addressee's letter box. We can never be totally sure that the letter will arrive, but we know
that there is a high probability that it will, and so we place our trust in the postal network.
Now, the question was - which service would the network layer provide, a connection-oriented or a
connectionless one?
With a connection oriented service, the user must pay for the length (ie the duration) of his connection. Usually
this will involve a fixed start up fee. Now, if the user intends to send a constant stream of data down the line, this
is great - he is given a reliable service for as long as he wants. However, say the user wished to send only a
packet or two of data - now the cost of setting up the connection greatly overpowers the cost of sending that one
packet. Consider also the case where the user wishes to send a packet once every 3 minutes. In a connection-
oriented service, the line will thus be idle for the majority of the time, thus wasting bandwidth. So, connection-
oriented services seem to be useful only when the user wishes to send a constant stream of data.
One would therefore think that the reliable nature of the connection oriented service would prompt people to
choose it over the connectionless service - this is in fact not the case. One can never ensure that the network is
100% reliable, in fact for many applications we must assume that the network is not reliable at all. With this in
mind, many applications perform their own error detection, flow and congestion control at a higher level in the
protocol stack, that is, on their own machine, in the transport layer. So, if the sender and the receiver are going to
engage in their own control mechanisms, why put this functionality into the network layer? This is the argument
for the connectionless service: the network layer should provide a raw means of sending packets from a to b, and
that is all. Proponents of this argument are quick to point out that the standard of our networks has increased
greatly in the past years, that packets of information rarely ever do get lost, so much of the correction facilities in
the network layer are redundant and serve only to complicate the layer and slow down transfer.

Page: 108 compiled by: JP NEC. Daya Ram Budhathoki