PSYCHOLOGY SUGGESTION 3RD SEM

5 MARKS
1) 3types of sensation with example
Ans – Sensations are the elementary impression gathered by sense organs. Our sense
organs gathers knowledge of outside world. There are three types of sensations.
Organic, Special, Motor sensation.
 Organic: a sensation arising from internal organ eg. Organ of digestion-
hunger, organ of respiration-nausea etc.
 Special- sensation from sense organs like eyes-visual, ear- hearing, taste,
smell, touch
 Motor- is the awareness of movements occurring within the muscles, joints,
tendons. Voluntary muscles can be controlled by our own will eg. Muscles
in the shoulder, leg, hands etc. involuntary muscles like muscles of intestine
2) Sensation vs Perception
Ans –
 Perception is a sensation plus its interpretation
 Perception is knowledge but sensation is not. Sensation is only raw material of
knowledge
 Perception is the consciousness of object itself eg. a flower, a ball whereas
sensation is consciousness of the qualities of the object such as redness,
softness etc.
 Perception involves believes in the object whereas sensation does not
 Sensation is passive state of mind whereas perception is more of an active state
of mind
 Egby tasting a fruit, sensation will give only the knowledge about that taste that
is the sweetness of that fruit, but in perception we will have a better knowledge
of the fruit that it’s a Indian fruit, its shape size

3) 5 types of thinking
Ans – There are five different types of thinking which represent a wide variety of
cognitive processes. These are –
 Creative Thinking - Involves generating new ideas, concepts, or solutions. And
focuses on originality and innovation, often breaking away from traditional
patterns.
 Critical thinking - Engages in analyzing, evaluating, and making judgments and
Involves questioning assumptions, beliefs, or prejudices.
  Reflective Thinking - A deliberate and conscious effort to solve problems by
reviewing and evaluating past experiences. Also involves introspection and
thoughtful analysis.
 Non-directed Thinking- Often unstructured and spontaneous, encompassing
daydreams, fantasies, and imaginative thoughts. Helps in emotional regulation
and creativity but may lack immediate practical application.
 Non-directed Thinking - Often unstructured and spontaneous, encompassing
daydreams, fantasies, and imaginative thoughts. Helps in emotional regulation
and creativity but may lack immediate practical application.

4) Process in creative thinking

Ans - Stages of Creative Thinking
• Preparation: This is the first stage in which the thinker formulates the problem and
collects facts and materials necessary for the solution. He/she finds that the problem
cannot be solved after days, weeks, or months of concentrated effort.
• Incubation: This is a stage of no solution and involves several emotional and
cognitive complexities. However, the negative effects of mental set, functional
fixedness, and other ideas that interfere with the solution tend to fade.
• Illumination: In this stage, a potential solution to the problem seems to be realized as
if from nowhere. It is about having insight into the possible solution.
• Verification: In this stage, the obtained solution is verified or tested to see if it
works. Frequently, the insight may turn out to be unsatisfactory and may need some
modification in the strategy of approaching the problem.

15 Marks

1) Explain Pavlov theory of learning and Trial and Error Theory.

Pavlov's theory of learning, known as Classical Conditioning, explains how

behavior is learned through associations between stimuli and responses. In his
studies, Pavlov observed that dogs naturally salivated (unconditioned response,
UCR) when presented with food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS). He introduced
a neutral stimulus (NS), such as a bell, which initially caused no response.
However, by repeatedly pairing the bell (NS) with the presentation of food
(UCS), the dogs began to associate the two. Eventually, the bell alone became a
conditioned stimulus (CS) that triggered salivation, now a conditioned response
(CR).
 Key principles of classical conditioning include acquisition, where the
association between the NS and UCS is learned, extinction, where the response
fades if the CS is no longer paired with the UCS, and spontaneous recovery,
where the response reappears after a pause. Generalization occurs when
similar stimuli evoke the same response, while discrimination ensures only
specific stimuli trigger the CR. Pavlov’s work has broad applications, from
behavior therapy for phobias to advertising and animal training. His ground
breaking research laid the foundation for modern behaviorism and continues to
influence psychology and education.

Thorndike’s trial and error theory of learning - Edward Thorndike’s Trial and
Error Learning Theory suggests that learning happens when an organism attempts
various actions and learns the correct behaviour through repetition. Thorndike
demonstrated this theory through his work with animals (particularly cats),
showing that, over time, animals learn to escape a puzzle box by trying different
actions and gradually eliminating ineffective ones. This principle also applies to
maze learning: an animal or human will attempt different paths in a maze, making
errors at first but eventually learning the correct path through repetition and
reinforcement. Thorndike’s work laid the foundation for understanding how
behaviour is shaped by consequences, particularly reinforcement. Three laws
formulated by Thorndike are –
1. The Law of Effect: This Law states that, - Behaviours that result in satisfying
consequences are more likely to be repeated. Behaviours that result in
discomfort or unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
2. The Law of Exercise: The Law of Exercise suggests that the more frequently a
response is practiced in the presence of a stimulus, the stronger the association
between the stimulus and the response becomes.
i) Law of Use - Repetition reinforces learning, making it more likely that the
behaviour will be repeated in the future when the same stimulus occurs.
ii) Law of Disuse - The longer a behaviour goes unpracticed, the weaker the
association becomes, and the response becomes less likely to be triggered
when the stimulus is presented again.
3. Law of Readiness: Learning happens more effectively when the individual is
motivated and prepared.

2) Operant Conditioning Theory and Gestalt Theory

Operant Conditioning Theory, developed by B.F. Skinner, explains how

behavior is shaped by its consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, which
focuses on associations between stimuli, operant conditioning emphasizes the role
of rewards and punishments in learning. Skinner identified two main types of
reinforcement: positive reinforcement, where a pleasant stimulus is added to
 increase a behavior (e.g., giving praise for good work), and negative
reinforcement, where an unpleasant stimulus is removed to encourage a behavior
(e.g., turning off a loud alarm when someone wakes up). He also described two
types of punishment: positive punishment, where an unpleasant stimulus is added
to decrease a behavior (e.g., a speeding fine), and negative punishment, where a
pleasant stimulus is taken away to reduce a behavior (e.g., losing privileges for bad
behavior). Skinner’s experiments, like the famous Skinner Box, demonstrated
these principles using animals. For example, a rat learned to press a lever to
receive food (positive reinforcement) or to avoid a shock (negative reinforcement).
He also explored reinforcement schedules, showing that behaviors reinforced
intermittently are more resistant to extinction. The schedule include - Fixed Ratio
Schedule: fixed number of responses (eg. used in questionnaire based activity) ;
Variable Ratio Schedule: variable number of responses ; Fixed Interval Schedule:
fixed interval of time (eg. Used in performance based activity like block building
game) ; Variable Interval Schedule: variable amount of time. Operant conditioning
has numerous applications, from education and workplace motivation to behavior
therapy, offering a practical framework for shaping and modifying behavior
through consequences.

Gestalt Theory also know as Kohler Theory of Insight learning developed by

Wolfgang Kohler, challenges the traditional behaviorist view of learning through
trial and error. Köhler, who worked with chimpanzees, proposed that learning
occurs through sudden realizations or insight, rather than by gradual shaping of
behavior. He argued that animals and humans solve problems by perceiving the
relationship between different elements of a situation, allowing them to find
solutions all at once, rather than through incremental steps. Köhler emphasized
that learning is not merely a mechanical process but involves active cognitive
engagement. The learner perceives the problem in a new light, often through a
process of mental restructuring, which leads to the solution. In his famous
experiment with a chimpanzee named Sultan, Köhler showed that the animal could
solve complex problems by suddenly understanding the relationship between
different objects. For example, Sultan used a stick to reach a banana that was out
of his reach, combining two tools in an unexpected way after initially failing. This
demonstrated that insight can occur without the need for trial and error. Köhler’s
theory of insight learning highlights the cognitive and sudden nature of problem-
solving, challenging the idea that all learning is gradual and driven by trial and
error.

3) Define Motivation, Types of Motivation and Maslow’s Theory.

According to Morgan and King, “motivation refers to the driving and pulling
forces which results in persistent behaviour directed towards particular goal”
The Two Types of Motivation

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal rewards, such as personal

satisfaction, curiosity, or a sense of accomplishment.

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards, such as money,

recognition, or avoiding punishment.

Maslow's Theory of Motivation, known as the Hierarchy of Needs, was developed

by psychologist Abraham Maslow. This theory suggests that human beings are
motivated by a series of hierarchical needs, starting with basic physical needs and
moving toward higher psychological needs. According to Maslow, individuals must
satisfy lower-level needs before they can focus on higher-level ones, and only once
basic needs are met can people pursue personal growth and self-actualization.

The Hierarchy of Needs (from bottom to top):

1. Physiological Needs:
These are the most basic needs for survival, including food, water, shelter,
sleep, and warmth. If these needs are not met, an individual’s focus will be on
fulfilling them before addressing other needs.
2. Safety Needs:
Once physiological needs are met, people seek safety and security. This
includes personal security, financial stability, health, and safety from physical
or emotional harm. It encompasses both physical safety (such as living in a safe
environment) and psychological security (such as having a stable job).
3. Love and Belonging Needs:
Humans have a strong desire for social connection, love, and acceptance. This
level includes the need for friendships, romantic relationships, family bonds,
and a sense of community. If these needs are unmet, feelings of loneliness and
isolation may arise.
4. Esteem Needs:
After social needs are satisfied, individuals seek self-esteem and the esteem of
others. This includes feelings of accomplishment, recognition, respect, and the
desire for personal achievement. People want to feel valued and appreciated,
both in their own eyes and in the eyes of others.
5. Self-Actualization:
At the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization, which is the realization of one's
full potential. Maslow described self-actualization as the desire to become the
best version of oneself, to pursue personal growth, creativity, and meaningful
experiences. It is the process of becoming the most that one can be.

4) 3 Theories of Emotion
James – Lange Theory
 Also known as peripheral theory of emotion. We experience emotions as a result
of physiological changes that produce specific sensations this sensations are
interpreted by the brain. This theory posits that emotions are a result of
physiological reactions to stimuli. In other words, your body reacts first, and then
you interpret these bodily responses as an emotional experience.

 For Example - After receiving a low grade on an important exam, the student
might feel their heart rate increase, their hands may become sweaty, or they
might experience a sense of physical tension or fatigue. According to this
theory, the student then interprets these physical changes as feelings of sadness,
frustration, or disappointment.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Also known as thalamic theory of emotion/ central theory of emotion. After an

emotion inducing stimulus is presented, thalamus sends a signal to viscera, which
are then activated, sends a message to cerebral cortex regarding the nature of
emotion being experienced. This theory was also criticised because it only focus
on thalamus, hypothalamus and limbic system are not mentioned.

 For Example - Upon receiving a low grade, the student might feel a
simultaneous rush of disappointment and frustration, while also experiencing
physical symptoms like a racing heart or a sense of fatigue. Both the emotional
experience and the physical reaction occur simultaneously, as the brain
processes both the emotional and physiological responses at the same time.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Also known as cognitive appraisal theory of emotion. It emphasizes that we

identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and
comparing ourselves with others. This theory emphasizes that the emotional
experience depends on how a person interprets and labels the physiological state
they are in.

 For example - After receiving the low grade, the student might experience a
feeling of physical arousal, such as increased heart rate or nervousness. The
student may then cognitively label this arousal as disappointment or frustration
based on their understanding of the situation (i.e., "I worked hard, and I didn’t
do well, so I’m upset"). The emotional response is shaped by the combination
of the physiological reaction and the cognitive interpretation of the situation.

5) Types of Memory and Measurement of memory.

Memory is typically categorized into three main types, each serving different
functions in how we process, store, and retrieve information. These types are:
 1. Sensory Memory: Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, where
information from our senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) is briefly stored. It holds
this information for a very short period, usually less than a second for visual
stimuli (iconic memory) or a few seconds for auditory stimuli (echoic
memory). The purpose of sensory memory is to retain information long enough
for it to be processed further in short-term memory.
o Example: When you briefly look at a scene and then close your eyes,
the image you "see" for a moment is your visual sensory memory.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory: Short-term memory is
where we temporarily store information that we are actively thinking about or
processing. This memory system has limited capacity, typically holding about 7
± 2 items for a short duration (around 15-30 seconds). Working memory refers
to the active manipulation and use of information held in short-term memory,
often used for tasks such as reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension.
o Example: When you remember a phone number long enough to dial it,
that's short-term memory at work. If you keep rehearsing it, it can be
transferred to long-term memory.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory is the storage system for
information that we retain over extended periods, ranging from hours to a
lifetime. LTM has a vast capacity and can store various types of information,
including facts (semantic memory), events (episodic memory), and skills
(procedural memory). Information is transferred to long-term memory through
processes like rehearsal, encoding, and consolidation.
o Example: Remembering your birthday or how to ride a bike is stored in
long-term memory.

Measurement of memory involves assessing how effectively information is

stored and retrieved. Several methods are used to measure memory, and they can
be categorized into methods of recall and methods of recognition

Methods of Recall:

 Free Recall: In free recall, a person is asked to retrieve information from memory
without any specific cues or prompts. They simply recall the items or details from
memory in any order. For ex - After studying a list of words, a person is asked to write
down as many words as they can remember, in any order.

 Probed Recall: In this method, a specific cue or prompt is given to trigger

memory retrieval. The individual must recall the information associated with the
prompt or cue. For ex - After studying a list of words, you might be given the first
letter of a word (e.g., "B") and asked to recall the word that started with that letter.

 Serial Recall: Serial recall requires a person to retrieve information in the exact
order in which it was presented. This type of recall is more challenging because it
involves maintaining the sequence of items in memory. For Ex - After studying a list
of 10 words, you would be asked to recall them in the exact same order they were
presented.
Methods of Recognition:

 Simple Recognition: Simple recognition involves identifying a previously learned

item when it is presented, with little or no extra effort needed to recall it. For ex - A
person is shown a list of words and asked to select which words were part of an earlier
list they studied.

 Multiple Alternate Recognition: In this method, a person is given several

alternatives or options, and they must identify which one matches the information they
learned. This method can increase the likelihood of correct recognition because the
person is presented with several choices. For ex - After studying a list of words, a
person is shown a set of four words (some old, some new) and asked to recognize
which ones they have seen before.

6) Theories of Forgetting and Causes of Forgetting

There are several theories of forgetting that explain why and how we lose access to
information over time. These theories focus on different aspects of memory
processes, from storage to retrieval.

Decay Theory :

According to the decay theory, forgetting occurs because the memory trace (the
physical or chemical changes in the brain that represent the stored memory) fades over
time. This theory suggests that the passage of time itself leads to a gradual loss of
memory if the information is not regularly rehearsed or retrieved. Ex- If you don’t
revisit certain details about a class or an event, you might forget them after some time
due to the decay of the memory trace.

Interference Theory:

Interference theory posits that forgetting happens because other information interferes
with the ability to retrieve the desired memory. There are two types of interference:

Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the recall of newer

information. Ex - If you’ve learned a new phone number, you might forget your old
number because the old memory interferes with the new one.

Retroactive Interference: Newer information interferes with the recall of older

memories. Ex - If you’ve learned a new language, it might be harder to recall words
from a language you studied years ago due to the interference from the new language.
Motivated Forgetting :

This theory, proposed by Sigmund Freud, suggests that people forget information or
memories because they are motivated to do so. This could be due to unpleasant or
anxiety-provoking memories that are pushed out of conscious awareness as a defense
mechanism. Ex - A person may forget a traumatic event from their childhood, not
because it’s been forgotten in the traditional sense, but because the mind represses it
to protect the individual from emotional distress.

Causes of forgetting –

 Psychological disorders, such as depression and amnesia, can interfere with

memory.
 Repression may cause memories to be unconsciously blocked due to emotional
distress.
 Brain damage or trauma can directly impair the brain areas involved in memory
formation and retrieval.
 Drug consumption can hinder memory processes, especially with alcohol or
recreational drugs.
 Interference occurs when old or new memories disrupt the recall of other
memories.
 Lack of context or cues makes it difficult to retrieve memories when the right
triggers aren’t present.

 Decay due to disuse suggests that memories fade when not regularly used or
accessed.