UNIT V

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS IGNITION SYSTEM

Pollutants emission from diesel engines

Nowadays, pollution from automobiles becomes the main concern for our lovely environment.
Pollutants emitted from diesel engines and petrol engines are dangerous for our environment and our
precious health. Both the petrol engines and diesel engines emit pollutants in their working
conditions. But the Concentration of pollutants from diesel engines and petrol engines are different.
Here we are going to see the emission of different pollutants from diesel engines
Pollutants emission from diesel engines:
1. Hydrocarbons (HC)
2. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
4. Smoke and Particulate Matter
5. Aldehydes
6. Other emissions

1. Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are the significant contributors in the diesel engines emission. Black smoke from diesel
engine exhaust caused by the presence of carbon particles also known as soot in the flue gases. Soot is
hazardous for the health of living animals.

2. Carbon Monoxide:
Carbon Monoxide is a presence in an exhaust of both diesel engines and gasoline/petrol engines. But
the concentration of Carbon Monoxide in the diesel engines is less as compared to petrol engines. If
the petrol/gasoline engine produces 5% of Carbon Monoxide, then diesel engines will produce only
2% of it.

3.Oxides of Nitrogen:
When atmospheric O2 and N2 combine inside the combustion chamber at very high temperature, it
produces Oxides of Nitrogen. Diesel engines produce very high Oxides of Nitrogen during the
acceleration period because temperature reaches the highest due to complete combustion of the fuel in
the chamber.

4. Smoke and Particulate Matter:

Color of exhaust smoke may be white smoke or black smoke. The presence of smoke at the exhaust
contains visible products produced due to poor combustion of fuel and air. If white smoke observed in
a diesel engine at cold starting and no load or low load running of the engine, it indicates piston rings
of diesel engines are worn out and it needs a replacement. Black smoke in the diesel engine is caused
due to incomplete combustion of fuel. The amount of black smoke is directly proportional to the load
on the engine.

7
The ignition system is provided with SI engine, which is used to produce an electric spark at the end
of the compression stroke to ignite the air fuel mixture. In the design of an ignition system, the
following factors should be taken into account
 Engine design
 Engine speed
 Inlet manifold pressure
 Mixture composition
Requirement of an ignition system:
A smooth and reliable functioning of an ignition system is essential for reliable working of an
engine. The requirements of such an ignition system are:
 It should provide a good spark between the electrode of the plugs at the correct timing
 It should function efficiently over the entire range of engine speed
 It should be light, effective and reliable in service
 It should be compact and easy to maintain
 It should be cheap and convenient to handle
 The interference of the high voltage source should not affect the functioning of radio and
television receiver inside the automobile

Battery ignition system:

The essential components of the battery ignition system are
Battery: This provides the energy for ignition. The battery used may be lead acid battery or a
alkaline battery. The battery is charged by the dynamo provided in the engine. The battery must be
mechanically strong to withstand the strains to which it is constantly subjected to. It converts the
chemical energy into electrical energy due to the electrochemical reaction taking place inside the
battery
Ignition switch: Battery is connected to the primary winding of the ignition coil through an ignition
switch and ballast resistor. With the help of the ignition switch the ignition system can be turned on
or off.
Ballast resistor: A ballast resistor is provided in series with primary winding to regulate the primary
current. The objective of this is to prevent injury to the spark coil by overheating if the engine should
by operated for a long time at low speed. The coil is made of iron wire.
Ignition coil: The ignition coil consists of a magnetic core of soft iron sheet and two insulated
conduction coils called primary and secondary windings. The secondary coil consists about 21000
turns of 38-40 gauge enamelled copper wire sufficiently insulated to withstand the high voltage. It is
wound close to the core with one end connected to secondary terminal and other end is grounded to
the metal case. The primary winding located outside the secondary coil generally formed 200-300
turns of 20 gauge copper wire. More heat is generated in primary than the secondary and with the
primary coil wound over the secondary coil, it is easier to dissipate the heat. The entire unit is
enclosed in a metal container and forms a neat and compact unit.

8
 Figure: Battery Ignition system for a six cylinder engine
Contact breaker: This is a mechanical device for making and breaking the primary circuit of the
ignition coil. The metal used for contact surfaces usually tungsten and diameter of contact surfaces is
about 3 mm
Capacitor: The principle of construction of a ignition capacitor is the same as that of electrical
capacitor. Two strips of aluminum foil and several layers of special capacitor paper, are rolled up in a
solid roll. Then the roll is inserted into a metal shell for protection against moisture and damage.
Distributor: The function of the distributor is to distribute the ignition current to the individual spark
plugs in correct sequence and at the correct instant of time. There two types of distributors. Brush
type and gap type

Figure: Spark Plug

Spark plug: The spark plug provides the two electrodes with a proper gap across which the high
potential discharges to generate a spark and ignite the combustible mixture with in the combustion
chamber. The spark plug consists of a steel shell, an insulator and two electrodes. The central
electrode to which the high tension supply from the ignition coil is connected, is well insulated with
porcelain or other ceramic material. The other electrode is welded to steel shell of the plug. The
electrodes are usually made of high nickel alloy to withstand the severe erosion and corrosion to
9
which they are subjected in use. The spark plugs are usually classified as hot plugs or cold plugs
depending upon the relative operating temperature range of the tip of the high tension electrode

Operation of a battery ignition system:

When the ignition switch is closed, the primary winding of the coil is connected to the positive
terminal post of the storage battery. If the primary is closed through the breaker contacts, a current
flows, the so called primary current. This current, flowing through the primary coil, which is wound
on a soft iron core, produces a magnetic field in the core. A cam driven by the engine shaft is
arranged to open the breaker points whenever an ignition discharge is required. When the breaker
points open, the current which had been flowing through the points now flows into the condenser,
which is connected across the points. As the condenser becomes charged, the primary current falls
and the magnetic field collapses. The collapse of the field induces a voltage in the primary winding,
which charges the condenser to a voltage much higher than battery voltage. The condenser then
discharges into the battery, reversing the direction of both the primary current and the magnetic field.
The rapid collapse and reversal of the magnetic field in the core induce a very high voltage in the
secondary winding of the ignition coil. The secondary winding consists of a large number of turns of
very fine wire wound on the same core with the primary. The high secondary voltage is led to the
proper spark plug by means of a rotating switch called the distributor. This ignition system is used in
cars and commercial vehicles.

Figure: Working of Battery Ignition System

Magneto Ignition System
Magneto is a special type of ignition system with its own electric generator to provide the necessary
energy for the system. It is mounted on the engine and replaces all the components of the coil ignition
system except the spark plug. A magneto when rotated by the engine is capable of producing a very
high voltage and does not need a battery as a source of external energy. Magneto may be rotating
armature type or rotating magnet type. The working principle of the magneto ignition system is
exactly the same as that of the coil ignition system. With the help of a cam, the primary circuit flux is
changed and a high voltage is produced in the secondary circuit.

10
 Figure: Magneto Ignition System

Comparison of battery ignition system and magneto ignition system

Battery ignition system Magneto ignition system

Battery is necessary. Difficult to start the No battery is needed and therefore there is
engine when battery is discharged no problem of battery discharge

Maintenance problem are more due to Maintenance problem are less since there is
battery no battery

Current for the primary circuit is obtained The required electric current is generated
from the battery by the magneto

A good spark is available at the spark plug During starting, quality of spark is poor
even at low speed due to low speed

Efficiency of the system decreases with the Efficiency of the system improves as the
reduction in spark intensity as engine speed engine speed rises due to high intensity
rises spark

Occupies more space Occupies less space

Commonly employed in cars and light Mainly used in racing cars and two
commercial vehicles wheelers

FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM FOR CI ENGINE

11
 The fuel injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engines. The
engine performance is greatly dependent on the effectiveness of the fuel injection system. The
injection system has to perform the important duty of initiating and controlling the combustion
process. The schematic diagram of the fuel injection system of CI engine is shown in figure.

Figure: Fuel supply system for CI engine

The fuel from the tank is taken by the plunger feed pump through the coarse filter and flow to the fine
filter then to the fuel pump. The coarse and fine filters remove all kinds of impurities from the fuel.
The fuel pump raises the pressure of the fuel to the injection pressure approximately 200 bar and
supplies the fuel to the fuel injector which injects the fuel in fine droplets. These droplets vaporize
due to the heat transfer from the compressed air and form a fuel-air mixture. The temperature of the
fuel reaches a value higher than its self-ignition temperature and the combustion process is initiated
spontaneously. A pressure relief valve is also provided for the safety of the system. For proper
running and better performance of the engine, the fuel injection system must meet the following
requirements.
 Accurate metering of fuel injected per cycle
 Timing the injection of fuel correctly in the cycle
 Proper control of rate of injection so that desired heat release pattern is achieved during
combustion
 Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets
 Proper spray pattern to ensure rapid mixing of fuel and air
 Uniform distribution of fuel throughout the combustion chamber
 To supply equal quantity of injection in the case of multi cylinder engine
The fuel injection used in the CI engine is classified into two types: (i) air injection systems and (ii)
solid injection systems. They are briefly explained below.

Air Injection System

In this system, the fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This system is little
used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multistage air compressor. This causes an increase in
engine weight and reduces the brake power output further. One advantage of this type is good mixing
of fuel with the air. Another advantage is the ability to utilize fuels of high viscosity.

Solid Injection System

In this system the fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber without the aid of compressed
air. This system is further classified into four types
(a) Individual pump and nozzle system
(b) Unit injector system
(c) Common rail system
(d) Distributor system
12
 Figure: Solid injection systems
(a) Individual pump and nozzle system: (Refer figure a&b) In this system, each cylinder is
provided with one pump and one injector. In this arrangement a separate metering and compression
pump is provided for each cylinder. The pump may be placed close to the cylinder (figure a) or they
may be arranged in a cluster (figure b). The plunger of high pressure pump is actuated by a cam and
produces the fuel pressure necessary to open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of fuel
injected depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.
(b) Unit injector system: (Refer figure c) In this system the pump and injector nozzle are combined
in one housing. Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is brought up to the
injector by a low pressure pump, at correct time a rocker arm actuates the plunger and thus injects
the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected is regulated by the effective stroke of the
plunger.
(c) Common rail system: (Refer figure d) In the common rail system a HP pump supplies fuel under
high pressure to a fuel header. From the header the fuel supplied to the individual cylinders through
pipes. The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated by varying the length of the push rod
stroke.

Figure: Distributor system

(d) Distributor system: (Refer figure) In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters
and times it. The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating
distributor at the correct time for supply to each cylinder.

Fuel Injection Pump

13
The main objective of the fuel injection pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel under
high pressure at the correct instant to the injector fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are
generally of two types
Jerk type pump: Figure shows the Jerk type fuel injection pump.

Figure: Jerk type fuel injection pump

In the Jerk type pump, the fuel is pressurized by the plunger movement. The reciprocating movement
is given to the plunger by means of the cam and the rotating movement is given by the rack
mechanism. When the plunger is in the bottom most position, through the intake port the fuel is
admitted into the cylinder of the pump and during the upward movement of the plunger the fuel is
pressurized and delivered to the injector though the opening at the top of the pump against the
delivery valve spring pressure. When the control rack rotates the plunger, the high pressure fuel in the
top of the cylinder is exposed to spill port through the helix on the plunger so that the pressure of the
fuel decreases and injection is stopped. It is important to remember here that though the axial
distance traversed by the plunger is same for every stroke, the rotation of the plunger by the rack
determining the length of the effective stroke and thus the quantity of the fuel injected.

Distributor type pump: Figure shows the distributor type fuel injection pump. This pump has only a
single pumping element and the fuel is distributed to each cylinder by means of a rotor. There is a
central longitudinal passage in the rotor and also two sets of radial holes (each equal to the number of
engine cylinders) located at different heights. One set is connected to pump inlet via central passage
whereas the second set is connected to delivery lines leading to injectors of the various cylinders. The
fuel is drawn into the central rotor passage from the inlet port when the pump plunger moves away
from each other. Wherever, the radial delivery passage in the rotor coincides with the delivery port for
any cylinder the fuel is delivered to each cylinder in turn. The main advantage of this type is small
size and light in weight.

14
 Figure: Distributor type fuel injection pump

Common Rail Direct Injection or CRDI System:

There are two different types of injection systems in the diesel engines or compression ignition (C I
Engines). One is the Air Injection System and another one is Airless or Solid Injection System. In this
post, we are going to learn about the Common Rail Direct Injection System CRDI System which
comes under a solid injection system.

Working of CRDI System or Common Rail Direct Injection:

1. As you can see in the diagram of the CRDI system, the high-pressure pump is used to supply
fuel to the accumulator or the header from the fuel tank. In case pressure in the accumulator
increases beyond the limit, the high-pressure relief valve which is connected to the
accumulator helps to reduce the pressure.
15
 2. Now, this fuel from the accumulator supplied to engine cylinders using fuel lines with the help
of solid injectors.
3. Another spring-loaded high-pressure relief valve used to maintain the constant pressure in the
system for smooth operations. It also returns the extra fuel of the accumulator to the fuel tank.
4. In the diagram, you can see the needle valve. It is used to control the opening and closing of
the nozzle while it sprays the fuel into the cylinders. The upward and downward motion of the
nozzle is measured by the cam.
5. Cam is connected to the spring with the help of a rocker arm and lever. During the dwell
period of the cam, spring with the help of the needle valve prevents the injection of the fuel
into the cylinder.
6. The packing gland ensures the level of the fuel above the valve seat for better injection of the
fuel into the cylinders.
7. The wedge plays the main role in this system. It controls the amount of fuel to be injected into
the cylinder in accordance with the power required for the engine. The wedge is operated by a
governor or it can be operated manually as per requirement.
Advantages of CRDI System:
 CRDI system can control the flow of fuel in accordance with the load and speed of the engine.
 This system requires only one fuel pump for multiple cylinders.
 CRDI system is beneficial for the environment as it reduces noise, smoke and particulate
matter.
 It gives high power output at low rpm.
 The main advantage of the CRDI system is fuel economy.
Disadvantages of CRDI System:
 This system is complex than MPFI system and needs good engineering work.
 The CRDI system cannot suit ordinary engines.

3.10.4 Fuel Injector

Quick and complete combustion is ensured by a well-designed fuel injector. By atomizing the
fuel into very fine droplets, it increases the surface area of the fuel droplets resulting in better mixing
and subsequent combustion. Atomization is done by forcing the fuel through a small orifice under
high pressure. The injector assembly consists of a needle valve, a compression spring, a nozzle and
an injector body as shown in figure 3.24. When the fuel is supplied by the injection pump it exerts
sufficient force against the spring to lift the nozzle valve and the fuel is sprayed into the combustion
chamber in a finely atomized particles. After fuel from the delivery pump gets exhausted the spring
pressure pushes the nozzle valve back on its seat. For proper lubrication between nozzle valve and its
guide a small quantity of fuel is allowed to leak through the clearance between them and then drained
back to fuel tank through leak off connection. The spring tension and hence the valve opening
pressure is controlled by adjusting the screw provided at the top.

16
 Figure: Fuel Injector
Fuel Injection Nozzle
Nozzle is that part of an injector through which the liquid fuel is sprayed into the combustion
chamber. The nozzle should fulfil the following functions:
 Atomization: This is very important function since it is the first phase in obtaining proper mixing
of the fuel and air in the combustion.
 Distribution of fuel: Distribution of fuel to the required areas with the combustion chamber.
Factors affecting this are injection pressure, density of air and physical properties of fuel.
 Prevention of impingement on walls: Prevention of the fuel from impinging directly on the
walls of combustion chamber or piston. This is necessary because fuel striking the walls
decomposes and produces carbon deposits. This causes smoky exhaust as well as increase in fuel
consumption.
 Mixing: Mixing the fuel and air in case of no turbulent type of combustion chamber should be
taken care of by the nozzle
Various types of nozzles used in CI engine are shown in figure 3.25 and briefly explained below.
(a) The pintle nozzle: The stem of the nozzle valve is extended to form a pin or pintle which
protrudes through the mouth of the nozzle. The size and shape of the pintle can be varied according to
the requirement. It provides a spray operating at low injection pressures of 8 to 10 MPa. The spray
cone angle is generally 600 Advantage of this nozzle is that it avoids weak injection and dribbling. It
prevents the carbon deposition on the nozzle hole.
(b) Single hole nozzle: At the centre of the nozzle body, there is a single hole which is closed by the
nozzle valve. The size of the hole is usually of the order of 0.2 mm. Injection pressure is of order of
8 to 10 MPa and spray cone angle is about 15o Major disadvantage with such nozzle is that they tend
to dribble. Besides their spray angle is too narrow to facilitate good mixing unless higher velocities
are used.
(c) Multi hole nozzle: It consists if a number of holes bored in the tip of the nozzle. The number of
holes varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 35 to 200 µm. The hole angle may be form 20 o upwards.
These nozzles operate at high injection pressures of the order of 18 MPa. Their advantage lies in the

17
ability to distribute the fuel properly even with power air motion available in open combustion
chamber.

Figure: Types of nozzles

(e) Pintaux nozzle: It is a type of pintle nozzle which has an auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body.
It injects a small amount of fuel through this additional hole in the upstream direction slightly
before the main injection. The needle valve does not lift fully at low speeds and most of the fuel
in injected through the auxiliary hole. Main advantage of this nozzle is better cold starting
performance.
(f) Indicated Power: The power is produced inside the engine cylinder is called indicated power.
The indicated power is calculated from the indicator diagram.
(g) The indicated power is calculated by: IP = Pim×A×L×n×k kW
(h) Where Pim = Indicated mean effective pressure
Area of the indicator diagram
Pim   Spring constant (N/m 2 /m)
(i) Length of indicator diagram
A = Area of the cylinder (m2),
L = Stroke length (m)
n = Number of explosions per second (n = N for two stroke engine, n=N/2 for four stroke engine),
N= Speed of the engine in rps,

k = Number of cylinders

Brake power: The power available at engine crank shaft for external work is called brake power. The
brake power is determined by Prony brake dynamometer, Rope brake dynamometer and Hydraulic
dynamometer.

(j) Prony brake dynamometer: BP = 2×π×N×T kW

Where T = Torque = W×R,
W = Load applied (kN),

R = Radius of brake drum (m)

(k) Rope brake dynamometer: BP = π×D×N×(W – S) kW

Where D = Diameter of brake drum (m),

W = Weight applied at the end of the rope (kN), S=

Spring scale reading (kN)
18
(l) Hydraulic dynamometer: BP = WN / 2000 kW
Where W = brake load (kN)

(m) Friction power: Friction power is the difference between indicated power and brake power of an
engine.
FP = IP – BP
(n) The friction power is the measure of internal losses in the engine. The friction power is
determined by Willan’s line method, Morse test, Motoring test and Retardation test.
(o)
(p) Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is the amount of fuel consumed per kW of brake
power developed.
FC
BSFC  kg/kW s
BP

Brake Power
(q) Mechanical Efficiency  mech 
Indicated Power

BP
(r) Brake thermal efficiency:  br.the 
FC  CV

IP
(s) Indicated thermal efficiency  in.the 
FC  CV

Brake thermal efficiency Indicated thermal efficiency

(t) Relative efficiency  r  or
Air standard effificney Air standard effificney

mact
(u) Volumetric efficiency  v 
mth

Quantity of Fuel Injected

The quantity of fuel injected per cycle is given by
π   θ 60   N 
Q   d 2 n   Vf     i 
4   360 N   60 

Where n = number of holes in nozzle,

d = diameter of orifice,
Vf = velocity of fuel,

 = duration of fuel injection in crank angle,

N = speed of the engine, and Ni = number of injection per min (N/2 for four stroke engine and N for
two stroke engine)
19
A four stroke, four cylinder gasoline engine has a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of 100 mm. On test it develops a
torque of 66.5 N m, when running at 3000 rpm. If the clearance volume in each cylinder is 60 cc, the relative
efficiency with respect to brake thermal efficiency is 0.5 and the calorific value of the fuel is 42 MJ/kg,
determine the fuel consumption in kg/h and the brake mean effective pressure.

Given: D=60cm,

L=100cm, T=66.5Nm, N=3000rpm, CV=42000 kJ/kg, VC = 60CC, ηRbt = 0.5

Solution:

Brake Power: BP = 2πNT 60 BP = 2×π×3000×66.5 60 BP = 20891.59 W

𝐁𝐏 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟗kW

Brake Mean Effective Pressure BP = PBMEPLAnk

20.89 = PBMEP × 0.1 × π×0.062 4 × 3000 2×60 × 4 𝐏

𝐁𝐌𝐄𝐏 = 738.83 𝐤𝐍𝒎𝟐

Fuel Consumption: ηBT = 𝐵𝑃 ṁ f×CV ṁ f = 20.89×3600 0.25×42000

𝐦̇𝐟 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝒈𝒉𝒓

Brake Thermal Efficiency: ηRbt = ηbt ideal ηbt = ηRbt × ideal ηbt = 0.5 × 0.5 𝛈𝐛𝐭 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 Ideal

Efficiency: ηIdeal = 1 − 1 𝑟𝑐𝛾−1 ηIdeal = 1 − 1 5.7421.4−1 𝛈𝐈𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = 𝟎. 𝟓

Where, r𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑆+𝑉𝐶𝑉𝐶 r𝐶 = 𝟐.𝟖𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟑+𝟔𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟔𝟔𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟔𝐫𝑪 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝑉𝑆 = 𝜋𝐷 2 4 × 𝐿

𝑉𝑆 = π×0.062 4 × 0.1 𝑽𝑺 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝒎

Calculate the diameter and length of the stroke of a diesel engine working on four stroke constant pressure
cycle from the following data. IP=18.75 kW rotation per minute=220 CR=14 fuel cut-off ratio=1/20th of
stroke, index of expansion=1.3, index of compression=1.35, L/D=1.5. Assume the pressure and temperature of
the air at inlet are 1 bar and 40˚C respectively.

IP=18.75kW, N=220rpm, CR=14, L/D=1.5 , P1 = 1𝑏𝑎𝑟, T1 = 40℃

Cutoff Ratio: 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 = 0.05 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) → 0.05 = 𝜌−1 rc−1 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓

Mean Effective Pressure:

Pm = P1rc γ [γ(ρ−1)−rc 1−γ (ρ γ−1)] (γ−1)(rc−1)

Pm = 1×141.3 [1.3(1.65−1)−14 1−1.3 (1.651.3−1)] (1.3−1)(14−1)

𝐏𝐦 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝐛𝐚

Indicated Power: IP = PIMEPLAnk

20
18.75 = 3.4 × 102 × 1.5D × π×𝐷 2 4 × 220 2×60 × 1 D = 0.294m

Length of Stroke: L

D = 1.5 L = 1.5 × 0.294

𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟗

During an experiment on four stroke single cylinder engine the indicator diagram obtained has
average height of 1 cm while indicator constant is 25 kN/m2per mm. The engine run at 300 rem and
the swept volume is 1.5 × 104 cm3The effective brake load upon dynamometer is 60 kg while the
effective brake drum radius is 50 cm. The fuel consumption is 0.12 kg/min and the calorific value of
fuel oil is 42 MJ/kg. The engine is cooled by circulating water around it at the rate of 6kg/min. The
cooling water enters at 35o C and leaves at 70oC. Exhaust gases leaving have energy of30 kJ/s with
them. Take specific heat of water as 4.18 kJ/kg K. Determine indicated power output, brake power
output and mechanical efficiency. Also draw the overall energy balance in kJ/s.
Indicator Diagram Height =1cm,
Indicator Constant = 25 kN/mmper mm,
N=300rpm,
VS = 1.5 ×104cm3
PIMEP = Ind. diagram height × Indicator Constant
PIMEP = 10mm × 25 kNmm×m2
PIMEP = 250 Kn
Heat Loss due to Brake power:
P =2πNT60
BP = 4.62 kJs× 60 BP = 277. 2kJmin

Unaccounted Loss:
Qua = QS − Qw+Qg + QBP Qua = 5040 − 877.8 + 1800 + 277.2 qua = 2085 kJmin
%Qw =Qw/QS
%Qw =877.8/5040
%Qw = 17. 42
%Qg =Qg/QS
%Qg =1800/5040
%Qg = 35. 71
%QBP =QBP/QS
%QBP =277.2/5040
21
%QBP = 5. 5
%Qun =Qun/QS
%Qun =2085/5040
%Qun = 41. 37

MECHANICAL SUPERCHARGING

Superchargers are the main category of forced induction systems. Superchargers are
compressors that are driven by mechanical means. Typically, they are driven by the
crankshaft of an engine with the help of belts and pulleys. They are coupled directly
to the engine and this does not allow for any delay to exist between the engine and the
compressor. Superchargers are classified into two categories such as positive
displacement pumps (Eg. Lysholm, Roots, Eaton, Scroll, Vane) and rotodynamic
pumps (Eg. Centrifugal).

Positive Displacement Type

Mechanical supercharging is probably the oldest way of boosting the IC engine

[Ainsdale, 1980]. Positive displacement supercharger is simpler in construction. They
are easy to install and doesn’t require complicated controls in most cases. It draws
power through mechanical connection to the crankshaft, and its revolution (rotational
speed) is directly proportional to the speed of the engine. The engine-compressor
matching is relatively easy, and the boost pressure is almost constant over the entire
range of engine operating speeds. Therefore, the torque curve is flat, and the turbo-lag
problem is completely overcome. In effect, a supercharged engine behaves as a
naturally aspirated engine with a larger displacement volume. It is this linearity that
makes designing and predicting its boosting characteristics relatively easier than turbo
charging. However, a supercharged engine consumes more fuel than a turbocharged
engine with comparable power since the supercharger draws power directly from the
engine crankshaft.

A supercharger has two rotors, a male and a female, forming a set of chambers
between themselves and the housing. The chamber’s volume is changing during the
rotation and thus compresses the air internally. Since the power needed to drive the
22
supercharger is taken directly from the crankshaft, most development work has been

invested to increase the efficiency and to minimize the parasitic losses when the
supercharger is not needed (i.e. part load of the engine).

The most common types of the supercharger in the market today are the Lysholm
compressor and the Roots blower. Figure 2.1 & 2.2 shows the cut-away view of the
Lysholm screw and roots type supercharger [Heinz, 1995]. Both are displacement
pumps and from a first glance they look very similar. They differ on one big point; the
Lysholm screw has internal compression while the Roots do not have internal
combustion. The Lysholm Compressor works with internal compression.

Figure 2.1 Cut-way view of the Lysholm screw supercharger [Heinz, 1995].

Figure 2.2 Cut- way view of the roots type supercharger [Heinz, 1995].

23
The Roots on the other hand works without internal compression, the compression
takes place as the air is discharged from the blower outlet instead of inside the
supercharger. This means that the compression takes place at isochoric conditions (i.e.
constant volume). This process is known to be more power consuming and heat
producing than the adiabatic process.

Centrifugal Compressor as a Supercharger

The centrifugal compressor has an isentropic efficiency that can match, and
sometimes exceed, the efficiency of a Lysholm screw compressor. It is a dynamic
machine where the rotor increases the internal energy of the air, both through
increased density and increased velocity. The velocity is then carefully diffused to
recover the kinetic energy as static pressure. Consequently, the centrifugal compressor
has internal compression. Figure 2.3 shows the cut-away view of the centrifugal
supercharger.

Unfortunately, the flow vs. speed characteristics of the centrifugal compressor is very
non-linear. A fixed gear ratio between the compressor and the crankshaft results in a
very peaky boost pressure delivery. Despite this, it has been used in cars, during the
1930s and 1950s. The speed of the centrifugal compressor is above 100000rpm and it
is up to 10 times higher than roots and about 3 to 5 times the speed of a screw
compressor. The need for a gearbox caused trouble for the designer. High speeds can
lead to both sound problems if gears are used and the torque needed for acceleration
can be rather high even if the moment of inertia is not particularly high.

Figure 2.3 Cut view of centrifugal supercharger

24
 Parasitic Losses

The largest problem of using a mechanical supercharger on a downsized engine is not

the top-end performance, but the parasitic losses on part load. Miyagi et al., (1996)
showed that for a Lysholm compressor only 20-30% of the parasitic losses come from
mechanical losses and the rest from losses in the airflow, i.e. unnecessary pumping.
Therefore, it is most important to try to minimize the airflow losses.

Clutch

The most obvious way of limiting the parasitic losses is to have a clutch to engage and
disengage the compressor. Using a clutch has the advantage of reducing both losses in
the air and the mechanical losses, assuming that the clutch is positioned on the
crankshaft end of the belt. Since the compressor has a non-negligible inertia and that
it rotates with high speed, it is necessary to apply large amounts of torque in order to
accelerate the compressor to working speeds within reasonable time. These torque
impulses will result in comfort problems if the work has to be taken from the
crankshaft.

TURBOCHARGER

Turbochargers are commonly used in engines because they extract some of the energy
from the exhaust gases that would have otherwise been lost [Corky Bell, 1997].
Turbochargers consist of a turbine (the component that is being spun by the passing
exhaust gases) and the compressor (the component increasing the intake pressure)
which is coupled to the turbine by a rotor. Figure 2.4 shows schematic layout of
turbocharging system in a diesel engine.

25
 Figure 2.4 Typical schematic layout of turbocharger system of an IC engine

One of the advantages of turbochargers is that they are able to recuperate some of the
energy of the exhaust gases. This makes turbochargers suitable for use in engines
where efficiency is important, as well as for diesel engines that are otherwise not able
to produce a high power. Another reason why turbochargers are preferred in diesel
engines is because of the lower exhaust temperature [Cengel and Boles, 2006], which
doesn't damage the turbine blades (unlike gas powered engines). Typically, turbines
are very delicate and require special grades of oils because of their very high
rotational speeds (sometimes exceeding 150000 rpm); as long with this in gas
powered engine, the higher temperature of exhaust gases tends to melt the tips of the
turbine blades which dramatically decreases the efficiency of the turbine which causes
a significant decrease in engine power. In road going vehicles and race cars,
turbochargers are well known for the turbo lag. The turbo lag is an unwanted effect
and is caused because of the high turbine spool time due to the moment of inertia of
the turbine and compressor. As well, it is due to the fact that the driving force of the
turbine comes from the exhaust gases which are compressible. The turbo lag is in
other words a delay in the turbine response

Waste Gate Operation

Some turbochargers are equipped with a waste gate [Figure 2.5]. This device allows
some of the exhaust gases to bypass the turbine rotor at higher engine speeds. With

26
this arrangement, the turbocharger can be designed to be more effective at lower
engine speeds. The waste gate consists of a valve, actuator, and connecting linkage.
The actuator consists of a diaphragm and spring enclosed in canister housing. The
valve is located in an exhaust bypass line. Under low boost conditions, the spring
pushes against the diaphragm moving the linkage to close the waste gate valve. Turbo
boost pressure is directed against the other side of the diaphragm. As boost pressure
increases with increased engine speed, the diaphragm moves against spring pressure
to open the valve and allow a portion of the exhaust gases to bypass the turbine wheel
through a connecting line. As boost pressure drops, spring pressure moves the
diaphragm and linkage to close the valve. The waste gate is preset at the factory and
no adjustment can be made.

Figure 2.5 Waste gate arrangements in a turbocharged engine.

Trend of Turbo Charging Technologies

The goals that a turbocharger must satisfy are the ability to provide high-pressure
turbocharging at low engine speeds, a high transient response, and high efficiency at a
high pressure ratio. A fixed geometry turbine is not capable of supplying enough
power to the compressor for the boost pressure required for low speed and during
transient conditions. On the other hand, it offers a higher turbine inlet pressure which

27
leads to increased fuel consumption if the turbocharger characteristics are optimized
for low engine speeds. In addition, the flow range of a centrifugal compressor is a
limiting factor, and if higher boost pressures are demanded, it will be even more
difficult to achieve satisfactory width of the usable range since the width of the
compressor map becomes narrower as the boost pressure approaches its maximum.

Different turbocharger designs such as the variable geometry turbocharger,

electrically assisted turbocharger, and two-stage turbocharger have been developed as
a means of achieving the above-mentioned performance improvements. Also, the
Variable-Nozzle Turbocharger (VNT), which is capable of changing the flow capacity
of the turbine, is already in widespread use in diesel passenger cars. The electrically
assisted turbocharger improves the transient response and, because it is excellent at
achieving high-pressure turbo charging at low speeds, manufacturers are putting
considerable effort into its development.

For a turbocharged engine with the Variable Nozzle Turbine (VNT), as is widely used
in diesel engines, the boost pressure can be raised by controlling the variable nozzle at
low engine speeds. Figure 2.6 shows an example of a VNT that was developed for use
in diesel engines. In addition, improving the turbocharger efficiency in the region
where the pressure ratio is high is important to reduce the turbine inlet pressure for
high-pressure turbo charging.

Figure 2.6 A typical example of a VNT that was developed for use in diesel engines

28
The VNT has rapidly gained popularity in Japan and Europe despite its higher cost
because it offers the advantages of low-end torque, transient response, and lower
turbine inlet pressures at high speeds, relative to conventional turbochargers. At
present, the VNT is the only technology available that allows diesel engines to satisfy
current emissions regulations. On the other hand, the VNT is not compatible with the
high gas temperatures of gasoline engines because of its complicated structure and
links. However, the amount by which the pressure can be increased at low engine
speeds is limited due to the low exhaust energy, such that engine back pressure arises.

The Motor-Assist turbocharger (MAT), however, is able to raise the boost pressure at
low engine speeds. So, by adding motor assistance, torque characteristics on a par
with a large-displacement engine can be attained. A MAT can also recover thermal
exhaust energy by acting as a dynamo at high engine speeds [Figure 2.7]. The high-
speed motor has its permanent magnet installed on the shaft of the rotor while the
stator is in the bearing housing. Because the motor is sensitive to heat, the cooling
method is an important aspect of the development.

Moreover, the outer diameter of the permanent magnet cannot be made much bigger
than already present because the combined strength of the permanent magnet and the
shaft is low. To increase the power of the motor, therefore, the length of the
permanent magnet has to be extended. Unfortunately, this leads to a reduction in the
critical speed of the rotor shaft, vibration, and a risk of damage when operating at
high speeds. Because the surge phenomenon of the compressor sometimes leads to
damage to the rotor, it has been the subject of research for some time and by many
different manufacturers.

Many kinds of casing treatments have been investigated to improve the surge
characteristic and have been put commercialized in large-scale turbochargers. To
obtain a high boost pressure over the wide operating range of a turbocharged engine,
the turbocharger has to operate at a high pressure ratio and high rotational speed over
a wide flow range. On the other hand, the compressor has a surge limit that is related
to the flow rate and therefore cannot be operated at flow rates less than the surge
limit. Otherwise, the flow becomes unstable and periodic pressure fluctuations
characterized by loud noise.

29
 Figure Schematic layout of a MAT.

To overcome this, the rotational speed of the turbocharger has to be increased by

controlling the variable nozzle vane angle or the power of the motor assistance, while
shifting the surge limit of the compressor towards a lower flow rate, or eliminating it
altogether, in order to increase the boost pressure at low engine speeds.

There are two ways of eliminating the surge limit. The first is the application of two-
stage turbo charging whereby the small compressor of the high-pressure turbocharger
is used at low engine speeds. Unfortunately, a disadvantage of two-stage turbo
charging is that the system is more complex and larger than single-stage turbo
charging. The second method involves bypassing the compressor discharge air to the
compressor inlet so as to increase the flow rate of the compressor. This, however,
causes an increase in the turbine inlet pressure due to the increase in the compressor
power. As a result, the fuel consumption of the engine deteriorates. Therefore, a
means of improving the surge limit of the compressor is an essential technology.
There are several means of improving the surge limit of a centrifugal compressor.
One effective means is to re-circulate part of the air that is compressed by the impeller
to the impeller inlet by using a casing treatment on the shroud wall.

The surge flow rate can be reduced by using a compressor with a variable inlet guide
vanes (VIGV) or a variable diffuser. A VIGV installed upstream from the impeller
inlet can control the velocity angle of the flow at the impeller inlet, so that the flow
30
characteristics of the compressor can be controlled. A variable diffuser installed downstream
from the impeller exit can control the flow through the diffuser where the velocity is higher
than at the impeller inlet. So, the changes in the flow characteristics with the diffuser vane
angle are very sensitive compared with the VIGV. And, the performance of the compressor
with the variable diffuser is highly dependent on the clearances between the stationary side
walls and the variable diffuser vanes.

31