MONOCHROME TELEVISION

Television means seeing at a distance. Television system involves with the transmission
and reception of both audio and video information by means of radio broadcasting.

In other words, the science of transmitting rapidly changing pictures from one place to
other place forms the television technique

A simple television system is required to reproduce faithfully

1.The shape of an object or structural content

2.The relative brightness of each object or tonal content
3.Motion or kinematic content
4.Sound
5.Colour or chromatic content
6.Perspective or stereoscopic content.

In a television system, both the sound and picture information are to be processed, modulated,
transmitted and then reconstructed at the receiver. The following stages are to be there in a
television system
1.The optical image of the scene to be televised should be converted into electrical variations
using camera tube.

2.These electrical variations (video signal) have to be amplified and then amplitude modulate the
RF carrier.

3) The sound signal (audio signal) is to be converted into electrical variations and then made to
frequency modulate the RF carrier.

4.The amplitude modulated video signal and frequency modulated audio signal are to be
combined and then radiated using a transmitting antenna.

5.The antenna to the receiver should be able to select the TV signal and then be demodulated and
the audio and video signals have to be separated.

6.The video signal separated is fed to the picture tube using which the transmitted scene can be
viewed by the user. At the same time, the audio signal is sufficiently amplified and then fed to
the speaker.

In TV, the video signal is amplitude modulated and sound (audio) signal is frequency
modulated. In Latin-audio means ‘I hear’ and video means ‘I see’
Principle of TV: The principle involved with human eye is used to transmit the picture
information after converting it into video signal. The human eye contains millions of
photosensitive elements called rods and cones. Each of these elements are connected to brain by
nerve fibre (One element-one fibre).When a human being see some picture information, each of
these rods and cones gather some information regarding the scene and then sent to the brain by
nerve fibres. Brain gathers all information and decides what is the scene viewed. Each fibre acts
as one channel.

But in TV, having millions of channels is not possible. A single channel is to be used.
The picture information has both space and time variations of brightness information. The
picture to be televised is broken up into small elementary areas known as picture elements
or pixels. Each of these pixels have some brightness information.

All these picture elements viewed together represent the picture scene. But all the picture
elements can not be transmitted simultaneously.

A technique called scanning is used. An electron beam is made to scan these picture elements
starting from the top left of the screen to the bottom right of the screen very fast so that human
eye is made to believe that the whole picture is transmitted at once.(while scanning, the
brightness of each picture elements is collected, and then converted into electrical form)

Further, if the picture elements in the scene are scanned once, one will be able to see a still
picture. To get a motion picture, the same scene is scanned 25 times in one second. Due to the
principle involved with the human eye known as ‘persistence of vision’, eye is fooled and one is
under the impression that the picture is moving one (Illusion is created)

Principle of scanning: Process of scanning takes place both at transmitter and at the receiver. In
the transmitter, scanning takes place in the camera tube to convert the optical image of the
picture information into electrical variations. (Scanning is done to get video signal)
At the receiver, scanning takes place in the picture tube in order to convert the video signal into
the corresponding visual scene on the screen.
During scanning process, the electron beam scans millions of picture elements starting from the
top left of the screen to the bottom right , During this process, intensity of the electron beam
changes according to the brightness of the picture information. This varying intensity electron
beam is made to pass through a load resistor, video signal is produced.
Some definitions:
Scene: Fundamentally any area capable of sending out light can be considered as a scene.
Examples are a cricket pitch, a drawing room, the field view of a microscope etc.

Frame: The scene containing picture information which is to be televised is known as frame. In
CCIR-B system, a frame consisting of picture is divided into 625 lines(525 line in American
system)

Trace is the process of scanning one line in a frame or one frame. Horizontal trace corresponds
to scanning of one line. Vertical trace corresponds to scanning of one frame(field) .

Retrace is the time during which electron beam returns to scan next line in a frame or next
frame.

Horizontal trace: Each left to right traverse of an electron beam along a line is considered as
horizontal trace or horizontal scanning. The time taken for horizontal trace is known as
horizontal trace time.

Horizontal retrace: After scanning one line from left to right, the electron beam should fly back
quickly to the left to scan the next line. During this period, electron beam should be made
invisible or blanked out. The time period during which electron beam fly back from the right to
the left of the frame is referred to as horizontal retrace

Vertical trace: Each top to bottom scanning of a frame e is considered as vertical trace or
vertical scanning. The time taken for one vertical scanning is known as vertical trace time.

Vertical retrace: After completion of vertical scanning once, the electron beam should quickly
fly back from bottom to the top of the frame (/field). During this period, electron beam should be
made invisible or blanked out. The time period during which electron beam fly back from the
bottom to the top of the frame is referred to as vertical retrace
Aspect ratio: The ratio of frame width to frame height is known as aspect ratio
For best viewing and panoramic effects, aspect ratio is 4:3.

Raster: The scene containing a set of 625 (525) parallel lines when picture is not there is known
as raster

Scanning: Scanning is the process in which the electron beam converts the optical image of the
picture to be transmitted into an electrical signal or vice versa.

There are two types of scanning viz

1)Progressive scanning 2)Interlaced scanning,
Progressive scanning: In this type, electron beam starts from the top left of the screen, scans the
first line from left to right. Then electron beam flies back to the left to scan the next line. During
this period, electron beam should be blanked. Also electron beam should fly back to the left
slightly below i.e, to the beginning of the next line. To achieve this necessary deflecting voltages
are used. Thus electron beam scans first line, then fly back to the left and scan the second line,
fly back to the left then scan third line. In this way all the 625 lines in one frame are scanned.
During the scanning process, intensity of electron beam changes according to the brightness
information of the picture elements.
After completing all 625 lines in one frame once, electron beam performs vertical retrace from
the bottom right of the frame to the top left and then again electron beam scans the lines. This
process is repeated 25 times in one second. During each vertical trace, screen becomes bright and
during each vertical retrace, screen becomes
dark. This alternate brightening and darkening
of the screen 25 times in one second causes
flickering effect which is annoying to the
viewer. To reduce flickering effect, interlaced
scanning is used.
In progressive scanning, 625× 25=15,625
lines are scanned in 1 second.
Line repetition frequency=15,625Hz
Since one frame is scanned 25 times in 1
second, frame repetition frequency =25Hz
Interlaced scanning:
In interlaced scanning, each frame consisting
of 625 lines is divided into 2 fields called odd
field and even field each consisting of 312.5 lines.
During scanning process, the electron beam scans the lines 1,3,5 and so on and thus scans 312.5
lines in odd field, then it flies back to the top middle of the screen, scans the half line there and
then lines in the even field(2,4,6,...)and thus scans the 312.5 even lines in the even field. After
completion of scanning of even field, the electron beam does vertical retrace from the bottom
right to the top left of the screen.

This process is repeated 25 times in one second. Thus 50 fields are scanned in one second. Since
the interleaved lines are scanned, this scanning is known as interlaced scanning.

The interlaced scanning can be

understood with the above
diagrams. Initially the electron
beam starts from point A and
scans the lines 1,3,5 and so on
and so up to 623 and then
scans the half line in the odd
field up to point B. After
completing 312.5 lines in odd
field, then it flies back to the
top middle of the screen (does
vertical retrace) to point C ,
scans the half line there and
then scans the lines in the even
field(2,4,6,...) till the point D.
Thus electron beam scans the
312.5 even lines in the even
field. After completion of scanning of even field, the electron beam does vertical retrace from the
bottom right(point D) to the top left(point A) of the screen.
This process is repeated 25 times in one second. If the frame is to be completely scanned once, 2
fields have to be scanned. Thus 50 fields are scanned in one second.

In interlaced scanning, the frame is divided into 2 fields and is scanned 25 times in one second
i.e, 50 fields are scanned in one second. Therefore alternate brightening and darkening of the
screen takes place 50 times in one second thereby decreasing the flickering effect.(In progressive
scanning, alternate brightening and darkening of the screen takes place 25 times in one second-so
flickering effect is more)
Note: Since the interleaved lines are scanned, this scanning is known as interlaced scanning.

In interlaced scanning, 312.5× 50=15625 lines are scanned in 1 second.

Line repetition frequency=15,625Hz
Since 50 fields are scanned in 1 second, field repetition frequency =50Hz
Frame repetition frequency=25Hz
Scanning voltage waveforms: To make the electron beam to move either horizontally or
vertically, electrostatic or electromagnetic deflection methods can be used. The electron beam
should move in such a way that

1) It sweeps across one horizontal line covering picture elements in that line

2) After scanning a line, electron beam should return quickly to the left to begin the next
horizontal line.

3) Vertical position of electron beam should be lowered so that electron beam scans the next line
but not the same line

4) Once the electron beam completes one vertical scanning, electron beam must be made to fly
back to the top left or top middle(depends on type of field scanned before doing vertical retrace)
to repeat the scanning process. Thus both horizontal and vertical deflecting voltages are required.
Both waveforms are Saw tooth waveform(or a sweep voltage).These voltages are produced using
horizontal and vertical deflecting coils respectively.

The horizontal sweep voltage must cause an electron beam to move from left to right.
Therefore it should be a linearly increasing voltage. After the completion of a line, this voltage
must be dropped to zero in minimum interval and this transition should be responsible for
bringing the electron beam to the left of the frame.

At the same time, the voltage developed in the vertical deflecting coil should cause the electron
bean move downwards so that next line is scanned. Therefore the vertical deflecting voltage
must be a linearly increasing voltage and then suddenly drop to zero when vertical retrace is
required. After vertical retrace electron beam reaches top left/middle of the screen.

Both horizontal and vertical deflecting voltage/current waveforms are Saw tooth waveform (or a
sweep voltage).They differs in trace –retrace time.

1
Since 15,625 lines are scanned in one second, time required to scan one line = 15625 sec=64
microsecond (64μs)
So, 64 microseconds is the period of the horizontal deflecting waveform. Out of this total period,
16% of it is taken as the retrace period.12 microsecond is the retrace time and 52 microseconds is
the trace time.

1
Since 50 fields are scanned in one second, time required to scan one field = 50 sec=20
millisecond. So20 millisecond is the period of the vertical deflecting waveform. Out of this total
period, 16% of it is taken as the retrace period.1.28millisecond is the retrace time and
18.72millisecond is the trace time.

The linear sweep voltage waveform may be obtained either through the linear rise of
current through an inductor or the linear rise in voltage across a capacitor. Once this capacitor is
partially charged it is suddenly discharged through a relatively low resistance to get the retrace
period.

Plumbicon camera tube: TV camera tube is a device which converts the optical image of the
scene to be televised into its electrical equivalent (It gives video signal output).
Plumbicon was developed by Philips of Holland. It is a small, light weight television
camera tube having fast response and produces high quality pictures. Plumbicon camera tube is
simple in construction.
The plumbicon tube consists of a target plate with photoconductive layer, a glass envelope, a fine
mesh screen, a pair of focusing, alignment, deflection coils and an electron gun
Target plate construction:

The inner surface of the glass face plate is coated with a thin transparent conductive layer of tin
oxide(SnO2) acting like N type semiconductor. This layer forms the signal plate. Then a
photoconductive layer of pure lead monoxide (PbO) is deposited on the scanning side of the
signal plate. Then there is another layer of lead monoxide which is doped with p type
semiconductor. Thus we see that a pure layer of PbO is sandwiched between strong N-type
semiconductor (SnO2) and a P-type semiconductor (P-doped PbO).Together these three layers
form a pin diode. (These layers are specially prepared to function as three sublayers. Each layer
has a different conduction mode)
Each picture element can be considered as a capacitor in series with a light controlled diode. In
the absence of light (picture information), there is little conduction (pin diode is reverse
biased).There will be few electron –hole pairs generated at normal temperature.
When the optical image of the object to be televised is focused on the target plate with the help
of the focusing lens and glass face plate, diode resistance falls due to generated electron –hole
pairs. Hence each point will have different resistance which is decided by the amount of light
intensity received by that picture element.
The resistance becomes minimum at a bright region and is maximum at a dark region.
The electron gun produces an electron beam which is focused on the signal plate by means of
focusing electrodes and focusing coils. Saw tooth currents are passed through deflection coils.
The electron beam scans the image on the target plate both horizontally as well as vertically. As
the electron beam scans these points having different resistance values, varying current flows
through the load resistor which is connected to the signal plate and hence varying voltage is
developed across the load resistor. This is the video signal output of the camera tube.
Advantages of plumbicon:
1. It is small in size.
2. It is simple in construction.
3. Output is almost proportional to the light input.
4. Dark current is extremely low.
5. Better sensitivity.
What is CCD camera and how does it work?

A CCD camera uses a small, rectangular piece of silicon to receive incoming light. This is a
special piece of silicon called a charge coupled device (CCD).This silicon wafer is a solid state
electronic component which has been micro-manufactured and segmented into an array of
individual light sensitive cells called ‘photosites’. Each photosite is one element of the whole
picture that is formed, thus it is called a picture element or a pixel. There may be tens of
thousands of pixels in the more common CCD’s used in the devices like camera devices.

When the light corresponding to the picture element falls on CCD photosite, they sense
the incoming light through photoelectric effect (It is a property of certain materials that they
release an electron when hit by a photon of light).The electrons emitted within the CCD remain
within the nonconductive boundaries i.e, they remain within the area of the photon strike. As
long as light is allowed to impinge on a photosite, electrons will accumulate in that pixel. When
the source of light is extinguished (shutter is closed), simple electronic circuitry or
microprocessor or computer are used to unload CCD array, count the electrons in each pixel and
process resulting data into an image on a video monitor or other output media.

Some characteristics of CCD’s:

1) As CCD’s are electronic components, they are sensitive to heat within the camera as well as
light from the object of interest

2) The individual photosites in the CCD array may vary significantly in their sensitivity to both
heat and light. The electrons generated due to heat need to be subtracted from the number of
electrons in each pixel so that a one gets the truer image. This is called ‘dark subtraction’. The
variance in electron depth across the CCD array due to inherent differences among the pixels
needs to be leveled by dividing each pixel value by the array’s average pixel value. This is called
‘flat fielding’