Sigma

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about uses of the Greek letter. For other uses, see Sigma
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Stigma.

Greek alphabet
Α Alpha Ν Nu
α ν

Β Beta Ξ Xi
β ξ

Γ Gamma Ο Omicron
γ ο

Δ Delta Π Pi
δ π

Ε Epsilon Ρ Rho
ε ρ

Ζ Zeta Σ Sigma
ζ σ
ς

Η Eta Ττ Tau
η

Θ Theta Υ Upsilon
θ υ

Ιι Iota Φ Phi
φ

Κ Kappa Χ Chi
κ χ
 Λ Lambda Ψ Psi
λ ψ

Μ Mu Ω Omega
μ ω

History

Archaic local variants

Ϝ Digamma Ͱ Het
ϝ ͱ a

Ϻ San Ϙ Kop
ϻ ϙ pa

Ͷ ● Tsan Ͳ Sa
ͷ ● Digam ͳ mpi
ma

Ϸ Sho
ϸ

Diacritics and other symbols

Diacritics

● ά
● ὰ
● ᾶ
● ἀ
● ἁ
● ᾱ
● ᾰ
● ϊ
● ᾳ
● σ̌

Ligatures

● ȢȢ
● Ϗϗ
● Ϛϛ
● ⳨
● ☧

Numerals (Attic)

● ϛ (6)
● ϟ (90)
● ϡ (900)

Related topics

● Use as scientific symbols

● Orthography
● Romanization
● Cyrillization

Category

● V
● T
● E
 The letter Sigma

[1]
Sigma (/ˈsɪɡmə/ SIG-mə; uppercase Σ, lowercase σ, lowercase in word-final
position ς; Ancient Greek: σίγμα) is the eighteenth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the
system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 200. In general mathematics, uppercase
Σ is used as an operator for summation. When used at the end of a letter-case word
(one that does not use all caps), the final form (ς) is used. In Ὀδυσσεύς (Odysseus),
for example, the two lowercase sigmas (σ) in the center of the name are distinct from
the word-final sigma (ς) at the end. The Latin letter S derives from sigma while the
Cyrillic letter Es derives from a lunate form of this letter.

History
The shape (Σς) and alphabetic position of sigma is derived from the Phoenician letter
(shin).

Sigma's original name may have been san, but due to the complicated early history
of the Greek epichoric alphabets, san came to be identified as a separate letter in
[2]
the Greek alphabet, represented as Ϻ. Herodotus reports that "san" was the name
[i][3]
given by the Dorians to the same letter called "sigma" by the Ionians.

[4]
According to one hypothesis, the name "sigma" may continue that of Phoenician
samekh ( ), the letter continued through Greek xi, represented as Ξ. Alternatively,
the name may have been a Greek innovation that simply meant 'hissing', from the
[2]
root of σίζω (sízō, from Proto-Greek *sig-jō 'I hiss').
Lunate sigma

The Madaba Map, a sixth-century mosaic of Jerusalem (Η ΑΓΙΑ ΠΟΛΙϹ) uses the lunate
sigma

A plaque reading "Metochion of Gethsemane" (Μετόχιον Γεθσημανῆς) in Jerusalem, with a

lunate sigma both at the end and in the middle of the word
In handwritten Greek during the Hellenistic period (4th–3rd century BC), the
[5]
epigraphic form of Σ was simplified into a C-like shape, which has also been found
[6]
on coins from the 4th century BC onward. This became the universal standard
form of sigma during late antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Today, it is known as lunate sigma (uppercase Ϲ, lowercase ϲ), because of its

crescent-like shape, and is still widely used in decorative typefaces in Greece,
especially in religious and church contexts, as well as in some modern print editions
of classical Greek texts.

A dotted lunate sigma (sigma periestigmenon, Ͼ) was used by Aristarchus of

Samothrace (220–143 BC) as an editorial sign indicating that the line marked as
such is at an incorrect position. Similarly, a reversed sigma (antisigma, Ͻ), may mark
a line that is out of place. A dotted antisigma (antisigma periestigmenon, Ͽ) may
indicate a line after which rearrangements should be made, or to variant readings of
uncertain priority.

In Greek inscriptions from the late first century BC onwards, Ͻ was an abbreviation
indicating that a man's father's name is the same as his own name, thus
Dionysodoros son of Dionysodoros would be written Διονυσόδωρος Ͻ
[7][8]
(Dionysodoros Dionysodorou).

In Unicode, the above variations of lunate sigma are encoded as U+03F9 Ϲ GREEK
CAPITAL LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL; U+03FD Ͻ GREEK CAPITAL REVERSED
LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL, U+03FE Ͼ GREEK CAPITAL DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA
SYMBOL, and U+03FF Ͽ GREEK CAPITAL REVERSED DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA
SYMBOL.

Derived alphabets

Sigma was adopted in the Old Italic alphabets beginning in the 8th century BC. At
that time a simplified three-stroke version, omitting the lowermost stroke, was
already found in Western Greek alphabets, and was incorporated into classical
Etruscan and Oscan, as well as in the earliest Latin epigraphy (early Latin S), such
as the Duenos inscription. The alternation between three and four (and occasionally
more than four) strokes was also adopted into the early runic alphabet (early form of
the s-rune). Both the Anglo-Saxon runes and the Younger Futhark consistently use
the simplified three-stroke version.

The letter С of Cyrillic script originates in the lunate form of Sigma.

Uses
Language and linguistics

● In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the sigma represents the voiceless
alveolar fricative [s]. In Modern Greek, this sound is voiced to the voiced
alveolar fricative [z] when occurring before [m], [n], [v], [ð], or [ɣ].
● The uppercase form of sigma (Σ) was re-borrowed into the Latin alphabet
—more precisely, the International African Alphabet—to serve as the
uppercase of modern esh (lowercase: ʃ).
● In phonology, σ is used to represent syllables.
● In linguistics, Σ represents the set of symbols that form an alphabet (see
also computer science).
● In historical linguistics, Σ is used to represent a Common Brittonic
[9]
consonant with a sound between [s] and [h]; perhaps an aspirated [ʃʰ].

Science and mathematics

Mathematics

● In general mathematics, lowercase σ is commonly used to represent

unknown angles, additionally serving as a shorthand for "countably",
[10]
whereas Σ is regularly used as the operator for summation, e.g.:

∑k=05k=0+1+2+3+4+5=15

● In mathematical logic,
● Σn0
● is used to denote the set of formulae with bounded quantifiers
beginning with existential quantifiers, alternating
● n−1
● times between existential and universal quantifiers. This notation
reflects an indirect analogy between the relationship of summation and
products on one hand, and existential and universal quantifiers on the
other. See the article on the arithmetic hierarchy.
● In statistics, σ represents the standard deviation of population or
[10]
probability distribution (where mu or μ is used for the mean).
● In topology, σ-compact topological space is one that can be written as a
[11]
countable union of compact subsets.
 ● In mathematical analysis and in probability theory, there is a type of
algebra of sets known as σ-algebra (aka σ-field). Sigma algebra also
includes terms such as:
● σ(A), denoting the generated sigma-algebra of a set A
● Σ-finite measure (see measure theory)
● In number theory, σ is included in various divisor functions, especially the
sigma function or sum-of-divisors function.
● In applied mathematics, σ(T) denotes the spectrum of a linear map T.
[12]
● In complex analysis, σ is used in the Weierstrass sigma-function.
● In probability theory and statistics, Σ denotes the covariance matrix of a
set of random variables, sometimes in the form
● |Σ
● to distinguish it from the summation operator.
● Theoretical spectral analysis uses σ as standard deviation opposed to
lowercase mu as the absolute mean value.

Biology, physiology, and medicine

● In biology, the sigma receptor (σ–receptors) is a type of cell surface

receptor.
● In biochemistry, the σ factor (or specificity factor) is a protein found in
RNA polymerase.
● In bone physiology, the bone remodeling period—i.e., the life span of a
basic multicellular unit—has historically been referred to as the sigma
period.
● In early 20th-century physiology literature, σ had been used to represent
[13]
milliseconds.

Business, finance, and economics

● In finance, σ is the symbol used to represent volatility of stocks, usually

measured by the standard deviation of logarithmic returns.
● In accounting, Σ indicates the balance of invoice classes and the overall
amount of debts and demands.
● In macroeconomics, σ is used in equations to represent the elasticity of
substitution between two inputs.
● In the machine industry, Six Sigma (6σ) is a quality model based on the
standard deviation.

Chemistry

● Sigma bonds (σ bonds) are the strongest type of covalent chemical bond.
● In organic chemistry, σ symbolizes the sigma constant of Hammett
[14]
equation.
● In alchemy, Σ was sometimes used to represent sugar.
Engineering and computer science

● In computer science, Σ represents the set of symbols that form an

alphabet (see also linguistics)
● Relational algebra uses the values
● σaθb(R)
● and
● σaθv(R)
● to denote selections, which are a type of unary operation.
● In machine learning, σ is used in the formula that derives the Sigmoid
function.
● In radar jamming or electronic warfare, radar cross-sections (RCS) are
commonly represented as σ when measuring the size of a target's image
on radar.
● In signal processing, σ denotes the damping ratio of a system parameter.
● In theoretical computer science, Σ serves as the busy beaver function.
● In civil engineering, σ refers to the normal stress applied on a material or
structure.

Physics

● In nuclear and particle physics, σ is used to denote cross sections in

general (see also RCS), while Σ represents macroscopic cross sections
[1/length].
[15]
● The symbol is to denote the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
● In relation to fundamental properties of material, σ is often used to signify
electrical conductivity.
● In electrostatics, σ represents surface charge density.
[16]
● In continuum mechanics, σ is used to signify normal stress.
● In condensed matter physics, Σ denotes self-energy.
● The symbol can be used to signify surface tension (alternatively, γ or T are
also used instead).
● In quantum mechanics, σ is used to indicate Pauli matrices.
● In astronomy, σ represents velocity dispersion.
● In astronomy, the prefix Σ is used to designate double stars of the
Catalogus Novus Stellarum Duplicium by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von
Struve.
● In particle physics, Σ represents a class of baryons.

Organizations

● During the 1930s, an uppercase Σ was in use as the symbol of the Ação
Integralista Brasileira, a fascist political party in Brazil.
 ● Sigma Corporation uses the name of the letter but not the letter itself, but
in many Internet forums, photographers refer to the company or its lenses
using the letter.
● Sigma Aldrich incorporate both the name and the character in their logo.

Unicode
● U+037B ͻ GREEK SMALL REVERSED LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+037C ͼ GREEK SMALL DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+037D ͽ GREEK SMALL REVERSED DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA
SYMBOL
● U+03A3 Σ GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA (Σ)
● U+03C2 ς GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA (ς,
ς, ς)
● U+03C3 σ GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA (σ)
● U+03F2 ϲ GREEK LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+03F9 Ϲ GREEK CAPITAL LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+03FD Ͻ GREEK CAPITAL REVERSED LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+03FE Ͼ GREEK CAPITAL DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA SYMBOL
● U+03FF Ͽ GREEK CAPITAL REVERSED DOTTED LUNATE SIGMA
SYMBOL
● U+2140 ⅀ DOUBLE-STRUCK N-ARY SUMMATION

U+23B2 ⎲ SUMMATION TOP

● U+2211 ∑ N-ARY SUMMATION (∑, ∑)

U+23B3 ⎳ SUMMATION BOTTOM

[a]
●
●
● U+2CA4 Ⲥ COPTIC CAPITAL LETTER SIMA
● U+2CA5 ⲥ COPTIC SMALL LETTER SIMA

U+1D6BA 𝚺 MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA

● U+2CEA ⳪ COPTIC SYMBOL SHIMA SIMA

U+1D6D3 𝛓 MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA

[b]
●

U+1D6D4 𝛔 MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL SIGMA

●

U+1D6F4 𝛴 MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA

●

U+1D70D 𝜍 MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA

●

U+1D70E 𝜎 MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL SIGMA

●

U+1D72E 𝜮 MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA

●

U+1D747 𝝇 MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA

●

U+1D748 𝝈 MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL SIGMA

●
●
● U+1D768 𝝨 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA
● U+1D781 𝞁 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA
 ● U+1D782 𝞂 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL SIGMA
● U+1D7A2 𝞢 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL
SIGMA
● U+1D7BB 𝞻 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL
SIGMA
● U+1D7BC 𝞼 MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL
SIGMA
● ^ Combined with U+23B3 to make a double-high sigma
● ^ The MATHEMATICAL characters should only be used for math. Stylized
Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup
and formatting to indicate text style.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to the letter sigma.

Look up Σ, σ, or ς in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

● Antisigma
● Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
● Sampi
● Sho (letter)
● Stigma (letter)
● Sibilant consonant
● Summation (Σ)
● Combining form "sigm-" (e.g. sigmodon, sigmurethra, etc.)
● Derivative "sigmoid" (e.g. sigmoid sinus, sigmoid colon, sigmoidoscopy,
etc.)

References
Notes

● ^ "the same letter, which the Dorians call "san", but the Ionians 'sigma'..."
[translated from Ancient Greek: "τὠυτὸ γράμμα, τὸ Δωριέες μὲν σὰν
καλέουσι ,Ἴωνες δὲ σίγμα"] (Herodotus 1.139)
Citations

● ^ "sigma". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.

(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
● ^
● Jump up to:
ab
● Woodard, Roger D. (2006). "Alphabet". In Wilson, Nigel Guy (ed.).
Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. London: Routledge. p. 38.
● ^ Herodotus, Histories 1.139 — Everson, Michael and Nicholas Sims-
Williams. 2002. "Non-Attic letters," transcribed by N. Nicholas. Archived from
the original 2020-06-28.
● ^ Jeffery, Lilian H. (1961). The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece. Oxford:
Clarendon. pp. 25–7.
● ^ Thompson, Edward M. (1912). Introduction to Greek and Latin
Paleography. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 108, 144.
● ^ Hopkins, Edward C. D. (2004). "Letterform Usage | Numismatica Font
Projects" Parthia.
● ^ de Lisle, Christopher (2020). "Attic Inscriptions in UK Collections:
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford". AIUK. 11: 11. ISSN 2054-6769. Retrieved 2
June 2022.
● ^ Follet, Simone (2000). "Les deux archontes Pamménès du Ier siècle a.c. à
Athènes". Revue des Études Grecques. 113: 188–192.
doi:10.3406/reg.2000.4402.
● ^ Conroy, Kevin M. (21 February 2008). "Celtic initial consonant mutations -
nghath and bhfuil?" – via dlib.bc.edu.
● ^
● Jump up to:
ab
● Weisstein, Eric W. "Sigma". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-
25.
● ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Sigma-Compact Topological Space".
mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2025-01-25.
● ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Weierstrass Sigma Function". mathworld.wolfram.com.
Retrieved 2025-01-25.
● ^ Hill, A. V. (1935). "Units and Symbols". Nature. 136 (3432): 222.
Bibcode:1935Natur.136..222H. doi:10.1038/136222a0. S2CID 4087300.
● ^ Chemistry (IUPAC), The International Union of Pure and Applied. "IUPAC -
σ-constant (C05438)". goldbook.iupac.org. Retrieved 2025-01-25.
● ^ "CODATA Value: Stefan-Boltzmann constant". physics.nist.gov. Retrieved
2025-01-25.
● ^ Elert, Glenn (2023), "Special Symbols", The Physics Hypertextbook,
hypertextbook, retrieved 2025-02-01, σ normal stress

Categories:

Greek letters
Letters with final form
This page was last edited on 28 February 2025, at 04:23 (UTC).

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