Math 061

CALCULUS II

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 Mathematics Department
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University
Marawi City

Math 061
Course Worktext Outline

Course Title: Calculus II

Course Description: This is the second of the three 5-unit calculus course series. It covers
techniques of integration, parametric equations and polar coordinates, cylindrical surfaces,
surfaces of revolution, and quadric surfaces; vectors and vector-valued functions; functions
of several variables, limits and continuity of functions of several variables; partial derivatives
and the total differential; directional derivatives; relative and absolute extrema of functions
of several variables.

Course Outcome: At the end of this course, the students should be able to:
1. Evaluate integrals using the basic techniques of integration.
2. Evaluate improper integrals.
3. Sketch graphs of functions in polar coordinates.
4. Identify and sketch graphs in space of line, planes, cylindrical surfaces, surfaces of
revolution and quadric surfaces.
5. Use calculus of vector-valued functions to analyse motion in space.
6. Evaluate limits and analyse the continuity of functions of several variables.
7. Find partial derivatives and directional derivatives of functions of several
variables.
8. Solve problems involving the total differential.
9. Find relative and absolute extrema of functions of several variables.
10. Apply Lagrange Multipliers Method on constraines optimization problems.

Course Scope and Outline:

I. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION AND IMPROPER INTEGRAL

1.1 Integration by Substitution (Plain Substitution)

1.2 Integration of Trigonometric Expressions
1.3 Integration of Hyperbolic Expressions
1.4 Integration by Parts
1.5 Trigonometric Substitution
1.6 Integrals Involving Quadratic Functions
1.7 Integration of Rational Functions. Method of Partial Fractions
1.8 Two Rationalizing Substitutions
1.9 Improper Integrals
o Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration
o Other Improper Integrals

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II. PARAMETRIC CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

2.1 Parametric Equations. Parametric Equations of the Line

2.2 Derivatives and Parametric Equations
2.3 Arclength
2.4 Curvature
2.5 Polar Coordinates. Graphs in Polar Coordinates
2.6 Area in Polar Coordinates
2.7 Derivatives in Polar Coordinates. Arclength in Polar Coordinates
2.8 Equations and Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

III. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS

3.1 The Number Space . Distance Formula

3.2 Direction Cosines and Numbers
3.3 Equations of Lines and Planes in
3.4 Angles. Distance from a Point to a Plane
3.5 The Sphere. Cylinders. Quadratic (or Quadric) Surfaces

IV. VECTORS IN THE PLANE ( ) AND IN THREE-SPACE ( )

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Angle Between Two Vectors
4.3 The Scalar (Inner or Dot) Product
4.4 The Cross Product

V. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES IN THE PLANE ( ) AND IN THREE-

SPACE ( )

5.1 Introduction. Limit and Continuity of Vector-Valued Functions

5.2 Derivative of Vector-Valued Functions
5.3 Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative of Vector-Valued Function
5.4 Arclength in Parametric Equations of a Curve in
5.5 Motion in Space: Velocity, Speed and Acceleration
5.6 The Moving Trihedral. Normal and Tangential Components of Acceleration

VI. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

6.1 Introduction to Functions of Several Variable. Level Curves. Level Surfaces

6.2 Limits and Continuity of Functions in Two Variables. Geometric Interpretation
of Limit of a Function in Two Variables
6.3 Partial Derivatives
6.4 Implicit Differentiation
6.5 The Chain Rule for Partial Derivatives
6.6 Applications of the Chain Rule
6.7 Directional Derivatives. Gradient
6.8 Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives. Tangent Planes
 The Equation of the Tangent Plane at a Point on the Surface

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  The Equations of the Normal Line at a Point on the Surface
 The Tangent Line to the Curve of Intersection of Two Surfaces

6.9 The Total Differential. Approximation

6.10 Applications of the Total Differential
6.11 Second and Higher Order Derivatives
6.12 Maxima and Minima
6.13Maxima and Minima. Lagrange Multipliers

APPENDIX SOME PRE-MATH 061 TOPICS

A.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

o Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
o Logarithmic Differentiation
o Integrals of Exponential Functions
o Integrals Yielding Logarithmic Functions

A.2 Hyperbolic Functions

o Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions
o Some Hyperbolic Identities
o Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
o Integrals Yielding Hyperbolic Functions

A.3 Summary of Differentiation and Integration Formulas

References: 1. The Calculus 7 by Louis Leithold

2. College Calculus with Analytic Geometry by Protter and Morrey
3. Calculus 5th edition by James Stewart

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 CHAPTER 1

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION AND IMPROPER INTEGRALS

The following formulas for integration are the only ones that will accepted to be used
in evaluating integrals in Math 061. Other formulas from books can be derived by techniques
of integration.

Integration Formulas: ( )

1. ∫ 3. ∫
2. ∫ | | 4. ∫

5. ∫ ∫

6. ∫ ∫

7. ∫ ∫

8. ∫ ∫

9. ∫ ∫

10. ∫ ∫

11. ∫ | | ∫ | |

12. ∫ | | ∫ | |

13. ∫ | |

14. ∫ | |

15. ∫
√

16. ∫

17. ∫
√

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Section 1.1 Integration by Substitution (Plain Substitution)

To evaluate the integral ∫ ( ) , consider a function ( ) so that this integral

can be written as ∫ ( ) which is in the list of “integration formulas”. Then, if
∫ ( ) ( ) we have ∫ ( ) ( ( )) .

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

√
1. ∫ 8. ∫ 15. ∫ 22.∫
√ √ √

2. ∫ 9. ∫ 16. ∫ 23. ∫
√ √
3. ∫ ( ) 10. ∫ 17. ∫ 24. ∫
( ) √
√
4. ∫ ,
11. ∫ 18. ∫ 25. ∫
( ) - √

5. ∫ 12.∫ 19. ∫ 26. ∫ dx

√
√
6. ∫ 13. ∫ 20. ∫ 27. ∫
√( ) √ √
( )
7. ∫ 14. ∫ 21. ∫ 28. ∫

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Section 1.2 Integrations of Trigonometric Expressions

3 Types:
Type A: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining sines in terms of cosines using
. Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining cosines in terms of sines using
. Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m and n are even positive integers

Reduce the degree of the expression by using the half-angle and/or double-angle
formulas:

, and .

Type B: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining tangents in terms of
secants using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an even, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining secants in terms of tangents
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m is even and n is odd, positive integers

Can be solved using integration by parts.

Type C: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining cotangents in terms of
cosecants using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an even, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining cosecants in terms of
cotangents using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m is even and n is odd, positive integers

Can be solved using integration by parts.

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Section 1.3 Integrations of Hyperbolic Expressions

3 Types:
Type A: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m and n are even positive integers

Reduce the degree of the expression by using the half-angle and/or double-angle
formulas:

, and .

Type B: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an even, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m is even and n is odd, positive integers

Can be solved using integration by parts.

Type C: ∫

Case 1: m is an odd, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 2: n is an even, positive integer

Factor out and express the remaining in terms of
using . Change the integrand to powers of by letting

Case 3: m is even and n is odd, positive integers

Can be solved using integration by parts.

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Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.
1. ∫ ( ) ( ) 7. ∫ √ ( ) ( )
( )
2. ∫ ( ) ( ) 8. ∫
√ ( )
3. ∫ ( ) ( ) 9. ∫ ( )
(√ ) (√ )
4. ∫ ( ) 10. ∫
(√ )
5. ∫ ( ) ( ) 11. ∫ ( ) ( )

(√ ) (√ ) √
6. ∫ ) 12. ∫
√ √ √

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Section 1.4 Integration by Parts

The formula for the differential of a product is

( ) .
By integrating both sides, we obtain

∫ ∫ .

Then, the following is the formula for integration by parts,

∫ ∫ .

Thus, the process involves splitting the integrand into two parts, where ∫ is hoped
to be a simpler integral.

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

1. ∫ 6. ∫( )
2. ∫ 7. ∫
3. ∫ 8. ∫
4. ∫ 9. ∫
5. ∫ 10. ∫

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Section 1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

-The integrand contains any of the following: √ ; √ ; √

-In performing the substitution, sketch a right triangle which contains all the essential
ingredients of the process.

Case 1: Integrands containing √ : Let This gives and

√ .

Case 2: Integrands containing √ : Let This gives and

√ . √

Case 3: Integrands containing √ : Let This gives and

√ .
√

Summary: The integrand contains Trigonometric Substituttion

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

√ √
1. ∫ √ 3. ∫ 5. ∫ 7. ∫
√

√
2. ∫ 4. ∫ √ 6. ∫ 8. ∫
( ) √
( )

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Section 1.6 Integrals Involving Quadratic Function

Complete the square of the quadratic function and introduce a change of

variable, say where .

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

√
1. ∫ 4. ∫ 7. ∫ 10. ∫
√ √ ( )

2. ∫ 5. ∫ 8. ∫ 11. ∫
√ ( ) ( )√

3. ∫ 6. ∫ 9. ∫ 12. ∫
√ ( )√

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Section 1.7 Integration of Rational Functions (Quotients of Polynomials)

( )
Form of the integrand: , where ( ) ( )are polynomials and ( )
( )

( )
3 Steps in Evaluating the Integral: ∫ ( )

Step 1: If the degree of ( ) degree of ( ), perform a long division, thus expressing the
given rational function as a polynomial plus a “proper fraction” (remainder divided by the
divisor ( )).

Step 2: Factor ( ) into a product of powers of distinct linear and (irreducible) quadratic factors.

Theorem: Every polynomial can be decomposed into a product of powers of distinct linear and
quadratic factors in the field of real numbers.

Step 3: Write the proper fraction as a sum of simpler “proper partial fractions”. (This is
possible and it is known as the Method of Partial Fractions.) Each of the terms in this sum
of proper partial fractions can be integrated by the previous techniques of integration.

For each linear factor ( ) allow the terms

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

in the partial fraction decomposition, and for each quadratic factor ( ) allow the
terms

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

in the partial fraction decomposition, where , and are properly chosen

constants. Solve for these unknown constants.

Examples: Decompose the given proper fraction into sum of simpler proper partial fractions. Do not
attempt to solve the unknown constants.

–
1. ( )( )
2. ( )( )
3. ( )( ) ( )

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

1. ∫ 6. ∫

2. ∫ 7. ∫
( )( )

3. ∫ 8. ∫

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4. ∫ 9. ∫
( )

5. ∫ ( ) ( )

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Section 1.8 Two Rationalizing Substitutions

Case 1: Whenever an integrand contains a single irrational expression of the form ( ) where
p and q are integers, the substitution
( )
will convert the given integrand into a rational function of u.

Case 2. If a single irrational expression of one of the forms √ √ √

appears in the integrand, and if (where q is an integer) also appears in the integrand, then
the substitution
( ) ( ) ( )
will convert the given integrand into a rational function of u.

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals.

1. ∫( )√ 8. ∫
( )

2. ∫ 9. ∫
( ) √

√ √
3. ∫ 10. ∫
( )

√
4. ∫ 11. ∫
√ √

5. ∫ √ 12. ∫
( )

√
6. ∫ 13. ∫
√ √

7. ∫ 14. ∫
√ √

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Section 1.9 Improper Integrals

Recall: The definite integral ∫ ( ) can be evaluated directly with the following conditions:
(i) The limits of integration, i.e. a and b, are finite numbers.
(ii) The integrand ( ) is continuous throughout the closed interval , -

If ( ) for all , - then ∫ ( ) is the area of the region under the curve ( ),
above the and bounded by the lines (refer to the figure below).

( )

∫ ( )

If either of the two conditions (i) or (ii) fails, i. e.

I. Either or both limits of integration are infinite.
II. The integrand ( ) is discontinuous at some point on the closed interval , -
then the integral ∫ ( ) is called an IMPROPER INTEGRAL.

TYPES OF IMPROPER INTEGRALS

Type I: Infinite Limits of Integration
∫ ( ) ; ∫ ( ) ;∫ ( )

Definition. If are fixed numbers and if ( ) is continuous on any domain involved for the
variable x, then
(a) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

(b) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

(c) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

Type II: Integrals with Discontinuous Integrand at Some Point(s) on , -

Case 1. If ( ) is continuous for but discontinuous (or undefined) for , then

∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) .

Case 2. If ( ) is continuous for but discontinuous (or undefined) for , then

∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) .

Case 3. If ( ) is discontinuous (or undefined) for , where , and continuous for

all other in , -, then

∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( )

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Remark: If the limit exists, the improper integral is said to be CONVERGENT to the value given by the
above limit and if one of the limits fails to exist, the improper integral is called DIVERGENT and the
integral is not defined.

Examples: Evaluate each of the following integrals. Whenever appropriate, justify why the given
integral is improper and determine its convergence.

1. ∫ 7. ∫ 13. ∫
√

2. ∫ 8. ∫ 14. ∫
√ √

3. ∫ 9. ∫ 15. ∫ ( )

4. ∫ 10 . ∫ 16. ∫
√
( )

5. ∫ 11. ∫ 17. ∫
√

√
6. ∫ 12. ∫ 18. ∫
√ √

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 CHAPTER 2
PARAMETRIC CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

Section 2.1 Parametric Equations. Parametric Equations of the Line

If, in the Cartesian equation of the curve, and are expressed in terms of a third variable in
such a way that the given relation (equation) between and holds, the third variable is called a
parameter, and the equations defining and in terms of the third variable are called the
parametric equations of the curve.

Examples: (1)

(2)

Definition: A plane curve is a set of points ( ) whose coordinates are given by the parametric
equations
( ) ( )

with parameter in an interval where are continuous on .

Examples:
A. Sketch the graph of the curve with the following parametric equations

B. Eliminate the parameter and identify the graph of the given set of parametric equations.
(1) (4)

(2) (5)

(3) (6)

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Theorem: The set of parametric equations where are not both
zero has a straight line as its graph in the xy-plane. This line passes through the point
( ) If then has slope . If , is vertical.

Remark: The converse of the theorem is also true.

Converse of the Theorem: If a line is given by an equation of the form ( ) or if

the line is vertical, then is represented parametrically by the equations .

Remark: If is any number different from zero, the equations

represents the same line as equations .

Remark: could be chosen so that the parametric equations of the line have the form

( ) ( )

, if
√

Remark: Once are given, the selection of is , if

√

{ , if

Then and

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Parametric Equations of the Line in Standard Form:
FORM 1:

FORM 2: ( ) ( )

Examples: Find the set of parametric equations of the line in standard form with the given
conditions.
1. passing through the points ( ) ( )
2. passing through the point ( ) and parallel to the line
3. passing through the point of intersection of the lines
and perpendicular to the line

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Section 2.2 DERIVATIVES AND PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

The first and second derivatives of functions in one variable (or two variables) can be used as
aids to graphing of these functions. Such aids can also be used with parametric equations, even if the
parameter cannot be eliminated.
Suppose the equations
( ) ( )
represent a relation in the . Then:

First Derivative:

. /
Second Derivative:

( )
Third Derivative:

( )
Derivative:

Examples:
1. Find for
2. Find the first and second derivative of
()
( )
3. Find the equations of the lines tangent and normal to the given curve at the point
corresponding to the given value of the parameter .
() at .
( )
4. Given the curve Find and plot the graph.

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Section 2.3 ARCLENGTH

Arclength considers only curves (graphs of functions) that are smooth curves.

A graph of a function on a given interval is an arc if the function is continuous on that interval. If
the derivative of this function exists at any point on this interval, such function is called a smooth
function and the corresponding curve is called a smooth curve. Therefore, arclength (the length of an
arc) is defined only for graphs of smooth functions or smooth curves.

Definitions: (1) A locus (or graph) given by a function

( )

is an arc if is continuous on the given interval.

(2) A locus (or graph) given by a function

( )

is an arc if is continuous on the given interval.

(3) A locus (or graph) given by a set of parametric equations

( ) ( )

is an arc if:
(i) are continuous functions on the given interval, and
(ii) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).

Remark: Condition (ii) means that an arc has no loops.

Recall: The 3 steps in the application of the integral.

Step 1.Partition , - into n sub-intervals. Note that the length of the longest
interval in the partition is called “norm of subdivision” denoted by ‖ ‖.

Step 2. “Approximate” the quantity being asked. Use a known formula of such
quantity applied on each of the intervals in the partition. Add these
quantities.

Step 3.Take the limit of the sum as‖ ‖ This is the exact value of the
quantity being asked.

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PROBLEM: Find the length s of an arc *( ) ( ) + where f has a continuous
derivative on , -.

Solution:

23
Definitions:

(1) Let ( ) be a smooth function of on , -. The arclength of the graph of from

is given by
∫ √ , ( )- .

(2) Let ( ) be a smooth function of on , -. The arclength of the graph of from

is given by
∫ √ , ( )- .

(3) Suppose that an arc is given by (in parametric form)

( ) ( )
The arclength of the arc is given by

∫ √, ( )- , ( )- .

Remarks: (1) An arc that has a length is called rectifiable.

(2) Since ∫ √, ( )- , ( )- , we have

√, ( )- , ( )-

√0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 1

( ) ( ) ( ) .

Thus,

and .

Examples: (1) Find the length of the arc defined by the equation
(a) from ( ) to ( )
(b) from .

(2) Find the length of the arc given by

(a)

(b) {( ) √ √ }.
(c)
(d)

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(e) {( ) √ }
⁄
⁄
(f) {( ) . / }
⁄
(g)

25
Section 2.4 CURVATURE

Curvature is a measure of the rate at which a curve changes direction.

Definition: The curvature of an arc given in the form ( ) is the rate of change of the angle
with respect to the arclength . That is
.
Theorems:
(1) For an arc of the form ( ), for which ( ) exists, the curvature is given by
( )
.
* , ( )- +

(2) For an arc of the form ( ), for which ( ) exists, the curvature is given by
( )
* , ( )- +

(3) For an arc of the form ( ) ( ) has a curvature given by

( ) () - ( ) ( )
.
*, ( )- , ( )- +

Remark: If is increasing,

If is decreasing,

Example: Find the curvature of a circle .

26
Definitions:
1. The radius of curvature of an arc at a point is defined as the reciprocal of the absolute value
of curvature at that point; that is,
.
| |

2. The circle of curvature of an arc at a point is that circle passing through which has radius
equal to , the radius of curvature, and whose center lies on the concave side of the curve
along the normal line through .

Examples:
1. Find the curvature and the radius of curvature of the following curves.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

2. Find the curvature and the radius of curvature of the curve . Find also the
equation of the circle of curvature at the point (1,1).

3. Find the curvature and the radius of curvature of the curve . Find also the
equation of the circle of curvature at the point where .

4. Find the curvature and the radius of curvature of the curve . Find also the
equation of the circle of curvature at the point where .

27
Section 2.5 POLAR COORDINATES. GRAPHS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Cartesian Coordinates: Polar Coordinates:

Cartesian Coordinates System: Polar Coordinates System:

( ) ( )

O O polar axis
(origin) (pole/origin)

-The representation of a point in Cartesian -The representation of a point in Polar

Coordinates is unique. Coordinates is not unique.

Example:
. / . / . / . /
. /

Recall:

Convention: Furthermore, it is convenient to allow the distance of the point from the origin, to
take on negative values.

( )

( )

28
Example: Plot each of the following points whose polar coordinates are:
. / . / . / . /

Relationship Between Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

( )
( ) Transformation of Coordinates:

Examples: 1. Find the rectangular form of the point, given in polar coordinates, . /.
2. Give at least 3 polar forms of the point, given in Cartesian coordinates, ( √ )

Solution:

29
GRAPHS IN POLAR COORDINATES
The graph of a polar equation ( ) , is the set of points with at least one pair of
coordinates ( ) that satisfies the equation.

Test for Symmetry:

The graph of a polar equation ( ) is symmetric w.r.t.

() if substitution of for (i.e. replacing by ) leads to an equivalent

equation.

( ) if substitution of for (i.e. replacing by ) leads to an equivalent

equation.

( ) if substitution of for (i.e. replacing by ) leads to an equivalent

equation or if substitution of for (i.e. replacing by ) leads to an
equivalent equation.

30
Graphs in Polar Coordinates:

1. ROSES or CIRCLES

Case I. The graphs are called roses or petal curves. If n is odd, then the number of petals
is n. If n is even, then the number of petals is 2n.

Case II. . The graphs are circles passing through the origin with diameter | | and center
on the and respectively.

2. CARDIOIDS & LIMACONS

Case I. | | | |. The graph is a cardioid (heart-shaped). This graph passes thru the origin.

Case II. | | | |. The graph is a limacon.

(i) | | | |. The graph of a limacon is similar to a cardioid but it does not pass
thru the origin.

(ii) | | | |. The limacon has an interior loop and it passes thru the origin.

31
 3. LEMNISCATE

The lemniscates have the appearance of “figure eights”.

4. SPIRALS

- The graph is called Spiral of Archimedes and it passes the origin.

- The graph is called Logarithmic

Spiral and it does not pass the
origin.

Examples: Test for symmetry and sketch the graph of each of the following equations.

1. 8. ( ) 15.
2. 9. ( ) 16.
3. 10. 17.
4. 11. 18.
5. 12. 19.
6. 13. 20.
7. ( ) 14. 21.

32
Section 2.6 AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES

Theorem: Let be a continuous, nonnegative function with domain containing , -, where

. Then the area of the region bounded by the lines and
the curve ( ) is given by
∫ , ( )- .

33
Examples:
1. Find the area of the region that is bounded by the spiral of Archimedes for
between .
2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve .
3. Compute the area of the region that is inside the small loop of the limacon .
4. Find the area of the region that is
(a) inside and outside .
(b) both inside and .
(c) outside and inside .
5. Find the area of the region that is inside and outside .
6. Find the area of the region common to the circles and .
7. Find the area of the region that is
(a) both inside .
(b) inside .
(c) outside .
8. Find the area of the region that is both inside .

34
Section 2.7 DERIVATIVES IN POLAR COORDINATES

Slope of a Line Tangent to a Polar Curve

In Cartesian coordinates, the derivative ( ) of the function ( ) gives the slope of
the tangent line at any point on the curve. But the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a polar
equation ( ) is not the derivative ( ) , it is still .

( ) - is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function ( ).

( ) - is not the slope of the line tangent to the graph of thepolarequation ( ), it is

still .

Example: – Spiral of Archimedes

is not the slope of the tangent line at any point on the graph of

Theorem: Given an equation ( ) in polar coordinates. If is differentiable, then the slope

of the line tangent to the graph of ( ) at ( ) is given by

Proof:

35
Remark: The slope is not a particularly convenient quantity in polar coordinates, but the angle
between the tangent line and the line from passing through the pole turns out to be
convenient.

( )

( )
( )

( )
( )

That is, the derivative ( )at a point on the graph of

( )is related tothe angle that the tangent line forms
with the line through and the pole.

Examples: 1. Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .

2. Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .
3. Given:
Find: (a) The slope of the line tangent to the given curve at .
(b) The equation of the line tangent to the curve at .
(c) The angle between the tangent line and the line from the pole thru the point of
tangency at .

36
Section 2.8 ARCLENGTH IN POLAR COORDINATES

Theorem: Let ( ) describe an arc in polar coordinates. If has a continuous first

derivative, then the arclength is given by

∫ √. /

Examples:
1. Find the length of the arc given by .
2. Find the length of the arc ( )

37
Section 2.9 EQUATIONS AND CONIC SECTIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Equations of some curves maybe simpler in appearance, or their properties maybe more
transparent in one coordinate system than in another. Thus, it is useful to be able to transform an
equation given in one coordinate system into its corresponding equation in another system.

Transformation of Equation:
I. From Cartesian to Polar: ( ) ( )

Use:

II. From Polar to Cartesian: ( ) ( )

Use:
√ √

Examples:
A. Find the Cartesian equation that has the same graph as the given polar equation.
1. 2. 3. 4.
B. Find the polar equation that has the same graph as the given Cartesian equation.
1. 2.

38
STRAIGHT LINES, CIRCLES AND CONICS

STRAIGHT LINES
In Cartesian coordinates, every straight line has an equation of the form
To obtain the equation of this straight line in polar coordinates, we can simply substitute
However, we can find the desired equation directly. Consider the following:

Problem: Given a line which is units from the pole and its perpendicular line thru the pole has an
angle with the polar axis. What is the equation of in polar coordinates?

Solution: Let ( ) be any point on the line . Then (from the figure below),

Therefore, ( ) is the desired equation.

Theorem: Any linear equation maybe put in normal form .

Remark: In Cartesian form of a line, whenever the coefficients of are the cosine and sine of
an angle, respectively, the constant term gives the distance of the line from the pole (origin).

Steps in Normalizing
1. Write the constant to the right side of the equation.
2. Multiply both sides by . This gives the coefficients of the cosine and
√
sine of an angle, respectively.

Example: Find the distance of the given line from the pole by normalizing the equation.
1.
2.

39
Remark: A line thru the pole has , thus its polar form is

( )

CIRCLES
We consider a direct method for obtaining the equation of a circle in polar coordinates.

Problem: What is the polar equation of the circle with center ( ), in polar coordinates, and
radius ?
Solution:

( )

( )

The equation of the circle with

center ( )and radius

Remark: If the circle passes through the origin, so that then the equation of the circle is

( )

(i) If the center is on the y-axis, then the equation of the circle is .

(ii) If the center is on the x-axis, then the equation of the circle is .

40
Example: Find the equation of the circle in polar coordinates with the given conditions.
1. Center is . / radius is 3.
2. Center on negative of and radius 2.
3. Center on positive of and diameter 6.
4. Center on positive of and radius 4.
5. Center on negative of and diameter 3.

41
POLAR EQUATION OF CONICS
(Noncircular conics in Polar Forms: Parabola, Ellipse, Hyperbola)

Definition: A conic section is a set of points in the plane for which the ratio of the distance from a
fixed point to its distance from a fixed line is a constant.

 The fixed point is called FOCUS.

 The fixed line is called DIRECTRIX.
 The constant ratio is called ECCENTRICITY.

PROBLEM: Let ( )be a point on the conic with focus at the pole and directrix is units from
the pole and perpendicular to the polar axis. What is the equation of the conic?
Solution:

42
POLAR FORMS OF A CONIC:
I. The conic with focus at the pole and directrix is units from the pole and
perpendicular to the polar axis is given by

II. The conic with focus at the pole and directrix is units from the pole and
parallel to the polar axis is given by

Theorems:
1. A polar equation having one of the forms

or

is a conic section. The conic is

 a. ellipse, if ;
 b. parabola, if ;
 c. hyperbola, if

2. The equation is a conic with eccentricity , focus at the pole and directrix
( )
the line ( )

Examples:
1. Find the equation of the conic with focus at the origin, directrix the line and
eccentricity . Sketch the graph and label its properties.
2. Identify the conic of the given equation, discuss its properties and sketch its graph.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

43
 Chapter 3
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Section 3.1 The Number Space . Distance Formula

Functions of One Variable: ( )- can be represented by graphs which are curves in the plane (two dimensions).

Functions of Two Variables: ( )- can be represented by graphs which are surfaces in space (three dimensions).

The Number Space_ :

Number Line

Number Plane – a pair of two intersecting perpendicular lines

Number Space – a three intersecting mutually perpendicular lines

The Rectangular/Cartesian Coordinate System (of )

right-handed system left-handed system

Recall/Note:
 Any two points in the plane determine a straight line.
 Any two intersecting lines in space determine a plane.
 A plane containing two of the coordinate axes is called a coordinate plane.

 How to plot a point in ? - Draw a vertical line crossing the x-coordinate and to y-axis.

-Draw a horizontal line crossing the y-coordinate and to x-axis.

-The intersection of these two lines is the representation of the point.

44
  How to plot a point in ? -Draw a plane crossing the x-coordinate and to yz-plane.

-Draw a plane crossing the y-coordinate and to xz-plane.

-Draw a plane crossing the z-coordinate and to xy-plane.

-The intersection of these three planes is the representation of the point.

 Describe in ?
 In :

 In : .

 In :

 Describe in ?

 In :

 In :

 In :

 Describe in ?

 In :

 In :

 In :

45
Remark: Any two non-parallel planes intersect in a straight line.

Distance and Midpoint Formula Between Two Points:

In the Plane( ): The distance and the midpoint (̅ ̅), between the points ( ) ( ),
is the plane is given by:

√( ) ( ) (̅ ̅) ( )

In Space( ): The distance and the midpoint (̅ ̅ ̅), between the points
( ) ( ), in the space is given by:

√( ) ( ) ( ) (̅ ̅ ̅) ( )

Proof:

Examples:
1. Plot the following points in space .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle and state whether the triangle is a right
triangle, an isosceles triangle, or both.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle with vertices ( ) ( ) ( ).
4. A line segment has midpoint ( ). Given ( ) Find point .
5. One endpoint of a line segment is at ( ) and the midpoint lies in the plane . The
other endpoint , , lies on the intersection of the planes and Find the coordinates
of
6. Determine whether or not the given three points lie on a line.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
7. Find the equation of the graph of all points equidistant from the points ( ) ( )
Can you describe the graph?

46
Section 3.2 Direction Cosines and Numbers

Consider:
 Directed line ⃑ - a line passing thru the origin with an arrow to describe its
direction. If no arrow is placed, is called undirected.

 Direction Angles - denoted by which are made by the directed line ⃑ and the
positive directions of the , respectively.

 The undirected line will have two possible

sets of direction angles, namely:

and

Definition: If are direction angles of a directed line ⃑ , then are called

direction cosines.

 Since ( ) and if
are direction cosines of a directed line ⃑ ,
then
and
are the two sets of direction cosines of the
undirected line .

Theorem: Let be the direction cosines of any line . Then

.
Proof:

47
Definition: The direction cosines of any line in space has the same direction cosines of , a line
parallel to which passes thru the origin. (All parallel lines in space have the same direction cosines.)

Definition: Two sets of number triples and neither all zero, are said to be
proportional if there is a number such that

Definition: Suppose that a line has direction cosines Then a set of numbers is called
a set of direction numbers for if and are proportional.

Remark: A line has an unlimited sets of direction numbers.

Theorem: If ( ) ( ) are two points on a line , and is the distance from

, then

is a set of direction cosines of .

Corollary: If ( ) ( ) are two distinct points on a line , then

constitute a set of direction numbers for

48
Corollary: A line is parallel to a line , i.e. , if and only if a set of direction numbers of
is proportional to a set of direction numbers of .

Examples:
1. Find a set of direction numbers and a set of direction cosines for the line passing through
the points ( ) ( )
2. Do the three points ( ) ( ) and ( ) lie on the same straight line?
3. Find the coordinates of another point on a line determined by a given point and the
given set of direction numbers.
( )
( )

49
 Angle Between Two Lines

In , the angle between two intersecting lines is defined in the same way as the angle
between two lines in

______________ - any two lines in space ( ) that are neither parallel nor intersecting.

Angle Between :

Let be the line passing thru the origin and parallel to Let be the line passing thru
the origin and parallel to The angle between is defined to be the angle between the
intersecting lines .

Theorem: If have direction cosines and , respectively, and if is

the angle between , then

Corollary: Two lines with direction numbers and , respectively,

are perpendicular lines if and only if .

50
Examples:
1. Find the cosine of the angle between the line
( ) ( )
( ) ( ).

2. Determine whether or not the line thru the points is parallel or perpendicular to
the line thru the points .
a. ( ) ( ); ( ) ( )
b. ( ) ( ); ( ) ( )
c. ( ) ( ); ( ) ( )
d. ( √ ) ( √ ); ( √ ) ( √ )

3. Draw the indicated line.

a. Thru the origin, with direction numbers 2,5,4
b. Thru ( ), with direction numbers -1,-1,1

51
Section 3.3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES IN

Equation of a Line:
 In , the standard form of the equation of a line is given by , where

 In , represents a plane.
 (Note that a line is always determined by two points.)

Problem: Let ( ) ( ) be any two points on the line. What is the equation of
the line passing thru ( ) ( )?

Solution:

Theorem: The two-point form of the parametric equations of a line passing thru
( ) ( ) is given by

( )
{ ( ) .
( )

Definition: Given two points ( ) ( ), the point which is units of the way
from is the point ( ) whose coordinates are given by
( )
( ) .
( )

Example: Find the parametric equations of the line thru the points ( ) ( ) and
locate three additional points on this line.

Solution:

52
Theorem: The parametric equations of a line thru the point ( ) with direction numbers
are given by

{ .

Remark: If are direction cosines of a line passing thru the point

( ), the parametric equations of the line are

( )
{ ( ) .
( )

Example: Find the parametric equations of the line thru the point ( ) with direction
numbers . What is the relation of to the coordinate planes?

53
Consider:
1. If none of the direction nos. is zero, the parameter maybe eliminated and the equation of
the line becomes
.

2. If one of the direction nos. is zero, the last equation of the line can still be used if the
denominator is interpreted properly. For example,

3. The Two-Point Form of a line (given ( ) ( )) can be expressed

in the form

which is called the symmetric form of the equation of a line.

SUMMARY: Different Forms of the Equation of a Straight Line in .

Two-Point Form Point-Direction Nos. Point-Direction Cosines

Forms Form Form
of a Straight Given: Given: Given:
Line in ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

1. Parametric
Equations
Form

2. Symmetric
Form

54
Examples:
1. Find the point of intersection of the line *( ) +
and the plane *( ) +.

2. Find the equations of the line (in parametric form) passing through the given point
( ) and parallel to the line passing through the points ( ) ( )
Express also the equation in symmetric form.

3. Given the set {( ) }. Find the points where passing through

the origin and having direction numbers 2, 1, 3

55
Equation of a Plane in

 Any 3 non-collinear points (points not on a line) in space determine a plane.

 Fact: There is exactly one plane which passes through a given point and is perpendicular
to a given line.

Theorem: The equation of the plane passing thru ( ) and perpendicular to a line , passing
through ( ) and has direction nos. is

( ) ( ) ( )

Definition: A set of attitude nos. of a plane is any set of direction numbers of a line perpendicular to
the plane.

Remark: Lines perpendicular to the same plane (or parallel planes) are themselves parallel.

Theorem: Two planes are parallel if and only if their attitude numbers are proportional.

Theorem: If are not all zero, the graph of an equation of the form

is a plane.

Proof:

56
Examples:
1. Find the equation of the plane through the point ( ) which is perpendicular to the
line thru the points ( ) ( )

2. What are the set of attitude numbers for planes parallel to the coordinate planes?

3. Find an equation of the plane with the given conditions:

a. passing thru the points ( )( )( )
b. passing thru ( ) and perpendicular to the line
.
c. passing thru ( ) and has attitude nos.
d. passing thru ( ) and has attitude nos.
e. passing thru the 3 points ( )( )( )

57
Section 3.4 Angles. Distance From a Point to a Plane

Definition. Let be two planes, and let be two lines which are to
, respectively. Then the angle between is, by definition, the angle between
. (Convention: Always select the acute angle between these lines as the angle between
)

Theorem: The angle between the planes

| |
is given by .
√ √

Corollary: Two planes with attitude numbers are perpendicular if and

only if
.

Fact: Two non-parallel planes intersect in a line.

Theorem: The distance from the point ( ) to the plane is given

by

| |
.
√
Proof:

58
Examples:
1. Find where is the angle between the planes

2. Find the equations in parametric form of the line of intersection of the planes

3. Find the intersection of the given line and the given plane.
a.
b.

4. Find the distance between the given point and the given plane.
a. ( )
b. ( )

5. Find the equation of the plane thru the line which is perpendicular to the
plane

6. Find the equation of the plane thru ( ) ( ) which is parallel to the line
.

59
 CHAPTER 4
VECTORS IN THE PLANE ( ) AND IN THREE-SPACE ( )

Section 4.1 Introduction

Notations: – line segment joining the points

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ - directed line segment joining the points
– base
- head
| | - magnitude of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ or the length of

Definitions:
1. Two directed line segments ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ are said to have the same magnitude and direction
if and only if either one of the following holds:

i)⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ are both on the same line , ii) The points are vertices of
their magnitude are equal and the heads a parallelogram as shown in the figure
are pointing in the same below.
direction.

2. Two directed line segments ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ that have the same magnitude and direction are
called equivalent, we write ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .

Theorems: (Equivalent Directed Line Segments)

1. (In the Plane) Suppose that are points in the plane with coordinates ( )
( )( ) ( ), respectively.

(i) If the coordinates above satisfy the equations

and
then ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .

(ii) Conversely, if ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ then the coordinates of the four points satisfy the conditions of
(i).

60
 2. (In Three Space) Suppose that are points in ( ) with coordinates
( )
( )( ) ( ), respectively.

(i) If the coordinates above satisfy the equations

, and
then ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .

(ii)Conversely, if ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ then the coordinates of the four points satisfy the conditions of
(i).

Remarks:
1. Another name for directed line segment is a vector (or free vector).Thus, the length of the
vector is the length of the line segment.
2. Notation: If ⃑ is a vector, the length of ⃑ is denoted by | ⃑ | .
3. A unit vector is a vector of length 1.
4. The zero vector, denoted by O, is a line segment of zero length, thus it is a point.
5. Notation: The symbol ⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ) denote the vector having the same magnitude and direction as
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .
6. Any two equivalent directed line segments is denoted as the same vector.
7. Any point in ( ) can be chosen as the base of a vector. Often, it is convenient to select
the origin as the base.
8. Two vectors are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if, when the base for each is taken at the
origin, the resulting directed line segments are perpendicular.
9. Convention: A zero vector is orthogonal to every vector.
10. Addition of Two Vectors : (Graphically) Let ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ be vectors. Then ⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ is
given in the figure below.
⃑
⃑

⃑⃑⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑

11. Scalar Multiplication (A constant times a vector)

(i) If ⃑ is a vector and then ⃑ is a vector with the same direction of ⃑ and
its magnitude is times the magnitude of ⃑ .
(ii) If ⃑ is a vector and then ⃑ is a vector with the opposite direction of
⃑ and
its magnitude is | | times the magnitude of ⃑ .
(iii) If ⃑ is a vector and then ⃑ ⃑ , a zero vector.

Example:

61
Definition: (The unit vectors ⃑ )

(1) (In the Plane) Let be the points in the plane with coordinates (1,0) and (0,1),
respectively. The unit vector is the vector which has the same direction and magnitude as
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ The unit vector is the vector which has the same direction and magnitude as ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

(2) (In Three-Space) Let be the points in with coordinates (1,0,0), (0,1.0) and
(0,0,1), respectively. The unit vector is the vector which has the same direction and
magnitude as ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ The unit vector is the vector which has the same direction and magnitude
as ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ The unit vector ⃑ is the vector which has the same direction and magnitude as ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

Theorem:
1. (In the Plane) Suppose a vector ⃑⃑⃑ has the same magnitude and direction as a particular
directed line segment ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ . Denote the coordinates of A and B by ( ) and ( ),
respectively. Then ⃑⃑⃑ maybe expressed in the form
⃑⃑⃑ ( ) ( ) .

2. (In Three-Space) Suppose a vector ⃑⃑⃑ has the same magnitude and direction as a particular
directed line segment ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ . Denote the coordinates of A and B by ( ) and ( ),
respectively. Then ⃑⃑⃑ maybe expressed in the form
⃑⃑⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )⃑.

Proof: (Follows directly from the Theorem about Equivalent Directed Line Segments)

Examples: 1. A vector ⃑ is equivalent to ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ . Given that A has coordinates (3,-2) and B has
coordinates (1,1), express ⃑ in terms of . Draw a figure.

2. Express ⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ) ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , in terms of

⃑ , where A(3,-2,4) and B(2,1,5).

62
Theorems: 1. If ⃑ , then |⃑ | √ .
2. If ⃑ ⃑ , then |⃑ | √ .

Remark: ⃑

Theorems: 1. If ⃑ , ⃑⃑⃑ and h is any scalar, then

⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ( ) ( ) and h⃑ ( ) ( ).

2. If ⃑ ⃑ , ⃑⃑⃑ ⃑ and h is any scalar, then

⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )⃑ and h⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )⃑ .

Theorem: Let ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ be vectors, and let c, d be scalars. Then the following hold:
 Commutative Law: ⃑ ⃑ ⃑ ⃑
 Associative Laws: ⃑ (⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ) (⃑ ⃑) ⃑⃑⃑ , c(d⃑ ) ( )⃑
 Distributive Laws: ( )⃑ ⃑ ⃑ , (⃑ ⃑) ⃑ ⃑
 ⃑ ⃑ ⃑ ( )⃑ ⃑

where ⃑ denotes the vector such that ⃑ ( ⃑)

Subtraction of Vectors:

Definition: Let ⃑ be any vector except 0. The unit vector ⃑ in the direction of ⃑ is defined by
⃑ .| ⃑ | / ⃑ .

Examples:
1. Given the vectors ⃑ ⃑ Find the vector ⃑ ⃑ and the unit vector in
the direction of ⃑ .
2. Given the vectors ⃑ ⃑ Find the vector ⃑ ⃑ and the
unit vector in the direction of ⃑ .
3. Given the vector ⃑ – . If the base of ⃑ is the point (3,-5), find the head of ⃑ .
4. Find the base A of the vector ⃑ given the head ( ).

63
Section 4.2 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

Two vectors ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are said to be parallel or proportional when each is a scalar multiple of
the other and neither is zero. By the angle between two vectors ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ (neither is zero), we mean
the measure of the angle between two directed line segments (or vectors) having a common base and
equivalent to ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ , respectively. Two parallel vectors make an angle of , depending on
whether they are pointing in the same or opposite direction.

Theorems: 1. (In ) If is the angle between the vectors ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ then

.
|⃑ ||⃑⃑⃑ |

2. (In ) If is the angle between the vectors ⃑ , and

⃑⃑⃑ then

|⃑ ||⃑⃑⃑ |
.

Section 4.3 THE SCALAR (INNER OR DOT) PRODUCT

Definition: The scalar (inner or dot product) of two nonzero vectors ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ , written as
⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ , is defined by the formula
⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ |⃑ ||⃑⃑⃑ |

where is the angle between the vectors ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ . If either ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ is 0, then ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ .

Theorem: Let ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ be vectors. Then the following hold:

(i) ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ⃑
(ii) ⃑ ⃑ |⃑ |
(iii) If ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are orthogonal, then ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑
(iv) If ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are parallel, then ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ |⃑ ||⃑⃑⃑ |, and conversely.
(v) (In ) If ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ , then ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ .
(vi) (In ) If ⃑ and ⃑⃑⃑ , then
⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ .

Proof:

64
Corollary: 1. If and are any scalars and if ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are any vectors, then

⃑ ( ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ) (⃑ ⃑ ) (⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ).

2. .

Remark: Since two vectors ⃑ ⃑ are orthogonal if and only if ⃑ ⃑ thus the zero vector is
always orthogonal to any vector.

Definition: Let ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ be two directed line segments. The projection of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ in the direction
of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ is defined as the directed length of the line segment ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ obtained by dropping perpendiculars
from A and B to the line containing ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .

Definition: (Projection of ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ) Let ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ be two vectors which make an angle . The
Projection of ⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ is given by
⃑⃑⃑ ⃑ |⃑ | .

⃑ ⃑⃑⃑
|⃑ |
|⃑ ||⃑⃑ |

⃑ ⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑ ⃑
|⃑⃑⃑ |

Theorem: If ⃑ ⃑ are not zero vectors, then there is a unique number k such that ⃑ ⃑ is
orthogonal to ⃑ . In fact k can be found from the formula
⃑ ⃑
|⃑ |
Examples:
1. Find the cosine of the angle between the two given vectors. Find also the projection of ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ .
a. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑
b. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑
c. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑

2. Determine the number a (if possible) such that the given condition for ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ is satisfied.
a. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are orthogonal.
b. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are parallel.
c. ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ make an angle .

3. Given the vectors ⃑ ⃑ . Find the value of h so that ⃑ ⃑ is

orthogonal to . Also, find the value of g so that ⃑
⃑ ⃑ is orthogonal to ⃑ .

65
Section 4.4 THE VECTOR (OR CROSS) PRODUCT

Definition: An ordered triple *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + of three independent vectors is said to be right-handed or left-
handed if the vectors are situated as in the figure below.

Right-handed triple *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + Left-handed triple *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ +

⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑

⃑ ⃑

⃑ ⃑

Remark: The notion of left-handed and right-handed triple is not defined if all three vectors lie on the same plane.

Definition: Two sets of ordered triples of vectors are said to be similarly oriented if and only if both
sets are right-handed or both are left-handed. Otherwise they are oppositely oriented.

Theorem: If *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + is a right-handed triple, then *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + is a right handed triple and
* ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + is a right-handed triple provided that .

Definition: Let ⃑ ⃑ be vectors . The vector or cross product ⃑ ⃑ is defined as follows:

() ⃑ ⃑ , if either ⃑ ⃑ is 0 or ⃑ ⃑ (i.e. ⃑ ⃑ );
(i) Otherwise, ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ , where ⃑⃑⃑ has three properties:
a. ⃑⃑⃑ is orthogonal to both ⃑ ⃑
b. ⃑⃑⃑ has magnitude |⃑⃑⃑ | |⃑ ||⃑ |sin , where is the angle between
⃑ ⃑
c. The direction of ⃑⃑⃑ is selected so that *⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ + is a right-handed triple.

Remark: For any vector ⃑ , ⃑ ⃑ .

Definition: Suppose that ⃑ ⃑ are any vectors, * + is a right-handed triple, and that is any
number. Then
(i) ⃑ ⃑ (⃑ ⃑)
(ii) ( ⃑⃑⃑⃑) ⃑ (⃑ ⃑) ⃑ ( ⃑)
(iii)

(iv)

Theorem: If ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ are any vectors, then: (i) ⃑ (⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ) (⃑ ⃑) (⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ )

(ii)(⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ) ⃑ (⃑ ⃑) (⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ )

Theorem:If ⃑ ⃑, ⃑ ⃑ , then

⃑ ⃑ | | ( ) ( ) ( )

Theorem: The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ is given by |⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ) ⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ )|.
The area of the triangle ABC is then |⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ) ⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ )|.

66
Examples:
1. Given ⃑ and ⃑ . Find ⃑ ⃑.

2. Find the area of and the equation of the plane thru ( ) ( ) ( )

using vector methods.
3. Find the perpendicular distance between the lines .

4. Use vector methods to find the equations of the line (in symmetric form) passing through the
point ( ) & parallel to the two planes

5. Use vector methods to find an equation of the plane through the point ( ) and
parallel to the lines .

67
 Chapter 5

VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES IN THE PLANE ( ) AND

IN THREE-SPACE ( )

Section 5.1 Introduction. Limit and Continuity of Vector-Valued Functions

Notations: – segment joining the points

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ line segment joining the
points:
– base
– head
vector with base and head
⃑ (⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ) vector in the magnitude and direction of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

In : ⃑ , where ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , ( ), ( ) , and ( )

In : ⃑ , where ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ( ), ( ), ( ) and

( )

*⃑ ⃑ +

*⃑ ⃑ +

Recall: If the variables and in the Cartesian equation of the curve in are expressed in terms
of a third variable in such a way that the given equation between and holds, the third variable is
called a parameter, and the equations defining and in terms of the third variable are called the
parametric equations of the curve. That is, the curve C in can be expressed in parametric form as
follows:

( ) ( )

Extension: The curve C in can be expressed in parametric form as follows:

( ) ( ) ( )

Definition: (1) A function ⃑ with domain and range contained in (or ) is called a
vector function. That is for each there is exactly one ⃑ ( ) such that ⃑ ( ) ⃑

t ⃑ =⃑ ( )

t ⃑ =⃑ ( )

68
 (2) Let ( ) ( ) ( ) be real-valued functions of real variable (i.e. are
functions in the ordinary sense). Then there is a vector-valued function ⃑ defined by

⃑( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
where is in the domain common to the domains of .

In , a vector-valued function ⃑ is defined by

⃑( ) ( ) ( )
where is in the domain common to the domains of

Examples: Determine the domain of each of the following vector functions.

(1) ⃑ ( ) √ ( ) ( )
(2) ⃑ ( ) ( ) . /
(3) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Solutions:

69
Definition: The equation
⃑( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
is called a vector equation which traces the curve C defined by the parametric equations

( ) ( ) ( );

that is a curve can be defined by either a vector equation or a set of parametric equations.

Remarks: (1) If ( ) for all t in the domain of ⃑ , the curve C lies in the and is defined
by the parametric equations ( ) ( ).

(2) The curve C is the curve traced by the heads of the vector ⃑ ( ) for all t.

(3) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(4) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Examples: (1) ⃑ ( ) √ ( ) ( ) √ ( )

(2) ) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )

Definition: (Continuity of a Vector Function)

A vector function ⃑ is continuous at if ⃑ ( ) is defined and if for each there
is a such that |⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )| whenever | | for all t.

Remarks: (1) ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) are vectors so that ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) is also a vector.

(2) |⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )| is the length of the vector ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ).

(3) |⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )| whenever | | as ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) in both

magnitude and direction

⃑( ) ⃑( )

(4) ⃑ ( ) is continuous at if the following three conditions are satisfied:

(i) ⃑ ( ) is defined.
(ii) ⃑ ( ) exists.
(iii) ⃑( ) ⃑( )

(4) Statements about vector functions ⃑ may always be interpreted as statements about
the functions in ( ).

70
Theorem: (1) In A vector function ⃑ is continuous at if and only if are
continuous at .

(2) In A vector function ⃑ is continuous at if and only if are

continuous at .

Theorem: If ⃑ is a vector function, then the derivative ⃑ is defined as

⃑( ) ⃑( )
⃑ ( )
whenever the limit exists.

Theorem: (1) In If ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) then ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ).

(2) In If ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) then ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .

(3) If ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) then ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ), .

( ) ( ) ( )
(4) If ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) then ⃑( ) ⃑ ⃑ ( ) ⃑( )

(5) If ⃑ ( ) ⃑( ) ⃑ ( ) then ⃑ ( ) ⃑( ) ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) ⃑( )

Recall: Let ⃑ and ⃑ . Then

(Scalar or Dot Product) ⃑ ⃑

and

(Vector or Cross Product) ⃑ ⃑ | |.

Examples:

A. Find the domain and determine the continuity of the given vector function.
(1) ⃑ ( ) √ ( ) ( )
(2) ⃑ ( ) ( ) . /
(3) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

B. Find the first and second derivatives of the following.

(1) ⃑ ( ) √ ( ) ( )
(2) ⃑ ( ) ( ) . /
(3) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

C. Find the derivatives of ( ) ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) and ⃑⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) where

⃑( ) ( ) ( ) ⃑( ) ( ) ( ) .

71
Section 5.2 Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative of a Vector Function

Draw the particular directed line segment equivalent to ⃑ ( ) which has its base at the origin
of the coordinate system. Then the head of this line segment will trace out a curve C as takes on all
possible values in the domain of ⃑ .
⃑ ( )
⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Q
⃑( ) ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

⃑( ) P ⃑( ) ⃑( ) ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
⃑( )
⃑( ) ⃑( )
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

⃑( ) ⃑( )

Therefore, ⃑ ( ) is the vector tangent to the curve at

the point corresponding to the value of t .

Examples:
(1) Let be a curve described by the parametric equations ( ) ( )
where . Find the parametric equations of the tangent line at the point on the curve
corresponding to
(2) Find the parametric equations of the line tangent to the curve defined by the vector function
⃑( ) ( ) ( )
at the point corresponding to . What is the symmetric form of this line?

Solution:

72
Section 5.3 ARCLENGTH IN

In The length of an arc C defined by the parametric equations ( ) ( ) is

given by

∫ √, ( )- , ( )-

where ( ) √, ( )- , ( )- .

In Vector equation of the curve: ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) or

⃑( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

The arclength or ( ) of an arc defined by the vector equation

⃑( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ,
or
( ( ) ( ) ( ))
is given by

( ) ∫ √, ( )- , ( )- , ( )-

where ( ) √, ( )- , ( )- , ( )- and ( ) is an arclength function.

Recall: If ⃑ then the length of ⃑ is |⃑ | √ .

Remark: ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

| ⃑ ( )| √, ( )- , ( )- , ( )-

( ) | ⃑ ( )| and ( ) ∫ | ⃑ ( )|

Definitions:
(1) ⃑ ( ) is called the tangent vector to the curve C at the point corresponding to the value of t.

⃑ ( )
(2) If ⃑ ( ) , then ⃑ ( ) is called unit tangent vector to the curve C at the point
| ⃑ ( )|
corresponding to the value of t.

Examples:
A. The graph of the parametric equations is called a helix.
(1) Find ( ).
(2) Find the length of that part of the helix for which
(3) Show that the unit tangent vector makes a constant angle with the

B. Find the length of the given arc C.

(1) C:
√

73
(2) C:
(3) C: ( ) ( )
(4) C:

74
Section 5.4 Motion in Space: Velocity, Speed and Acceleration

Definitions: If t denotes time in the vector function ⃑ ( ) of an arc, then

(1) ⃑ ( ) is called the velocity vector,
(2) ⃑ ( ) is called the acceleration vector, and
(3) ( ), a scalar quantity, is called the speed
of a particle moving according to the law ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .

Examples: Find the velocity, speed and acceleration of a particle moving according to the given law
(where s is in meters and t in seconds).
(1) ⃑ ( ) ( )
(2) ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )
(3) ⃑ ( )

75
Section 5.5 The Moving Trihedral. Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

CURVATURE
- The curvature of a curve is the measure of the rate of how rapid the curve changes
direction at any point on the curve.

Recall: In Curvature:

In
⃑( )
⃑⃑⃑
Q Curvature Vector:⃑⃑⃑⃑

Curvature: |⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
⃑( ) P
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑( ) ⃑( )
⃑( )
y
⃑ ( )

⃑ ( )
⃑( )
|⃑ ( )|
⃑
⃑ ( ) ⃑
( )

Definitions:
⃑ ( )
(1) ⃑⃑⃑ ( ) is called the curvature vector of the curve C at t .
()
⃑⃑⃑ | ⃑ ( )| |⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )|
(2) ( ) |⃑⃑⃑ ( )| is called the curvature. [ ( ) |⃑⃑⃑ ( )| | | |⃑ ( )| |⃑ ( )|
]
⃑⃑⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )
(3) ⃑⃑ ( ) is called the principal unit normal vector (or simply, normal vector) if
|⃑⃑⃑ ( )| | ⃑ ( )|
⃑⃑⃑ ( )
(4) ⃑⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑ ( ) is called binomial vector.
(5) ( ), the center of curvature, is defined by the equation ⃑ [⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ( )] ⃑( ) ⃑⃑⃑ ( )
⃑⃑ ( ).

(6) ( ) is called radius of curvature.

( )

(7) The plane determined by the normal and binormal vectors ⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑ at a point P on the curve
C is called the normal plane of C at P. (It consists of all normal lines that are orthogonal to
the tangent vectors ⃑ .)

76
 (8) The plane determined by the vectors ⃑ and ⃑⃑ is called the osculating plane of C at P.
(It contains the tangent line and the center of curvature at it is defined only for which
⃑⃑⃑ ( ) . It is the plane that comes closest to containing the part of the curve near P.)

Remarks: (1) ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑⃑ ⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑

(2) ⃑ ⃑⃑ are unit vectors

(3) From the definition of cross product, ⃑⃑ ⃑ ⃑⃑ ⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑ is a unit vector.

(4) The triple (⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑ ( )) forms a mutually orthogonal triple of unit vectors, called
the trihedral at the point on the curve corresponding to the value of . These vectors
⃑ ⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑ are called the moving trihedral of the curve C.

⃑ ( )
⃑( )
| ⃑ ( )|

⃑ ( )
⃑⃑ ( )
| ⃑ ( )|

⃑⃑ ( ) ⃑( ) ⃑⃑ ( )

⃑⃑⃑ | ⃑ ( )| |⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( )|
( ) |⃑⃑⃑ ( )| | | |⃑ ( )| |⃑ ( )|

Definitions: The equations of the normal plane at is given by

( ) ( ) ( )

and the equation of the osculating plane at is given by

( ) ( ) ( )

where ( ) is the point corresponding to and

⃑( ) and ⃑⃑ ( ) .

Example: Given the helix

or equivalently, ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) . Find ⃑ ⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑ (the moving trihedral) at

. Find also the equation of the normal plane, the equation of the osculating plane and the
equations of the tangent line in symmetric form.

77
Definition: If a particle moves according to the law ⃑ ⃑ ( ) the tangential and normal components
of any vector are its components along ⃑ ⃑⃑ , respectively.

Theorem: If a particle moves according to the law ⃑ ⃑ ( ), with the time and ⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑ ( ) ( ) (as
being defined), then the acceleration vector ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ), where ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ( ), satisfies the equation

|⃑ ( )|
⃑( ) ( )⃑ ( ) ⃑⃑ ( ).
( )

Proof:

Remark: Since ⃑ ⃑⃑ and ⃑⃑ are mutually orthogonal vectors, the formula of the Theorem shows that

|⃑ ( )|
( )
( )

are the tangential and normal components, respectively, of ⃑ ( ).

Example: A particle moves according to the law . Find the following:

(a) Velocity vector: ⃑ ( )
(b) Acceleration vector: ⃑ ( )
(c) Speed: |⃑ ( )|
(d) Unit Tangent Vector: ⃑ ( )
(e) [ ⃑⃑ ( ) ]
(f) Tangential and Normal Components of ⃑ ( )
(g) Evaluate all these quantities at .

78
EXERCISES: (1) Find the parametric equations of the line tangent to the curve

at the point where .

(2) Find the moving trihedral of ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) at .

(3) Find the equations of the normal plane and the osculating plane of the curve

at the point where .

79
 Chapter 6

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Section 6.1 Introduction to Functions in Several Variables. Level Curves.

Level Surfaces

A B

Function: Every element in the domain A corresponds to

one and only one element in the range B.

Real-Valued Functions:
is a function of one variable if every
(1) Function of One Variable: D element in the domain D
corresponds to one and only one
element in the range .

( )

(2) Function of Several Variables:

(a) Function of Two Variables: D is a function of two variables if every

element ( ) in the domain D
corresponds to one and only one element
in the range .
( ) ( )

(b) Function of Three Variables: D is a function of three variables if every

element ( ) in the domain D
corresponds to one and only one element
in the range .
( ) ( )

(c) (Other function of several variables are similarly defined.)

D is a function of n variables if every element

( ) in the domain D , the set of
all ordered n-tuples, corresponds to one and only
one element in the range .
( ) ( )

80
Remark: If is a function of two variables, we write ( ), i.e. the function can be
represented as a surface in ( ( )
( )( ))

Examples: Find the domain of each of the following functions. Sketch the graph of the domain in .

(1) ( ) √
√
(2) ( )
(3) ( ) ( )

81
Level Curves
The surface ( ) is usually not easy to graph. Fairly simple functions may give rise to
complicated surfaces, as in the Figs. 1 through 4 illustrate. An aid both to visualizing and to drawing
the graph of a function of two variables is the identification of the level curves of a surface.

Definition: Let ( ) be a function of two variables, and let be a number in the range of .
Then the curve ( ) is called a level curve (or contour curve) of .

Remark: The level curve of is the curve of intersection of the plane and the graph of
( ). Level curves are used in topographical maps (or contour maps) to show curves of
constant elevation. ( )

82
Example: Use level curves to construct the graph of the function

We choose simple values of c to get equations for the level curves. Note that
( ) is always less than 5, so we must choose values of . For a
particular we have

or

or

which is the equation of an ellipse with vertices at . /, . / . / . /.

A sketch of the graph of is

Example: In Figs. 7a and 7b, we indicate the level curves and give a computer-drawn sketch of the
surface ( )

83
Level Surfaces
Functions of three variables have level surfaces, a concept analogous to level curves for
functions of two variables.

Definition: Let ( ) be a function of two variables, and let be a number in the range of
. Then the surface ( ) is called a level surface of at .

Examples: For each of the given functions, find the indicated level surface.

(1) ( ) level surfaces of ( ) and ( )

(2) ( ) ; level surfaces of

(3) ( ) ; level surfaces of at (a) , (b) and (c)

84
Section 6.2 Limits and Continuity. Partial Derivatives

Definition: A function ( ) tends to the number as ( ) tends to ( ), i.e.

( ) ( ) ( ),
if and only if | ( ) | | | | |
( ) ( ).

Geometric Interpretation of the Above Definition

This is an extension of the one given in the definition of limit of a function of one
variable; i.e. whenever ( ) are in the shaded square, the values of the function ( )
must lie in the rectangular box of height between the values . (Refer Fig. 8)

Remarks:
(1) In the definition of limit, we do not have to use rectangular boxes instead we could use disks
(refer Fig. 9). In this case we change the definition by:

( ) | ( ) |
( ) ( )
√( ) ( )

85
 (2) It is not necessary that ( ) be in the domain of . That is, a limit may exist with ( )
being undefined.

Examples: (1) Use definition of limit to show that ( ) .

( ) ( )

(2) Evaluate the following limits.

(a) ( ) (d)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(b) ( )
( ) ( )

(c) (e)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

86
Continuity of a Function of Two Variables

Definition: A function ( ) is continuous at ( ) if and only if

() ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Example: Determine the continuity of the following functions at the point ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(1) ( ) { (2) ( ) {
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

87
Remark: If a function ( ) is discontinuous at the point ( ) but ( ) , then is
( ) ( )
said to have a removable discontinuity at ( ) because if is redefined at ( ) so that
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
then the new function is continuous at ( ). If the discontinuity is not removable, it is
called an essential discontinuity.

Illustration: (a) If ( ) , then is discontinuous at ( ) because

( ) is not defined. But in example (1), ( ) . Therefore,
( ) ( )
the discontinuity is removable by redefining ( ) to be 2.

(b) Let ( ) . Then is discontinuous at ( ) because ( ) is

not defined. In example (2), ( ) does not exist. Therefore, the
( ) ( )
discontinuity is essential.

Remark: Definitions of limits and continuity for functions of three, four and more variables are
completely similar.

Section 6.3 Partial Derivatives

Definition: The partial derivatives of a function on are defined by

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

If is a function on the partial derivatives are defined by

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Remark: To find partial derivative , regard other variables as constants and find the usual
derivative with respect to ; the derivatives and are found similarly. The same
procedure applies for functions of any number of variables.

Notations: If ( ) then:
the symbols can be used interchangeably,
and
the symbols can be used interchangeably.

88
Examples:
(1) Given ( ) Find and and evaluate these at
( ) ( )
(2) Given ( ) Find .
(3) Given . Find .
(4) Given ( ) . Find .

89
Section 6.4. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

An equation involving establishes a relation among the variables. If we solve in

terms of then ( ) may correspond to one or more functions determined by the
relation.

Example:

( ) √
√ {
( ) √

These functions are explicit functions of the variables ; thus partial derivatives can be found.

If it is impossible for a given relation to express one variable, say , in terms of the other
variables and the given relation is considered a function, the partial derivatives can still be found by
implicit differentiation, similar to that of functions of one variable.

Examples: Use implicit differentiation to find the partial derivatives indicated.

(1) .
(2) , .
. /
(3) . / .
(4) ( ) , .

90
Section 6.5 The Chain Rule for Partial Derivatives

Theorem: (The Chain Rule)

Suppose that ( ) is continuous and that are continuous. Assume that
( ) and ( ) are functions of such that all exist. Then is a
function of and the following formulas hold:

Remarks:
(1) The formulas in the above theorem can be written in matrix equation form as follows:

} {

[ ]0 1
{
[ ]0 1

, - [ ]0 1

(2) The variables in the Chain Rule are called independent variables while the variables
are called intermediate variables.

(3) The Chain Rule can be extended to any number of independent variables and any number of
intermediate variables. For example:

() ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) then

and .

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(4) As an aid in remembering the Chain Rule , note that there are as many terms in the formula as
there are intermediate variables.

(5) The matrix equation form of the formulas in Remark (3) are given by:

() } , - , -[ ]

91
 ( ) , - , -[ ]

Examples: Use Chain Rule to find the indicated partial (ordinary) derivatives of a given function.

(1) ( )

(2)

(3) ( )

(4)

92
Section 6.6 Applications of the Chain Rule (Related Rates Problems)

Examples:
(1) At a certain instant a right circular cone has radius base 10 cm and altitude 15 cm. At this
instant the radius is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/sec and the altitude is increasing at the
rate of 4cm/sec. How rapidly is the volume changing at this moment?

(2) Water is leaking out of a conical tank at the rate of .5 The tank is also stretching in
such a way that, while it remains conical, the distance across the top at the water surface is
increasing at the rate of .2 m/min. How fast is the height h of water changing at the instant
when h m and the volume of water is 75 cubic meters?

(3) A rectangular bin (without a top) is changing in size in such a way that its total surface area
always maintain the value of 100 square centimeters. The length and width are each
increasing at the rate of 1 cm/sec. Find how fast the height and the volume are changing when
the length and width are each 2 cm.

(4) At a certain instant of time, the angle A of a triangle ABC is and increasing at the rate of
, the side AB is 10 cm and increasing at the rate of 1 cm/sec, and side AC is 16 cm and
decreasing at the rate of cm/sec. Find the rate of change of side BC.

93
Section 6.7 Directional Derivatives. Gradient
The partial derivative of a function with respect to is considered as the derivative in the
direction; the partial derivative with respect to is the derivative in the direction. To define the
derivative in any direction, consider a function ( ) and a point ( ) in the (refer
figure below).

( ) |⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
⃑
⃑

( ) |⃑ | √ √ √

0 ( )

Definition: Let be a function of two variables. The directional derivative ⃑ of ( ) in the

direction of ⃑ is defined by
( ) ( )
⃑ ( )
whenever the limit exists.

Remarks: (1) If and the direction is the positive direction and

⃑ ( )
(2) If and the direction is the positive direction and

⃑ ( )

Theorem: If ( ) and its partial derivatives are continuous and ⃑ ( ) ( ) , then

⃑ ( ) ( ) ( )

Remarks: (1) If sin and ⃑ ( ) ( )

(2) If sin and ⃑ ( ) ( )
(3) An alternate notation of ⃑ ( ) is ( )

Examples: (1) Find the directional derivative of the function ( ) in

the direction where . What is the value of this derivative at the point ( )
(2) Given ( ) find ( ) at the point ( ) Also find the
value of which makes a maximum at this point. Express your answer in terms
of sin and

94
Directional Derivative of a Function of Three Variables

A direction is determined by a set of direction cosines or equivalently, a vector

⃑
⃑
, so that is a unit vector.

Definition: The directional derivative ⃑ of ( ) in the direction of ⃑ is defined by

( ) ( )
⃑ ( )
whenever the limit exists.

Theorem: If ( ) and its partial derivatives are continuous and ⃑ is a unit

vector, then
⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Examples: (1) Find the directional derivative ⃑ of the given function at the given point .
(a) ( ) ( ) ( )
(b) ( ) √ ( )
(2) Find the directional derivative of the function ( ) at the
point ( ) in the direction going from to ( ).
(3) Find the directional derivative ⃑ of the given function at the given point and the
given unit vector ⃑ .
(a) ( ) ( ) ⃑
√ √ √
(b) ( ) √ ; . / ⃑
√ √ √

95
Gradient Vector
Definitions: (a) If ( ) has partial derivatives, the gradient vector is defined by
grad ( ) ⃑ ( ) .

(b) If ( ) has partial derivatives, the gradient vector is defined by

grad ( ) ⃑ ( ) .

Remarks:
(1) If ⃑ (i.e. ⃑ is a unit vector), then ⃑ ( ) ⃑ ⃑ .
(2) ⃑ ⃑ ⃑ |⃑ ||⃑ | , this means that ⃑ is maximum when i.e. when ⃑ is
in the direction of ⃑ .

Examples: (1) Find the gradient vector ⃑ of the given function at the given point .
(a) ( ) ( ) ( )
(b) ( ) ( )

(2) Given the function ( ) find the maximum value of

⃑ at the point ( ).

(3) Find ⃑ of ( ) ( ) at the point ( ) in the direction

from going to ( ) Also, find the maximum value of ⃑ at ( ).

96
Section 6.8 Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives. Tangent Planes

Recall: ( )
Derivative: ( ) is the slope of the line tangent to the curve ( ) at the
point corresponding to the value of .

Consider the function ( )

Partial Derivative: at ( ) is the slope of the line tangent to the curve the curve of
intersection of the surface ( ) and the plane , at the
point P on the surface corresponding to the value of ( ) ( ).

at ( ) is the slope of the line tangent to the curve the curve of

intersection of the surface ( ) and the plane , at the
point P on the surface corresponding to the value of ( ) ( ).

Definitions: (1) The tangent plane to the surface ( ) at ( ) has the equation

( ) ( ) ( )

where ( ) ( ) ( ).

(2) The line with equations ( ) is

called the normal line to the surface ( ) at ( ) where

( ) ( ) ( ).

97
Remarks: (1) The tangent plane is the plane determined
by the lines which are tangents
to the curves .

(2) The normal line is perpendicular to the

tangent plane.

(3) is the set of attitude numbers

of the tangent plane; thus, it is the set of
direction numbers of the line perpendicular
to the tangent plane.

Examples: Find the equation of the tangent plane and the equations of the normal line to the given
surface at the given point.
(1) ( )
(2) ( )

98
The Equation of the Tangent Plane and the Equations of the Normal Line in Vector
Form

Let ⃑ ⃑ ⃑ Then

⃑ ⃑ ( ) ( ) ( ) and

(1) the equation of the tangent plane takes the form (in vector equation form) ⃑ (⃑ ⃑ ) ,

(2) the equations of the normal line take the form (in vector equation form) ⃑ ⃑ ⃑ .

Examples: Find the equation of the tangent plane and the equations of the normal line to the given
surface at the given point. Express the results in vector equation form.
(1) ( )
(2) ( )
(3) √ ( )
(4) ( )
(5) . / ( )
(6) ( )

99
The Tangent Line to the Curve C of Intersection of Two Surfaces

Consider the surfaces ( ) ( ) which intersect in a curve C.

Definition: The tangent line at a point P on the

curve C of intersection of the surfaces
( ) ( ) is the line
of intersection of the tangent planes to
at P.

Let ( ) be the equation of the line tangent

to the curve C of intersection of the surfaces ( ) ( ) at ( ). Find

Solution:

Examples: Find the equations of the line tangent to the curve C of intersection of the given two
surfaces at the given point.
(1) √ ( )
(2) ( )

100
Section 6.9 The Total Differential. Approximation

Notations: the differential of the function , if is a function of one variable.

the total differential of the function , if is a function of two or more variables.

the difference of the values of a function at two nearby points or

the change of the function at two nearby points.

Recall: is easy Thus we use

of .

Function of One Variable: ( );

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i.e. are both functions of two variables

Function of Two Variables: ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i.e. are both functions of four variables

Function of Three Variables: ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i.e. are both functions of six variables .

Remarks:

(1) In the formulas for , are “very small”.

(2)
(a) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(b) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(c) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

(2) As in the case of function of one variable, the symbolism for total differential maybe used as
an aid in differentiation.
 In ( ) we employ the symbols
 In ( ) we employ the symbols and .

101
Theorems:
(1) Let ( ) and are functions of some other variables. Then

(2) Let ( ) and are functions of some other variables. Then

Remarks:
(1) The formulas in the theorem hold when are either independent or intermediate
variables.
(2) are used as independent variables and can be replaced by
respectively.

Examples:
A. Find the total differential of each of the following functions.
(1) (3) . /
(2) √ (4)

B. Approximate the value of the following.

(1) √( ) ( ) (3) √( ) ( ) ( )
(2) ,( ) ( ) ( )- (4) ,( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) -

C. Find the indicated total differential (in terms of the independent variables).
(1) ( )
(2) ( )
(3)
( )

102
Section 6.10 Applications of the Total Differential

Application 1. Suppose are related by some equation ( ) and assume that

is a function of such that ( ) ( ) ( ) are continuous functions. If at
point ( ), ( ) then

.
Proof:

Example: Find , using (a) implicit differentistion, and (b) partial differentiation, for the
following relation between . (Assuming that the hypotheses of Application 1 are
satisfied.)
1. 2. . / ( )

103
Application 2. Suppose are related by some equation ( ) and assume
that is a function of such that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
are continuous functions. If at point ( ), ( ) , then

Proof:

Examples: Use partial differentiation (Apploication 2) to find the indicated.

1.
2.
3. ( )( )( )
4. ( ) ( )

104
Section 6.11 Second and Higher Order Derivatives

The second partial derivatives of the function ( ) are defined as follows:

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )

Notations: If ( ), then

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

For the fourth derivative, say

{ [ ( )]} { [ ( )]}

Theorem: Suppose that ( ) are all continuous at ( ). Then

( ) ( ).
(That is, the order of partial differentiation maybe reversed without affecting the result.)

Remark: Similarly, as long as the hypotheses of the preceding theorem are satisfied for any
function of three or more variables, the third (or fourth, or any order) partial derivatives of
this function, it does not matter in what order the differentiations with respect to the various
variables performed, are equal.

105
Illustration:
1. If ( ), then

and
.

2. If the function is ( ) .

Examples:
1. Given that ( ) Show that .
2. Given that ( ) . Show that .
3. Show that .

106
Section 6.12 Maxima and Minima

Theorem: (Extreme Value Theorem (EVT))

Let R be a region in the -plane with boundary curve of R considered as part of R
also. If is a function of two variables defined and continuous on R, then there is (at least)
one point in R where takes on a maximum value and there is (at least) one point in R
where takes on a minimum value.

Definition: A function ( ) is said to have a relative maximum (relative minimum) at

( ) if there is some region containing ( ) inb its interior such that

( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ))

for all ( ) in this region.

107
Theorem: Suppose that ( ) is defined in a region R containing ( ) in its interior
such that ( ) and ( ) are defined and that

( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ))

for all ( ) in R; that is, ( ) is a relative maximum (relative minimum). Then

( ) ( )

Definition: A value ( ) at which ( ) and ( ) are zero is called a critical

point of . A critical point at which is neither maximum or a minimum is called a saddle
point.

Remark: The conditions that and are both zero at a point are necessary conditions
for relative maximum or relative minimum of .

Theorem: Suppose that and its partial derivatives up to and including those of the third
order are continuous near the point ( ) and suppose that

( ) ( )

that is ( ) is a critical point. Then we have

(i) a local minimum if ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ;

(ii) a local maximum if ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ;
(iii) a saddle point if ( ) ( ) ( ) ;
(iv) no information if ( ) ( ) ( ) .

Examples:
1. In 3-dimensional space, find the point on the plane *( ) +
which is closest to the origin.
2. Test for relative maxima and minima for the function defined by
(a) ( )
(b) ( )
(c) ( ) ( )
(d) ( ) )
(e) ( )
(f) ( )
(g) ( ) ( )
3. Find the dimensions of the rectangular box, open at the top, which has maximum
volume if the surface area is 12 sq. cm.
4. Find the shape of the closed rectangular box of largest volume with a surface area of
16 sq. in.
5. Break 12 into three positive parts so that their product is maximum.

108
Section 6.13 Maxima and Minima; Lagrange Multipliers

The problem, in example 1 of the preceding section, to find the point in three-
dimensional space that is on the plane *( ) + which is closest to the
origin is equivalent to the problem of finding the minimum of the function
( )
subject to the condition that ( ) is on the plane *( ) + This is a
maxima/minima problem with additional condition and this leads to the following
definitions.

Definitions: The problem of finding maxima and minima of a function of several variables
without added conditions is called a problem in free maxima and minima. Otherwise, that
is when a condition is imposed on the function, the problem of finding the maxima and
minima of that function is called a problem in constrained maxima and minima. The added
condition is called a constraint or side condition.

The method of changing the problem in constrained maxima and minima to a problem
in free maxima and minima, which is due to a French mathematician Joseph L. Lagrange, is
by introducing a new variable called “Lagrange Multiplier” and it is called the “Method of
Lagrange Multipliers”.

Illustrations: (The Method of Lagrange Multupliers)

I. To find the critical points of a function ( ) subject to the (side) condition

that ( ) , form the function
( ) ( ) ( )
and find the critical points of as a function of four variables and .

II. To find the critical points of a function ( ) subject to the (side) conditions
that ( ) and ( ) , form the function
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
and find the critical points of as a function of five variables .

Remark: are the so called Lagrange Multipliers.

Examples:
1. Find the critical points of ( ) subject to the condition that

2. Find the minimum of the function ( ) subject to the condition

that
3. Find the minimum of the function ( ) subject to

4. Find the minimum of the function ( ) subject to the

conditions that
5. Find the minimum of ( ) s.t. .

109
6. Find the minimum of ( ) if ( ) is on the line of
intersection of the planes
7. Find the minimum of ( ) if ( ) is on the line of
intersection of the planes 2 .
8. Find the points on the curve which are closest to the origin.
9. Find the relative maxima and minima of ( ) s.t. .
10. Find the minimum of the function ( ) s. t.
and .
11. Find the minimum of the function ( ) s. t.
, and .
12. Find the critical points of the function ( ) s.t. .

110
 APPENDIX
SOME PRE-MATH 061 TOPICS

A.1 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:

( ) ( )

inverse functionsto each other

 Let b and N be any numbers with Solve for

Solution:

In words: The logarithm of a positive number N to the positive base b is that power to
which b must be raised to obtain N.

Remarks: (1)
(2)
(3)
That is
is a common logarithm and
is a natural or Napierian logarithm.

Properties:

111
 (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Proof: (Exercise)

Recall: ∫ (i.e. it fails when .)

Consider:

Definition: For values of , we define ∫ ( )

Lemma: If are any positive numbers, then∫ ∫

Proof:

Properties: If a and bare any positive numbers, then:

112
 (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Proof:

Theorem: If ( ) then
(1) ( ) for and is increasing,
(2)
(3)
(4) and
(5) the range of consists of all real numbers.

Remark: If is a function of other variable, then (in terms of differential), we have

.

The Exponential Function. The Number e.

In the preceding discussions we observed that is a one-to-one function and,
consequently possesses an inverse. The inverse of the natural logarithm is denoted by and
is called the exponential function, or sometimes the natural exponential function.

Definition: The exponential function, denoted by exp, is defined to be the inverse of the function

Notation:

Domain: ( ) Domain:
Image: Image: ( )

Theorem: (Basic Properties of ) If ( )

113
 (1) ,
(2) ,
(3) ,
(4) ( )
(5) ( )
(6) ( )

Proof:

Definition: If , we define for any real number x.

Theorem: i.e.

Recall:

Examples: (1) Find the value of: (a) (b)

(2) Prove that

114
Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions;

Recall:
 The derivative of is , i.e.


Theorems:
(1) If ( ) | | ( )
(2) If ( ) ( ) .
(3) If ( ) ( )

Proof:

115
Summary: (Formulas/Identities Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions)

(1) (5)
(2) (6)
(3) (7)
(4) (8)

Logarithmic Differentiation
( ) ( )
- the differentiation of functions of the form ( )

Steps to find the derivative ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ):

1. Let ( )
2. Take logarithm to both sides (i.e. take ln to both sides) of the equation.
3. Take the derivative to both sides of the preceding equation by implicit differentiation.
4. Solve for ( ).

Examples: Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(1) ( ) ( √ )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Integrals Yielding Logarithmic Functions. Integrals of Exponential

Functions
(1) ∫
(2) ∫
(3) ∫
(4) ∫ | |
(5) ∫ | |
(6) ∫ | |
(7) ∫ | |

116
A.3 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The six hyperbolic functions are:

1. (read as “hyperbolic sine of x”)
2. (read as “hyperbolic cosine of x”)
3. (read as “hyperbolic tangent of x”)
4. (read as “hyperbolic cotangent of x”)
5. (read as “hyperbolic secant of x”)
6. (read as “hyperbolic cosecant of x”)

Definitions: (1) ( ) (3) (5)

(2) ( ) (4) (6)

GRAPHS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:

(1) (2)

(3) (4)

117
 (5) (6)

Remark: The trigonometric functions are periodic functions, but none of the hyperbolic functions is
periodic.

Definition: Let be a function. Then is called an even function if ( ) ( ) and is an odd

function if ( ) ( ).

Remark: are even functions and are odd functions.

Some Hyperbolic Identities

A. (1) ( ) ( ) (2) ( ) ( )

(3) ( ) ( ) (4) ( ) ( )

(5) ( ) ( ) (6) ( ) ( )

B. (1) (2) (3)

C. Addition Formulas
(1) ( )

(2) ( )

(3) ( )

D. (1) (3)

(2) {

118
 E. (1) . / √ (3) . / √

(2) . / √

F. (1) (2)

DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Theorem: (i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)

INTEGRALS YIELDING HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(1) ∫ (2) ∫

(3) ∫ (4) ∫

(5) ∫ (6) ∫

EXERCISES:
A. Prove the hyperbolic identities.
B. Prove the formulas of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions.
C. Given that , find the values of other hyperbolic functions.
D. Given that and , find the values of other hyperbolic functions.
E. Given that , find the values of other hyperbolic functions.
F. Differentiate each of the following functions.
( √ )
(1) ( ) ( ) (2) ( )
G. Evaluate each of the following integrals.
( ) ( )
(1) ∫ ( ) (2) ∫ (3)
∫

119
A.4 Summary of Differentiation and Integration Formulas

Derivative Formulas in Terms of Differentials

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
√
(13)
√
(14)
(15)
(16)
√
(17)
√

Examples: Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

( ) ( )( ( ))
(2) (6)

(3) ( ) ( ) (7) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) √ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(4) 0 1 (8)

(5) ( ) ( ) ( √ ) (9) ( )

( )
(6) ( ) √ ( √ ) (10) ( )

120
Integration Formulas: ( )

1. ∫ 3. ∫
2. ∫ | | 4. ∫

5. ∫ ∫

6. ∫ ∫

7. ∫ ∫

8. ∫ ∫

9. ∫ ∫

10. ∫ ∫

11. ∫ | | ∫ | |

12. ∫ | | ∫ | |

13. ∫ | |

14. ∫ | |

15. ∫
√

16. ∫

17. ∫
√

121