Unveiling the Future: Exploring the Diverse

Importance of Automated Vehicles in

Contemporary Societies

What are Autonomous Vehicles?

Autonomous vehicles are vehicles (most likely cars), capable of driving themselves
without human intervention. A technological breakthrough that has become one
of the latest mega trends and aspires to become the future of driving.

Testing began several years ago with different countries and brands; however, the
use of autonomous vehicles could have accelerated growth during this decade.

In the automotive industry, autonomous driving, connectivity and autonomous

cars have a direct connection. Therefore, it is necessary for connectivity to be
sufficiently effective for the proper functioning of autonomous vehicles, taking
into consideration that data transmission is essential for operation of these cars.

In this regard, it is expected that, over the next few years, the number of 5G
connections will increase rapidly globally.
Figure 1. An example of a self-driving car

Self-driving car companies

• Motional
• Magna International
• AutoX
• Cruise
• Waymo
• Swift Navigation
• Embark Trucks
• CARMERA
• Zoox
• Nauto
Cars with self-driving features

Google's Waymo project is an example of a self-driving car that is almost entirely

autonomous. It still requires a human driver to be present but only to override
the system when necessary. It is not self-driving in the purest sense, but it can
drive itself in ideal conditions. It has a high level of autonomy.

Many of the cars available to consumers today have a lower level of autonomy
but still have some self-driving features. Self-driving features that are available in
many production cars as of 2022 include the following:

• Hands-free steering centers the car without the driver's hands on the
wheel. The driver is still required to pay attention.
• Adaptive cruise control (ACC) automatically maintains a selectable distance
between the driver's car and the car in front.
• Lane-centering steering intervenes when the driver crosses lane markings
by automatically nudging the vehicle toward the opposite lane marking.

Levels of autonomy in self-driving cars

The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) lays out six levels
of automation, beginning with Level 0 where humans do the driving, through
driver assistance technologies up to fully autonomous cars. Here are the five
levels that follow Level 0 automation:
 • Level 1: An advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) aids the
human driver with steering, braking or accelerating, though not
simultaneously. An ADAS includes rearview cameras and features
like a vibrating seat warning to alert drivers when they drift out of the
traveling lane.
• Level 2: An ADAS that can steer and either brake or accelerate
simultaneously while the driver remains fully aware behind the wheel
and continues to act as the driver.
• Level 3: An automated driving system (ADS) can perform all driving
tasks under certain circumstances, such as parking the car. In these
circumstances, the human driver must be ready to retake control and
is still required to be the main driver of the vehicle.
• Level 4: An ADS can perform all driving tasks and monitor the driving
environment in certain circumstances. In those circumstances, the
ADS is reliable enough that the human driver needn't pay attention.
• Level 5: The vehicle's ADS acts as a virtual chauffeur and does all
the driving in all circumstances. The human occupants are
passengers and are never expected to drive the vehicle.

A bit of history

While the rise of electric vehicles has gained prominence over the last two
decades, its beginnings date back to the 1990s. In 1925, an electrical engineer
from New York, named Francis Houdina, was the first to implement the concept
of an autonomous vehicle, although the car was remotely controlled.
The model was displayed to the public in Manhattan, traveling about nineteen
kilometers between Broadway and Fifth Avenue; however, the vehicle collided
with another car, interrupting its trajectory. Despite this, Houdinna's vehicle,
named Chandler, was built between 1926 and 1930.
Later, in the 1980s, the German Ernst Dickmanns, who is considered the father of
autonomous vehicle as we know it today, converted a Mercedes-Benz van into an
autonomous vehicle guided by an integrated computer. In 1987, the car managed
to travel through traffic-free streets at a speed of 63 kilometers (about 39.15 mi)
per hour.

In 1994, it did something similar with a similar vehicle that traveled more than
1,000 kilometers (about 621.37 mi) through Paris in traffic. In 1995, a Mercedes-
Benz traveled autonomously between Munich and Copenhagen. These projects
were financed by the European Commission under the name of Project Eureka,
which granted Dickmanns almost 800 million euros to carry out research on this
type of vehicle.

Significance of Self-Driving Vehicles

The significance of self-driving vehicles is multifaceted. First, it has the potential

to revolutionize road safety by significantly reducing/minimizing accidents caused
by human error consequently leading to a substantial decrease in injuries and
fatalities on the roads, creating a safer transportation landscape.

In addition to safety, autonomous vehicles are also a driving force behind

unprecedented traffic productivity. Self-driving technology can enhance traffic
efficiency through optimized driving patterns, potentially reducing congestion and
improving overall transportation flow. This efficiency enables time and fuel
savings, benefiting both individuals and the environment.
Furthermore, technology holds promise for increased accessibility. They provide
individuals with more freedom and mobility, if they are unable to drive due to
age, disability, or other factors.

Overall, the importance of automated transport extends beyond convenience. It

completely changes the structure of transportation by promoting accessibility,
increasing safety, streamlining traffic and ushers in a revolutionary period, with
far-reaching effects on society.

How do Autonomous Cars work?

Several companies are advancing towards autonomous cars, employing a

combination of sensors, cameras, radar, and lidar to enable vehicles to perceive
and navigate their surroundings. Self-driving vehicles are dependent on sensors,
actuators, sophisticated algorithms, machine learning systems, and strong
processors to run software. Autonomous cars build and update a map of their
environment, using a range of sensors located throughout the vehicle.

Video cameras detect traffic lights, read road signs, track other vehicles, and look
for pedestrians. Lidar (light detection and ranging) Sensors bounce pulses of light
off the car’s surroundings to measure distances, detect road edges, and identify
lane markings. Ultrasonic sensors in the wheels detect curbs and other vehicles
when parking.

Sophisticated software then processes all this sensory input, plots a path, and
sends instructions to the car’s actuators, which control acceleration, braking, and
steering. Hard-coded rules, obstacle avoidance algorithms, predictive modeling,
and object recognition help the software follow traffic rules and navigate
obstacles.
What are the Challenges with Autonomous Cars?

In the past few years, autonomous cars have faced several evident challenges.
Fully automated cars (Level 5) are going through testing in various regions of the
world; however, they are not accessible in the market yet. The challenges range
from technological and jurisdictive to the environmental and philosophical. The
following are a few examples:

Lidar and Radar:

Lidar is costly and is still struggling to strike the right balance between range and
resolution. If numerous autonomous vehicles (AVs) were to drive on the same
road, would their lidar signals interfere with the other? And if various radio
frequencies are available, will the frequency range be enough to support mass
production of AVs?

Weather Conditions:

If an AV is to drive in heavy precipitation, or if there are layers of snow on the

roads, the lane dividers are likely to disappear. The cameras and sensors track
lane markings, however, if the markings are covered by water or oil or blocked by
flake ice or debris, the AVs camera tracking system may not function properly.
Traffic Conditions and Laws:

AVs are more likely to face trouble in tunnels or on bridges as compared to

manually driven cars. Would there be a separate lane for autonomous cars and
how would they manage bumper-to-bumper traffic? New laws and traffic rules
would have to be introduced granting carpool lane access to the
driver-less cars.

State vs. Federal By-Laws:

The regulatory process in the U.S. has recently shifted from federal guidance to
state-by-state mandates for autonomous cars. Some states have even proposed a
per-mile taxation on AVs to reduce the growth of "zombie cars" driving around
without passengers. Lawmakers have also written proposals that all autonomous
cars should be zero-emission vehicles and have a panic button installed in them.
But would the laws vary from state to state? Would one be able to cross state
lines with an AV?

Accident Liability:

Who would be held responsible/accountable if an accident is caused by an

autonomous car? The manufacturer or the individual driving the AV? The latest
blueprints suggests that a fully autonomous Level 5 car will not have a dashboard
or a steering wheel, so a human passenger would not even have the option to
take control of the vehicle in an emergency.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) vs. Emotional Intelligence (EI):

Human drivers are somehow dependent on subtle cues and non-verbal

communication such as making eye-contact with the pedestrians or reading the
facial expressions and body language of other drivers, to make split-second
judgement calls and predict behaviors, which the autonomous cars are not
capable of doing. They do not have the same life-saving instincts as human
drivers.

What are the Benefits of Autonomous Vehicles?

The scenarios for convenience and quality-of-life improvements are limitless. The
physically disabled individuals and aged people would have more independence.
If an individual is somewhere out and forgets his/her belongings at home, the car
could bring them their desired items. One could send their pet animals on self-
driving cars for their appointment without physically going with them in case they
are busy with their work.

The real promise of AVs is the potential for dramatically lowering CO2 emissions.
In a recent study, experts identified three trends that, if adopted concurrency,
would unleash the full potential of autonomous cars: vehicle automation, vehicle
electrification, and ride sharing. Till 2050,
these "three revolutions in urban transportation” could:

Reduce traffic congestion (30% reduction in vehicles on the roads)

Cut transportation costs by 40% (in terms of vehicles, fuel and
infrastructure)
Improve walkability and livability
Free up parking lots for other uses (schools, parks, community centers)
Reduce urban CO2 emissions by 80% worldwide

What solutions does Synopsys have for Autonomous Cars?

Today's cars have 100 million lines of code. Tomorrow's autonomous cars will
have more than 300 million lines of code, so cybersecurity is a growing concern.
Synopsys is the leader in application security testing and software composition
analysis, helping automotive customers build security into their software
throughout the development lifecycle and across the supply chain.

Synopsys also offers a broad portfolio of auto-grade IP, certified for ISO 26262
and ASIL B & D readiness, to help customers build the best chips for applications
like ADAS, infotainment, and mainstream MCUs. Synopsys embedded vision
processor solutions help customers integrate capabilities like object and facial
recognition, night vision, and adaptive cruise control.

Government funding for AVs

The government has announced up to £150m in support for the development of
autonomous vehicles.

Running until 2030, the funding aims to solidify the UK as a world leader in the
deployment of technology. The government has previously set a target of
enabling commercial self-driving vehicles to get on the road by 2025.

Part of the Advanced Manufacturing Plan (AMP), the recent investment is

intended to support the connected and autonomous mobility industry to expand
into sectors such as agriculture and defense.

Matched by industry funding, the nine-figure investment will support the work of
the UK's Centre for Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CCAV). Since 2015, the
agency has invested more than £500 in over 100 projects, including the CAVForth
programme – the UK's first self-driving bus, which runs from Edinburgh to Fife.

The CCAV said that the cash boost will help deliver its ambition to “to create an
early commercial market and secure first mover advantage in the deployment of
self-driving vehicles and services” across the UK.

The announcement follows a recent report by the Society of Motor

Manufacturers and Traders, which claimed that the sector could bring 340,000
additional jobs and a £66bn return by 2040.
However, for such estimates to be realized, Society warned that the government
must introduce appropriate regulations.

The King’s Speech earlier this month reflected a commitment to do so as King

Charles set the foundations for the Automated Vehicles Bill. The framework to
regulate the deployment of self-driving vehicles is currently passing through the
House of Lords.

Recent study on AVs

Recent studies have made significant progress in identifying and investigating the
factors influencing AV usage intention (Casidy et al., 2021; Huang & Qian, 2021).
Most of them have examined the role of psychological and social factors such as
trust (Yuen et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020), perceived risk (Casidy et al., 2021;
Hulse et al., 2018), perceived ease of use (Baccarella et al., 2020), perceived
usefulness (Park et al., 2021), social influence (Erskine et al., 2020), and morality
(Gill, 2020) in shaping customers' responses to AVs. While the above studies have
improved our understanding of AV acceptance by customers, none of them, to
the best of our knowledge, has analyzed the outcome of the service. Prior
research did not clarify whether responses to a positive versus negative service
outcome provided by AVs differ from responses to a positive versus negative
service outcome provided by human agents. Indeed, literature on service delivery
by autonomous technologies suggests that the service outcome is not always
error-free (Choi et al., 2021). Service outcome failure, defined as “a service that
does not fulfill the basic service need” (Smith et al., 1999, p. 358; e.g., taxi arrives
30 min late, and customer arrives at his destination 40 min later than expected)
has been a topic of particular interest in previous work on autonomous service
technology (Srinivasan & Sarial-Abi, 2021) but it is yet to be studied in the context
of autonomous vehicles.

The current study aims to fill this research gap by investigating how service
outcome valence (i.e., positive vs. negative service outcome; e.g., the taxi arrives
30 min late vs. the taxi arrives on time) influences customer responses toward
AVs (vs. human agents). Moreover, building on studies about attribution theory
and autonomous technologies (Belanche et al., 2021; Leo & Huh, 2020), we focus
on the perceived blame, defined as a retrospective appraisal of responsibility for
events (Awad et al., 2018), as a main driver of customer satisfaction with AVs
versus human agents. Previous literature suggests that from both a marketing
(McManus & Rutchick, 2019) and an ethical perspective (Gill, 2020) it is important
to know why more (vs. less) responsibility is ascribed to the actions of AVs (vs.
human agent). However, there is very limited research, especially in the AVs
context, on the psychological antecedents of attribution of blame to AVs (see
Table. 1). We believe that perceived competence of the AV vis-à-vis human agent,
defined as the degree to which customers perceive that the service provider
possesses the required skills, knowledge and capabilities to deliver adequately the
service product (Belanche et al., 2021), can explain the customers' blame
attribution (Choi et al., 2021).

Table 1. Literature review on the psychological underpinnings of customers'

receptiveness to AVs

Paper Method/type of Psychological Key findings

AV experiences factors
Baccarella et al., Online Perceived The study
2020 survey/fictitious usefulness validates the
everyday situation Perceived positive effect of
(scenario-based) ease of use perceived
usefulness on
behavioral
intention to adopt
self-driving cars.
The results further
suggest that
individuals with a
generally negative
attitude toward
technologies are
afraid that they
 might not be
capable of
handling the new
technology.
Casidy et al., 2021 Online Risk The results
experiment/fictiti perception suggest that self-
ous article from Usage brand connections
car magazine barriers are positively
(scenario-based) associated with
intentions to
adopt radical
innovation and
that this effect is
mediated by
reduced risk
barrier.
Erskine et al., Online Performanc Information
2020 survey/video on e seekers'
AVs expectancy objectives and
Effort issue involvement
expectancy are important
Social drivers of blog
influence selection and
Hedonic determinants of
motivation the blog's
influence.
Gill, 2020 Online Morality Results show that
experiments/fictiti Attribution participants
ous moral of considered harm
dilemma responsibilit to a pedestrian
(scenario-based) y more permissible
with an AV as
compared to self
as the decision
agent in a regular
car. This shift in
moral judgments
 was driven by the
attribution of
responsibility to
the AV and was
observed for both
severe and
moderate harm,
and when harm
was real or
imagined
Hulse et al., 2018 Survey/demograp Perceived Compared to
hic and attitudinal risk human-operated
questions on AVs Perceived cars, AV were
safety perceived
Societal differently
benefits depending on the
road user
perspective:
riskier when a
passenger yet less
risky when a
pedestrian. AV
were also
perceived as more
risky than existing
autonomous
trains.
Huang & Qian, Online Need for The results
2021 survey/demograp uniqueness indicate that the
hic and attitudinal Risk psychological trait
questions on AVs aversion of need for
uniqueness
strengthens the
association
between
consumers'
reasoning for AVs
 and their
adoption
intention, while
the risk aversion
trait intensifies
the negative
relationships
between
consumers'
reasoning against
AVs and their
attitude/adoption
intention.
Keszey, 2020 Survey Technologic The behavioral
data/demographic al anxiety intention of
and attitudinal Privacy innovative users is
questions on AVs concerns influenced by
Equal utilitarian and
opportunity hedonic
of mobility motivations,
whereas laggards
are driven by
hedonic
motivation, and a
utilitarian
motivation does
not play a role.
Liu et al., 2019 Survey/demograp Perceived The results
hic and attitudinal risk indicate that
questions on AVs Perceived social trust
benefits retained a direct
Social trust effect as well as
an indirect effect
on all acceptance
measures.
Compared to
perceived risk,
 perceived benefit
was a stronger
predictor of all
acceptance
measures and also
a stronger
mediator of the
trust–acceptance
relationship.
Manfreda et al., Online Perceived The results show
2021 survey/demograp safety that the perceived
hic and attitudinal Perceived personal and
questions on AVs personal societal benefits
benefits of AV are vital
Perceived factors for AV
societal adoption. The
benefits perceived safety
of AV significantly
reduces the
influence of
technological and
legal concerns
related to AV.
McManus & Online Attribution Varying the
Rutchick, 2019 survey/vignette of moral features of AV
on fictitious responsibilit technology
driving scenario y affected how
(scenario-based) responsible a
“driver” (who
purchased the
vehicle) is
perceived to be
following a deadly
crash. The findings
provide support
for agency and
commission as
 crucial bases of
moral judgment.
Park et al., 2021 Online Social The findings show
survey/demograp influence that social
hic and attitudinal Perceived influence,
questions on AVs usefulness facilitating
Facilitating conditions, and
conditions perceived
usefulness are
three important
variables of AV
usage intention. In
addition,
demographic
variables (age,
marital status,
family size, and
educational level)
can moderate
effect of PU and SI
on intention to
use AV.
Yuen et al., 2020 Survey/demograp Trust Effect of
hic and attitudinal Perceived innovation
questions on AVs value diffusion variables
on acceptance is
fully mediated by
value. Effect of
value on
acceptance is
partially mediated
by trust.
Zhang et al., 2020 Survey/demograp Trust Social influence
hic and attitudinal Social and initial trust
questions on AVs influence played the most
Sensation important roles in
seeking AV acceptance.
 Sensation seekers
and those with a
higher openness
to experience had
a higher intention
to adopt AVs.
Neurotic users
were less likely to
accept AVs.
The current study Online Perceived Customers'
experiments/fictiti competenc satisfaction was
ous service e higher for the
scenario Perceived autonomous
(scenario-based) blame vehicle only in the
Service case of a negative
outcome service outcome,
while no
differences
emerged when
the service had a
positive outcome.
Autonomous
vehicles (vs.
human agents)
are perceived as
less competent
and blameworthy,
leading to a higher
customer
satisfaction with
the service in case
of a negative
outcome.

Abbreviation: AVs - autonomous vehicles

In sum, the current study provides empirical evidence that a negative service
outcome (e.g., taxi arrives 40 min late) leads to a lower customer satisfaction
when the service is provided by a human agent compared to AV. Moreover, we
find that this effect is driven by perceived agent competence and by blame
attribution, which are both higher for human agents compared to AVs.

The future of autonomous vehicles

The future of self-driving cars holds great potential for transformative

breakthroughs. Researchers aim to enhance AI algorithms, improve sensor
technologies and decision-making for more precision, and to create reliable
communication networks for vehicle-to-vehicle interactions.

Recent developments and advancements in edge-computing, computer vision,

and machine learning will enable self-driving cars to effortlessly traverse
challenging areas. Innovation will be sparked by mutual efforts between academia
and business, consequently resulting in improved safety features, energy
efficiency, and new uses outside of transportation. The field of self-driving cars
research is developing at a rapid pace, with the potential to completely transform
mobility and make it safer, more systematic, and environmentally friendly.

Dependent Variables: Shared Autonomous Vehicles Use and

their Adoption
The survey asked the respondents whether they had ridden the RAPID SAV, and
34% reported that they had. Those who responded positively were then asked
how many times they had ridden, and their responses showed that 16.5% had
ridden once, 8.8% had ridden twice, 23.1% had ridden three to four times, 7.7%
had ridden five to six times, and 44% had ridden more than six times. SAV actual
use was therefore employed as one of the study’s dependent variables.

Figure 2. Respondents’ SAV adoption based on their SAV use.

Table 2, Descriptive Statistics of the Sample (N = 268).

Variables Definition Type Percent RAPID Area (%)

Gender Male Nominal 51.1 52
Female 44.4 48
Other 1.1 NA
Age 18–24 Ordinal 63.0 40
25–34 26.4 30
35–44 4.2 10
45–54 3.4 7
 55–64 1.1 6
65 and above 1.9 7
Studentship Student Nominal 86.2 85
Non-student 13.8 15
Race American Indian Nominal 2.3 0.7
or Alaska Native
Asian 46.4 23.6
Black or African 15.1 16.8
American
White 27.9 55.7
Other 8.3 3.2
Ethnicity Hispanic Nominal 17.1 21
Non-Hispanic 82.9 79
Income Less than Ordinal 52.7 47.6
$20,000
$20,000-$34,999 17.4 13.1
$35,000-$49,999 10.5 12.7
$50,000-$74,999 8.1 13.1
$75,000-$99,999 5.0 7.9
$100,000 or 6.2 5.6
more
Vehicle 0 Ordinal 26.8 16.8
ownership 1 35.8 41.5
2 23.0 32.4
3 and more 14.3 9.3
Residential In SAV service Nominal 50.4 NA
attributes: area
Home location Out of SAV 49.6 NA
service area
Variables Definition Type Mean1
Residential Driving distance Ordinal 2.26
accessibility (minute) from
(driving distance home to closest
from home in grocery store or
minute): department
1 = Less than 5 store (such as
min, 2 = 5–10 Walmart or
min, 3 = 10–15 Target),
min, 4 = 15–20 closest shopping 3.10
mall,
 min, 5 = More closest 1.74
than 20 min restaurant or
fast-food place,
closest 1.89
drugstore,
closest health 2.52
care provider,
closest place to 1.81
exercise (e.g., a
gym or a park)
Frequency of Car Ordinal 5.56
trips with Frequency of 3.07
different modes: trips with: On-
1 = never use, 2 demand
= less than once rideshare
per month, 3 = service
once per month, Private app- 2.63
4 = two to three based services
times per such as
month, 5 = once Uber/Lyft
per week, 6 = University 2.66
two or three transportation
times per week, services
7 = more than Walking/biking 5.53
three times per
month

Mean of residential accessibility and frequency of trips with different modes was
calculated based on categories 1 to 5.
Figure 3. SAV users’ motivations for riding in an SAV (%).

Figure 4. SAV non-users’ constraints for not riding the SAV (%).
Figure 5. SAV users’ and non-users’ attitudes (%).

Motivating factors to shift towards self-driving cars

The compelling trend towards autonomous cars is supported by several factors

that are driving technological advancements and changing the transportation
environment. The primary driving force behind this is the pressing need to
dramatically increase road safety. With their complex sensor systems and machine
learning algorithms, self-driving cars have the potential to prevent accidents from
taking place, most likely brought on by human mistake or carelessness,
consequently saving people's lives.

Furthermore, the increasing need for better traffic efficiency is driving the shift to
AVs, since it can reduce traffic and boost productivity across the board for the
transportation system. This paradigm shift has significant ramifications for
research, business and society at large. It is not simply about convenience; rather,
it is a step towards a safer, smarter and more sustainable mobility future.

In conclusion, the ongoing research and continuous advancements in self-driving

cars make a critical turning point in the history of transportation. The need for
improved efficiency, safety, and technical innovation highlights how revolutionary
AVs can be. Encouraging public trust in this developing technology, addressing
regulatory issues, and prioritizing ethical considerations are critical as we navigate
the path forward. Future transportation infrastructure promises to be safer, more
effective, and more connected than in the past, with sustained interdisciplinary
cooperation, careful policy making, and a strong commitment to responsible
innovation.

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