Chapter 5

MASS, BERNOULLI AND ENERGY

EQUATIONS

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2010

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 MASS, BERNOULLI, AND ENERGY EQUATIONS
5–1 Introduction
Conservation of Mass, Momentum and Energy
5–2 Conservation of Mass
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Conservation of Mass Principle
Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
5–3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
5–4 The Bernoulli Equation
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Force Balance across Streamlines
Unsteady, Compressible Flow
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
5–5 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
5–6 General Energy Equation
Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
Energy Transfer by Work, W
5–7 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Incompressible Flow with no mechanical work Devices and Negligible Friction
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

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 Objectives

Apply the continuity equation derived from the principle of conservation of mass to
balance the incoming and outgoing flow rates in a flow system.

Recognize various forms of mechanical energy, and work with energy conversion
efficiencies.

Understand the use and limitations of the Bernoulli equation, and apply it to solve a
variety of fluid flow problems.

Work with the energy equation expressed in terms of heads, and use it to determine
turbine power output and pumping power requirements.

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 5–1 INTRODUCTION

You are already familiar with numerous

conservation laws such as the laws of

conservation of mass

conservation of energy, and

conservation of momentum.

Historically, the conservation laws are first

applied to a fixed quantity of matter called
a closed system or just a system, and then
extended to regions in space called control
volumes.

The conservation relations are also called Many fluid flow devices such as this Pelton
balance equations since any conserved wheel hydraulic turbine are analyzed by
quantity must balance during a process. applying the conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy principles.

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Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a change is
expressed as msys=Const. or dmsys/dt =0, which is the statement that the mass of the
system remains constant during a process.

Mass balance for a control

volume (CV) in rate form:

The total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume,

The rate of change of mass within

the control volume boundaries.

Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a
differential control volume is usually called the continuity equation.
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 Conservation of momentum
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called
the linear momentum or just the momentum of the body.

The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity V is m V.

Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force
acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of
the momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on the body.

Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a system remains

constant only when the net force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of
such systems is conserved.

Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually

referred to as the linear momentum equation.

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 Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy principle: The net energy transfer to or from a system during
a process be equal to the change in the energy content of the system. Energy can be
transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.

The conservation of energy principle, also called the energy balance,

is expressed as

The total rates of energy transfer into and out of the

control volume

The rate of change of energy within the control

volume boundaries

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 5–2 CONSERVATION OF MASS

Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be

created or destroyed during a process.

Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep track of the
amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.

Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.

Mass m and energy E can be converted to each

other:

c is the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 2.9979108 m/s The mass change due to
energy change is negligible.
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 Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.

The differential mass flow rate

Point functions have exact differentials

Path functions have inexact differentials

The normal velocity Vn for a surface is

the component of velocity perpendicular
to the surface.

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 Average velocity

Mass flow rate

Volume flow rate

The average velocity Vavg is defined as the The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid
average speed through a cross section. flowing through a cross section per unit
10 time.
 Conservation of Mass Principle
The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval t is equal to the
net change (either increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume
during t.

The conservation of mass

principle can be expressed as

Where and are the total rates of

mass flow into and out of the CV,
and dmCV/dt is the rate of change
of mass within the CV

Conservation of mass principle for an ordinary bathtub.

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 The differential control volume dV and the differential
control surface dA used in the derivation of the
conservation of mass relation.

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 General Conservation of Mass
The time rate of change of mass within the control
volume plus the net mass flow rate through the
control surface is equal to zero.

The conservation of mass equation is obtained by

replacing B in the Reynolds transport theorem by mass m,
and b by 1

A control surface should always be selected normal to the

flow at all locations where it crosses the fluid flow to avoid
complications, even though the result is the same.

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 Moving or Deforming Control Volumes

For moving or deforming control volume, the absolute velocity V is replaced by the
relative velocity Vr , which is the fluid velocity relative to the control surface.

Some practical problems (such as the injection of medication through the needle of a
syringe by the forced motion of the plunger) involve deforming control volumes.

The conservation of mass relations developed can still be used for such deforming
control volumes provided that the velocity of the fluid crossing a deforming part of the
control surface is expressed relative to the control surface

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 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
The total amount of mass does not change with time. Namely, the total amount of
mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.

For steady-flow processes,, the mass flow rate.

Multiple inlets and exits

Single stream

Many engineering devices involve a single stream

(only one inlet and one outlet).

Conservation of mass principle for a two-inlet–one-

outlet steady-flow system.
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 Special Case: Incompressible Flow

The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when the fluid is
incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

Steady, incompressible

Steady, incompressible
flow (single stream)

During a steady-flow process,

volume flow rates are not
necessarily conserved although
mass flow rates are.

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EXAMPLE 5–1: A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The
inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it
takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine;
(a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and
(b) (b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

(a) the volume and mass flow rates

(b) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

Discussion It can be shown that the average velocity in the hose is 2.4 m/s.
Therefore, the nozzle increases the water velocity by over six times.
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 1.Fixed Nondeforming Control Volume
In many applications of fluid Mechanics, an appropriate control volume is fixed and
nondeforming control volume.
Example 5.1
Seawater flows steadily through a simple conical-shaped nozzle at the end of a fire hose as
illustrated in Fig. E5.1. If the nozzle exit velocity must be at least 20 m/s, determine the minimum
pumping capacity required in m3/s.

Solution: The pumping capacity sought is the

volume flowrate delivered by the fire pump to the
hose and nozzle. Since we desire knowledge about
the pump discharge flowrate and we have
information about the nozzle exit flowrate, we link
these two flowrates with the control volume
designated with the dashed line in Fig. E5.1. This
control volume contains, at any instant, seawater that
is within the hose and nozzle from the pump
discharge to the nozzle exit plane.
 5–3 MECHANICAL ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:

Flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy

Mechanical energy change:

• The mechanical energy of a fluid does not

change during flow if its pressure, density,
velocity, and elevation remain constant.

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 Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an ideal
generator. In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced power is
proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the upstream to the
downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water pressure from just upstream to
just downstream of the turbine.
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 The available mechanical energy of water
at the bottom is equivalent to that at the
top. The transfer of mechanical energy is
usually accomplished by a rotating shaft,
and thus mechanical work is often referred
to as shaft work.

A pump or a fan receives shaft work and transfers it to the fluid as

mechanical energy.

A turbine, on the other hand, converts the mechanical energy of a

fluid to shaft work.

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Shaft work: The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a rotating
shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and transfers it to
the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses).
A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft work.

Mechanical efficiency of a device

or process

The effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical work supplied or
extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the pump efficiency and
turbine efficiency,

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 The mechanical efficiency of a fan is the ratio of the kinetic
energy of air at the fan exit to the mechanical power input.

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 Motor efficiency

Generator efficiency

Pump-Motor overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator overall efficiency:

The overall efficiency of a turbine–generator is the product

of the efficiency of the turbine and the efficiency of the
generator, and represents the fraction of the mechanical
energy of the fluid converted to electric energy.
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The efficiencies just defined range between 0 and 100%.
0% corresponds to the conversion of the entire mechanical or electric
energy input to thermal energy (losses)

100% corresponds to the case of perfect conversion with no friction or

other irreversibilities, and thus no conversion of mechanical or electric
energy to thermal energy (no losses).

For systems that involve only mechanical forms of energy

and its transfer as shaft work, the conservation of energy is

Emech, loss : The conversion of mechanical energy to thermal

energy due to irreversibilities such as friction.

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EXAMPLE 5–3:The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the
installation of a hydraulic turbine–generator at a location where the depth of the
water is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power
generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95 percent,
determine;
The overall efficiency of the turbine–generator,
The mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and
The shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator.

Assumptions 1 The elevation of the lake remains constant. 2 The mechanical energy
of water at the turbine exit is negligible.

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(a) the overall efficiency of the turbine–generator

(b) Knowing the overall and generator efficiencies, the mechanical efficiency of the turbine is
determined from

(c) The shaft power output is determined from the definition of mechanical efficiency

Discussion Note that the lake supplies 2455 kW of mechanical energy to the
turbine, which converts 1964 kW of it to shaft work that drives the generator,
which generates 1862 kW of electric power. There are irreversible losses through
each component.
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EXAMPLE 5–4:The motion of a steel ball in a
hemispherical bowl of radius h shown in Figure is to be
analyzed. The ball is initially held at the highest location
at point A, and then it is released. Obtain relations for
the conservation of energy of the ball for the cases of
frictionless and actual motions.

Solution A steel ball is released in a bowl. Relations for the energy balance are to be obtained

Assumptions The motion is frictionless, and thus friction between the ball, the bowl, and the air
is negligible.

There is no energy transfer by heat or mass and no change in the internal energy of the ball (the
heat generated by frictional heating is dissipated to the surrounding air). The frictional work term
wfriction is often expressed as eloss to represent the loss (conversion) of mechanical energy into
thermal energy. For the idealized case of frictionless motion, the last relation reduces to

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