SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Delhi-NCR Campus, Ghaziabad

Subject Name-Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Subject Code: 21PYB102J

Module-02
(CARRIER TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN SEMICONDUCTORS)

Video-02
By

Dr. Anuradha Shukla

Assistant Professor, Physics
Table of contents

 Intrinsic Semiconductor & Extrinsic Semiconductor

 Fermi level for Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
 Carrier generation and recombination
 Drift and Diffusion current density
 Continuity equation in Semiconductor
 PN junction in forward-biased and reverse-biased
 Metal semiconductor Junction
 Non-rectifying junction or Ohmic junction
 Semiconductor material for optoelectronic application
 Light-emitting diode, Organic light-emitting diodes
Intrinsic semiconductors:
An Intrinsic Semiconductor is the purest form of a semiconductor.
elemental, without any impurities.

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons is equal

to the number of holes and is called the intrinsic carrier
concentration. n=p

At T = 0K, an intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator.

Extrinsic semiconductors
Extrinsic Semiconductors or impurity Semiconductors, is ‘Doped Semiconductor’
Crystals of Silicon and Germanium are doped using two types of dopants: Pentavalent (valency 5); like
Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc. Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron
(B), Aluminium (Al), etc. These dopants give rise to two types of semiconductors:
n-type
p-type

n-type semiconductor

p-type semiconductor
Fermi level of Intrinsic semiconductor

3/ 2
 2 m kT  *
 E F − Ec 
n = 2   e
exp 
 kT 
2
 h 
electron − density
3
 2m  k T 2

 EV − E F 
p = 2 h
 . exp 
 KT 
2
 h 
hole − density
Since n = p in intrinsic semiconductors
3 3
 2 m k T 
* 2
 E F − E c   2 m k T 2  Ev − E F 

2 e
 exp
  = 2 h
 exp 
 kT   h  kT 
2 2
 h  
int rinsic _ condition : −n = p
 2 EF 3  mh    E + Ec  3kT  mh   E v + E c 
= loge  *  + loge  exp v  EF = log e  *  +  
   kT 
kT 2  me   4  me   2 

If we assume that,
m*e = m*h

 Ev + Ec 
EF = 
 2 
 Fermi energy for Extrinsic Semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductor
 
 
( Ec + Ed ) kT  Nd 
EF = + ln  3/ 2 
2 2   2 me* kT  
 2
 h 2

 
   

At 0 K,
E

(Ec + E d )
EF =
2

T
P -Type Semiconductor

 
 
 Ev + E a  kT  Na 
EF =  − ln  
  
3/ 2
2 2 
 2 2 m * kT  

h
 
  
2
h 
At 0 K, E

Ev + Ea
EF =
2kT

T
 Carrier Generation & Carrier Recombination
Carrier generation describes processes by which electrons gain energy and move from the
valence band to the conduction band, producing two mobile carriers; while
recombination describes processes by which a conduction band electron loses energy and re-
occupies the energy state of an electron hole in the valence band.

✓Photon transition (or) Optical generation/recombination

✓Phonon transition (or) Shockley-Read-Hall generation/recombination

✓Auger generation/recombination (or) Three particle transitions

✓Impact ionization
1. Photon Transition
Direct generation/recombination process. During photon-
assisted recombination an electron from the conduction
band re-combines with a hole in the valence band. The
excess energy is transferred to a photon. The reverse
process obtains its energy from radiation and generates an
electron-hole pair.

2. Phonon Transition (OR) Shockley-Read-Hall

generation/recombination
3. Auger generation/recombination (or) Three particle transitions

Electron capture. An electron from the conduction band moves to the valence band neutralizing a hole
in the valence band. The excess energy is transferred to an electron in the conduction band.

Hole capture. Again, an electron from the conduction band moves to the valence band and recombines
with a valence hole. The excess energy is, in contrast to Process 1, transferred to another hole in the
valence band.
Electron emission. A highly energetic electron from the conduction band transfers its energy to an
electron in the valence band. The valence electron moves to the conduction band generating an
electron hole pair.
Hole emission. A highly energetic hole from the valence band transfers its energy to an electron in the
valence band which is then excited to the conduction band generating an electron hole pair.

4. Impact ionization
Two partial processes can be distinguished:

Electron emission. A highly energetic electron from the

conduction band transfers its energy to an electron in the
valence band. The valence electron moves to the
conduction band generating an electron hole pair.

Hole emission. A highly energetic hole from the valence

band transfers its energy to an electron in the valence
band which is then excited to the conduction band
generating an electron hole pair.
Drift current
The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied electric field is called drift current.
In a semiconductor, there are two types of charge carriers, they are electrons and holes. When the voltage is
applied to a semiconductor, the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes
move towards the negative terminal of a battery.

The average velocity that an electron or hole achieved due

to the applied voltage or electric field is called drift velocity.

Vn = µnE for electron

Jn= enµnE
Vp = µpE for holes
Jp= peµpE

Then the total drift current density is

J = Jn + Jp

= enµnE + epµpE
J = e (nµn + pµp) E
J (drift) = Jn (drift) + Jp (drift)

J (drift) = n μn eE + p μp eE

Comparison with J = σ E

σ= n μn e + p μp e

For an intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

σi = nie(μn + μp )
 Diffusion current
The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a semiconductor moves from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion.

Concentration gradient

The diffusion current density is directly proportional to

the concentration gradient.

𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑛 ∝ 𝐽𝑝 =∝
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
Where Dn is the diffusion coefficent of electrons J = Jn + Jp
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑝𝐷𝑝 Jn = Drift current + Diffusion current
𝑑𝑥
Where Dp is the diffusion coefficent of holes Jp = Drift current + Diffusion current
Continuity Equation in Semiconductor:

The Continuity Equation in Semiconductor states a condition of dynamic equilibrium for the
concentration of mobile carriers in any elementary volume of the semiconductor.

carrier concentration in the body of a semiconductor is a function of both time and distance. The
differential equation governing this functional relationship, called the Continuity Equation in Semiconductor

𝒅𝒏 𝒙,𝒕 𝑱𝒏 𝑱𝒏
𝑨.𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙,𝒕 − 𝒙,𝒕 𝑨.𝒅𝒙 + 𝑮𝒏 𝒙,𝒕 − 𝑹𝒏 𝒙,𝒕 𝑨.𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒒 𝒒

𝑑𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 𝐽𝑝 𝐽𝑝
𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑥, 𝑡 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐺𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝑅𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑞 𝑞
PN Junction in Forward Bias
PN Junction in Reverse Bias
Metal-semiconductor junction: Ohmic Contact and Schottky
Junction
The metal-semiconductor junction is the oldest practical semiconductor device.

It can be either rectifying or non-rectifying.

The rectifying semiconductor junction is called as Schottky diode and the non-rectifying junction is called as
an ohmic contact.

Whenever, the work function of n type semiconductor is smaller than that of metal or the work function of p
type semiconductor is greater than that of metal, it forms rectifying or Schottky junction.

Let φm and φs be the work function of metal and n type semiconductor , respectively where
φm > φs.

When metal semiconductor contact is made, the conduction electrons begin to flow from the
semiconductor in to the metal until the Fermi energies on both sides of the junction becomes equal.
Therefore, metal becomes negative charged and the n-type semiconductor becomes positive charged. As
a result potential barrier is formed at the metal semiconductor junction equal to φm – φS =eV.
When potential is applied to the system after contact such that

N-type is connected to positive charge and metal to negative charge, the height of the barrier on the
semiconductor side increases by (Vs +V) and the metal remains unchanged. Therefore the junction is said to
be reverse biased and the current flows from metal to semiconductor.

Conversely if the voltage is reversed, so as to make semiconductor negative charge and metal positive
charge, the height of the barrier on the semiconductor side decreases by (Vs –V) and the metal remains
unchanged. Therefore the junction is said to be forward biased and the current flows from semiconductor to
metal.
For forward bias the net current increases exponentially with applied voltage and for reverse bias, the net
current is constant. Hence, the metal semiconductor contact acts like a rectifier i.e. it conducts in forward
bias but not in reverse bias and hence called as rectifying contact
Non-Rectifying Junction or Ohmic Junction
Whenever, the work function of metal is smaller than that of n type semiconductor it forms non rectifying or
ohmic junction.
φm < φs.
When metal semiconductor contact is made, the conduction electrons begin to flow from the metal to
semiconductor until the Fermi energies on both sides of the junction becomes equal. Therefore, metal
becomes positive charged and the n-type semiconductor becomes negative charged. As a result potential
barrier is formed at the metal semiconductor junction equal to φS – φm =eV.
When potential is applied to the system after contact such that

N-type is connected to positive charge and metal to negative charge, the electrons flow from
semiconductor to metal without encountering an appreciable barrier.

Conversely if the voltage is reversed, so as to make semiconductor negative charge and metal positive
charge, the electrons flow from metal to semiconductor without any change in barrier.
Thus in both the cases the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage in accordance with ohms
law. Such contacts are called as ohmic contacts.

Thus, a Ohmic junction behaves as a resistor conducting in both forward and reverse bias. The resistivity is
determined by the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor
Semiconductor material for optoelectronic applications
Major semiconducting materials used for optoelectronics are
III – V and II – VI groups.
Among the two groups of semiconductors, III – V is more suitable
as they are direct band gap materials which is necessary
condition needed for opto electronic devices to convert electrical
energy into light energy conversion.
III – V materials – Column III and V in the periodic table
III column – Al, Ga, In
V column - N, P, As, Sb

Important applications for some III – V semiconducting materials

AlGaAs – Light emitter and modulator

GaInAsP – Optoelectronic device

AlGaInP – Red Emitter LED, GaAsP – Visible LED,

AlGaAsSb – Light emitter and detector
 WHAT IS PHOTO DIODE?

•It is a form of light-weight sensor that converts light energy into electrical voltage or current. Photodiode is a
type of semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p (positive) and n (negative) layers, an
intrinsic layer is present. The photo diode accepts light energy as input to generate electric current.
•It is also called as Photodetector, photo sensor or light detector. Photo diode operates in reverse bias
condition i.e. the p – side of the photodiode is connected with negative terminal of battery (or the power
supply) and n – side to the positive terminal of battery.

•Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium

Arsenide Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.
•Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area.
When surface area of photodiode increases, it results in more response time.
Few photo diodes will look
like Light Emitting Diode (LED). It has two
terminals as shown below. The smaller terminal
acts as cathode and longer terminal acts as anode.
•In a photodiode, the incident optical signal generates electron-hole pairs that gives rise to a
photo current across PN junction.
•When a PN junction is illuminated with light of photon energy (E) greater than Eg, photons are
absorbed in semiconductor and electron-hole pairs are generated both in n-region and p-region
of the junction.

•For the electron-hole pair to contribute towards current in external circuit, the generated electron and
holes must be separated before they recombine.
 PHOTO CURRENT IN PHOTO DIODE
•Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN
junction, covalent bonds are ionized. This generates hole
and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to
generation of electron-hole pairs. Electron hole pairs are
formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the
diode.
•When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it
hits the atom with high energy. This results in release of
electron from atom structure. After the electron release,
free electrons and hole are produced.
 The photo generated current in the depletion
region is

I1 = Ae  Gdx = eGWA

•So total current due to carriers in the neutral region and the
depletion region is given by I L = eGL ( L p + Ln + W ) A
 What is LED?
LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit radiation by
electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
quanta of light energy released is approximately proportional to the band gap of the
semiconductor..

•LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They

are frequently used as "pilot" lights in electronic
appliances to indicate whether the circuit is closed
or not.
Principle
•The p-n junction diode is forward biased. Due to forward bias, the majority carriers from ‘n’ and ‘p’ regions
cross the junction and become minority carriers in the other junction (i.e.) Electrons, which are majority
carriers in ‘n’ region cross the junction and go to ‘p’ region and become minority carriers in p-region.
Similarly, holes which are majority carries in ‘p’ region cross the junction and go to ‘n’ region and
become minority carriers in ‘n’ region and this phenomenon is called minority carrier injection.
Radiative Recombination

Now if the biasing voltage is further increased, these excess minority

carriers diffuse away from the junction and they directly recombine with
the majority carriers. (i.e.) the electrons, which are excess minority
carriers in p-region recombine with the holes which are the majority
carriers in ‘p’ region and emit light. Similarly, the holes which are excess
minority carriers in ‘n’ region recombine with the electrons which are
majority carriers in ‘n’ region and emit light.
Thus radiative recombination events lead to photon emission. The number of radiative
recombination is proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence to the total current
flowing through the device as given by   eV  
I =I 0 exp   − 1
   kT  

The optical photon emitted due to radiative recombination has the energy very close to the
band gap energy Eg and the frequency of the emitted photon is given by hc
= Eg

LED Construction

An LED must be constructed such that the light emitted by the radiative recombination events can
escape the structure.
most LEDs used
Surface Emitting LED in Data communications

Surface-emitting LEDs (SLEDs) have a thin active layer parallel to the

surface from which the light extracted.
the active layer is just below the emitting surface, and the current
is applied with a ring electrode.
 Edge Emitting LED
It is widely used in optical fiber communication system. Here collimated light from LED is
required to be fed into the fiber with high coupling efficiency.

Central active layer is made using InGaAs having narrow bandgap. It is bounded by wide
bandgap layers such as p+ InGaAsP and n+ InP cladding layers.

• These two cladding layers help in confining injected electrons and holes into the middle
layer. It also helps emitted photons to travel along LED axis as per optical properties.

• Due to above, light is emitted from the edge of the LED. Hence it is known by the name
edge emitting LED.
 ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (OLED)
They are thin-film organic semiconductor light emitting devices. OLED works on the same principle of
electro-luminescence. Anode is transparent and made of indium tin oxide. Cathode is reflective and
made of metal. When an external potential is applied across the electrodes, positive and negative
charges are injected. These electrons and holes shift inside the material and re-combine to form
excitons and consecutively emits photons.

Structure of OLED: OLED structure consists of Cathode, Emissive Layer, Conductive Layer, Anode
and substrate. It uses thin film of organic material sandwiched between two
electrodes viz. anode and cathode.

Substrate – Clean glass / plastic

Anode – Positively charged (Indium Tin Oxide) which ejects holes
Organic layer –Emissive and Conductive layers –Polyaniline and Polyfluorene
Cathode – Negatively charged which injects electrons
Conjugated polymers are having characteristics of LED and having energy gap (Eg) same like
semiconductors by doping with p-type/ n-type materials used for light emission
Working Principle:
1. The battery or power supply of the device containing the OLED applies a voltage across the OLED.
 2.An electrical current flows from the cathode to the anode through the organic layers (an electrical
current is a flow of electrons). The cathode gives electrons to the emissive layer of organic molecules. The
anode removes electrons from the conductive layer of organic molecules. (This is the equivalent to giving
electron holes to the conductive layer.)

3. At the boundary between the emissive and the conductive layers, electrons find electron holes. When an
electron finds an electron hole, the electron fills the hole (it falls into an energy level of the atom that's
missing an electron). When this happens, the electron gives up energy in the form of a photon of light.
4. The OLED emits light.
5. The color of the light depends on the type of organic molecule in the emissive layer. Manufacturers
place several types of organic films on the same OLED to make color displays.
6. The intensity or brightness of the light depends on the amount of electrical current applied: the more
current, the brighter the light.
TYPES OF OLED

1. Passive-matrix OLED (PMOLED) – PMOLEDs have strips of cathode, organic layers and strips
of anode. The anode strips are arranged perpendicular to the cathode strips. The
intersections of the cathode and anode make up the pixels where light is emitted. External
circuitry applies current to selected strips of anode and cathode, determining which pixels
get turned on and which pixels remain off. Again, the brightness of each pixel is
proportional to the amount of applied current.

PMOLEDs are easy to make, but they consume more power than
other types of OLED

PMOLEDs are most efficient for text and icons and are best suited
for small screens (2- to 3-inch diagonal) such as those you find in cell
phones, Personal Digital Assistants ( PDAs) and MP3 players
2. Active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) – AMOLEDs have full layers of cathode, organic molecules and anode, but
the anode layer overlays a thin film transistor (TFT) array that forms a matrix. The TFT array itself is the circuitry
that determines which pixels get turned on to form an image.

AMOLEDs consume less power than PMOLEDs because the TFT array
requires less power than external circuitry, so they are efficient for large
displays. AMOLEDs also have faster refresh rates suitable for video. The
best uses for AMOLEDs are computer monitors, large-screen TVs and
electronic signs or billboards.
OLED Advantages
✓The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the crystalline layers in an
LED or LCD.

✓ OLED are lighter, the substrate of an OLED can be flexible

✓ OLEDs are easier to produce and can be made to larger sizes.

✓ OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees.

✓ Consume much less power

OLED disadvantages
✓it costs more to produce an OLED than it does to produce an LCD.

✓ OLEDs have limited lifetime, OLEDs can also be problematic in direct sunlight,
✓ Water - Water can easily damage OLEDs
Thank You