AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism

Unit 7 Practice Exercises

Directions: Show the steps required to arrive at the answer (if applicable). Work the problems on separate page.

7.1 – Electric Charge

1. How does the attraction of electrons to the atomic nucleus differ in a conductor vs. an insulator? How does
this allow conductors to better allow the flow of charge? Answer in a complete sentence.
Electrons are more tightly bound to the nucleus in insulators. In conductors, it’s easier for electrons to
flow since they are not as tightly bound to a nucleus.

2. A glass object receives a positive charge by rubbing it with a silk cloth. In the rubbing process, have protons
been added to the object or have electrons been removed from it?
The glass loses electrons.

3. Two initially uncharged conductors, 1 and 2, are mounted on insulating

stands and are in contact as shown on the right. A negatively charged rod is
brought near but does not touch them. With the rod held in place, conductor 2 is
moved to the right by pushing its stand, so that the conductors are separated.
What is the charge on conductor 2? Justify your answer.
Conductor 2 will have a negative charge since positive charge will be attracted to the rod and positive
charge will migrate to conductor 1 (electrons enter conductor 2).

4. An uncharged electroscope’s knob is touched by a positively charged rod and then the rod is removed.
a) What is the type of charge on the knob of the electroscope after the rod is removed? +
b) What is the type of charge on the leaves of the electroscope after the rod is removed? +
c) What is the net charge on the electroscope after the rod is removed? +
d) By which process was the scope charged by? Conduction
e) Are the leaves diverged or collapsed after the rod is removed? Diverged

7.2 – Coulomb’s Law

1. Two protons in a molecule are 3.8x10-10 m apart.
a) Find the magnitude of the electric force exerted by one proton on the other. 1.6x10-9 N
b) State how the magnitude of this force compares with the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted
by one proton on the other. The gravitational force is much weaker. In addition, the gravitational
force is attractive while the electrostatic force is repulsive.

2. Three point charges lie along a straight line as shown below, where 𝑞1 = 6.00 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞2 = 1.50 𝜇𝐶 and 𝑞3 =
−2.00 𝜇𝐶. The separation distances are 𝑑1 = 3.00 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑑2 = 2.00 𝑐𝑚.

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the net electric charge on q1, q2, and q3.

q1= -47 N
q2= 158 N
q3= 110 N
3. Two small beads having positive charges 𝑞1 = 3𝑞 and 𝑞2 = 𝑞 are fixed at the opposite ends of a horizontal
insulating rod of length d = 1.50 m. The bead with charge q1 is at the origin. A third small, charged bead is free
to slide on the rod. At what position x is the third bead in equilibrium?

𝒌𝒒𝟐 𝒌𝟑𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝑭=𝟎= 𝟐
− 𝟐
→ 𝟐= → 𝒙 = 𝒙 =. 𝟓𝟒 𝒎
𝒙 (𝒅 − 𝒙) 𝒙 (𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 )
4. Two particles, each of particle +Q, are fixed at opposite corners of a square that lies in
the plane of this page. A positive charge +q is placed at a third corner.
a) What is the direction of the force on the test charge due to the other charges?
b) If F is the magnitude of the force on the test charge due to only one of the other
charges, what is the magnitude of the net force acting on the charge due to both of
these charges?

a)

b)
5. As shown in the figure, three charges are at the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
a) What is the direction of net electrical force on the 1.0 nC charge due to the
other two charges.
b) What is the magnitude of the net electrical force on the 1.0 nC charge due to
the other two charges.

a) Due to positive charge: Due to negative charge:

Adding the two vectors: (horizontal)

6. Two charged objects are connected to fixed walls, as shown. The charge
on sphere A is 6.8 x 10-5 C and the charge of sphere B is -7.9 x 10-5 C.
Calculate:
a) the mass of sphere B and
b) the tension in the rope attached to sphere B.

7. The charge on a proton is 1.6x10-19 C. A hydrogen atom contains an electron and a proton separated by a
5.0x10-11 m. The mass of an electron is 9.11x10-31 kg. If the electron orbited the proton in a circular orbit:
a) Calculate the orbital speed.
b) Calculate the period of the orbit.
8. Two small metallic spheres, each of mass m =0.200 g, are suspended as pendulums by light
strings of length L as shown. The spheres are given the same electric charge of 7.2 nC, and they
come to equilibrium when each string is at an angle of 𝜽 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎° with the vertical. How long
are the strings?
7.3 – Electric Field
1. A 26 𝜇𝐶 charge experiences a force of 8.9 N in an electric field.
a) What is the electric field at the point where the charge is located?
b) What force would a 34 𝜇𝐶 charge experience in the same field?

2. Other than infinity, in which region will the electric field be zero in the configuration shown below?

Between II and III, because physics.

3. The square of side 𝑎 shown contains a positive test charge +𝑄 fixed at the lower corner
and negative point charges −𝑄 fixed at the other three corners of the square. Point P is
located at the center of the square.
a) Indicate the direction of the net electric field at point P.

b) Derive an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at point P.

c) Describe one way to replace a single charge in this configuration that would make
the electric field at the center of the square equal to zero. Justify your answer.
Replace the top right negative charge with a positive charge OR replace the bottom left positive charge
with a negative charge. The vector fields/forces all cancel from oppositely located same charge pairs.
4. Two small objects, each with a charge of -4.0 nC, are held together by a
0.020 m length of insulating string as shown in the diagram above. The
objects are initially at rest on a horizontal, nonconducting frictionless surface.
The effect of gravity on each object due to the other is negligible.’
a) Calculate the tension in the string.

c) Illustrate the electric field by drawing electric field lines for the two objects.
Both negative charges, so they repel.

The masses of the objects are m1 = 0.030 kg and m2 = 0.060 kg. The string is now cut.
d) Calculate the magnitude of the initial acceleration of each object.
The only force acting on either sphere is now the electrostatic force, which is equal to the value calculated in
part a). This is now a simple matter of Effeekwalsemeh.

e) Qualitatively sketch a graph of the acceleration a of the object of mass m2 versus the distance d
between the objects after the string has been cut.

Electrostatic force will decrease and approach zero asymptotically, so the acceleration will do the same.

f) Describe qualitatively what happens to the speeds of the objects as time increases, assuming that the
objects remain on the horizontal, nonconducting frictionless surface.
The two objects will always have a repelling force, so the speed will always increase. However, the
acceleration, the rate at which the speeds increase, will decay asymptotically towards 0, since the electrostatic
static force gets weaker (but never fully dissipates) the further the objects move away from each other.
5. Three point charges lie along a circle of radius r at angles of 30o, 150o, and 2700 as shown. Find a symbolic
expression for the resultant electric field at the center of the circle.

The x-component of the electric of the electric field will cancel out. Pretty righteous.
𝑘𝑞 𝑘(2𝑞) 𝑘𝑞 2𝑘𝑞 𝒌𝒒
𝐸𝑦 = 2 2 sin 30 − 2
= 2− 2 =− 𝟐
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝒓

6. A small, 2.00-g plastic ball is suspended by a 20.0-cmlong string in a uniform

electric field as shown. If the ball is in equilibrium when the string makes a 15.0°
angle with the vertical, what is the net charge on the ball?
𝑚𝑔
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑇 =
cos 𝜃

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 = 𝐹𝐸 − 𝑇 sin 𝜃 → 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝐸𝑞 = ( ) sin 𝜃 → 𝑞 =
cos 𝜃 𝐸
𝑚
(. 002 𝑘𝑔) (9.8 2 ) tan 15°
𝑞= 𝑠 = 5.25𝑥10−6 𝐶
𝑁
(1000 𝐶 )
𝒒 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟓 𝝁𝑪

7. Draw a vector representing the direction of the electric field at the point marked (for a positive test charge).
a) b)

8. A thin insulating semicircle of total charge Q with radius R is center around a point, P. Determine the electric
field at point P due to the semicircle of charge.
Consider all the small arches of charge, dQ, that make an angle of 𝜽, with the x-axis. (the x-component of
charge cancels out).
𝑘𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝐸 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝑅
where: 𝑑𝑄 = λRdθ
𝑄
𝑘(𝜋𝑅 )𝑅𝑑𝜃 𝑘𝑄 𝜋 𝑘𝑄 𝟐𝒌𝑸
𝑑𝐸 = 2
sin 𝜃 → 𝐸 = 2
∫ sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 2
(− cos 𝜋 − − cos 0) =
𝑅 𝜋𝑅 0 𝜋𝑅 𝝅𝑹𝟐
9. A uniform charge of 𝜎 C/m extends from (-L,0) to (0,0). Find the magnitude of the electric field due to this
charge distribution at point (a,0).
0
𝑘𝑑𝑄 𝜎𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 0 1 1 𝒌𝝈𝑳
𝑑𝐸 = 2 = → 𝐸 = 𝑘𝜎 ∫ = 𝑘𝜎 ( ) | = 𝑘𝜎 ( − ) =
𝑅 (𝑎 − 𝑥)2 2
−𝐿 (𝑎 − 𝑥 ) 𝑎 − 𝑥 −𝐿 𝑎+𝐿 𝑎 𝒂(𝒂 + 𝑳)

10. Negative electric charge is distributed uniformly around a quarter of a circle of radius
a, with total charge -Q. What are the x and y components of the resultant at the center of
curvature (point P)?
Ex and Ey are equal, so only one of these needs to be calculated.

𝑄
𝑘 ( 𝜋𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑑𝜃
𝑘𝑑𝑄 2
𝑑𝐸 = 2 cos 𝜃 → cos 𝜃 →
𝑎 𝑎2
2𝑘𝑄 𝜋/2 2𝑘𝑄 𝜋 𝟐𝒌𝑸 𝑸
𝐸= 2
∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2
(sin ( ) − sin 0) → 𝐸 = 𝟐
=
𝜋𝑎 0 𝜋𝑎 2 𝝅𝒂 𝟐𝝅 ∈𝟎 𝒂𝟐
𝟐

11. A particle of mass m and charge q enters an electric field with velocity v, parallel to two oppositely charged
plates as shown below. The particle travels a distance d between the plates and L after the plates. The electric
field between the plates is E. What is the deflection y, in terms of given variables?
7.4 – Gauss’s Law
1. A cubical surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe what happens to the total flux through the surface if
a) the charge is doubled Flux doubles
b) the volume of the cube is doubled No
c) the surface is changed to a sphere No
d) the charge is moved to another location inside the surface No
e) the charge is moved outside the surface. Becomes zero

2. A uniform electric field exists in a region of space containing no charges. What can you conclude about the
net electric flux through a gaussian surface placed in this region of space?
The flux is zero. There is no charge enclosed in the surface.

3. If more electric field lines leave a gaussian surface than enter it, what can you conclude about the net charge
enclosed by that surface?
There is a positive net charge in the surface producing field lines lines.

4. A vertical electric field of magnitude 2.00 x 104 N/C exists above the Earth’s surface on a day when a
thunderstorm is brewing. A car with a rectangular size of 6.00 m by 3.00 m is traveling along a dry gravel
roadway sloping downward at 10.0o. Determine the electric flux through the bottom of the car.
𝑵 𝑵
∅ = (𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ) (𝟔𝒎)(𝟑𝒎) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟎° = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝒄 𝑪𝒎𝟐
5. Consider a closed triangular box resting within a horizontal
electric field of magnitude E = 7.80x104 N/C as shown. Calculate
the electric flux through
a) the vertical rectangular surface

𝑵 𝑵
∅ = (𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 ) (. 𝟏𝒎)(. 𝟑𝒎) = −𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟎
𝒄 𝑪𝒎𝟐
b) the slanted surface
𝑵 . 𝟏𝟎 𝑵
∅ = (𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 ) ( ) (. 𝟑𝒎) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎° = 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎° 𝑪𝒎𝟐
c) the entire surface of the box. Zero

6. The electric field everywhere on the surface of a thin, spherical shell of radius 0.750 m is of magnitude 890
N/C and points radially toward the center of the sphere.
a) What is the net charge within the sphere’s surface?
𝑸 𝑵
∅ = ∮ 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨 = 𝝐 → 𝑸 = 𝑬𝑨𝝐𝟎 = (𝟖𝟗𝟎 𝑪 )(𝟒𝝅)(. 𝟕𝟓𝒎)𝟐 (𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 ) = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔 𝒏𝑪
𝟎
b) What is the distribution of the charge inside the spherical shell?
𝑸 𝟓𝟓.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪 −𝟗 𝑵
𝝈= = = 𝟕. 𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎
𝑨 (𝟒𝝅)(.𝟕𝟓𝒎)𝟐 𝒎𝟐

7. In the air over a particular region at an altitude of 500 m above the ground, the electric field is 120 N/C
directed downward. At 600 m above the ground, the electric field is 100 N/C downward. What is the average
volume charge density in the layer of air between these two elevations?
Any surface at an altitude will have flux equal to E(area of that surface). The area of any surface at that altitude
doesn’t matter as it will cancel.
𝑵 𝑵
𝑸 𝝐𝟎 (𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑪 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑪 ) 𝑨
𝝆= = = 𝟏. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪/𝒎𝟑
𝑽 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎)(𝑨)
8. A particle with charge of 12.0 mC is placed at the center of a spherical shell of radius 22.0 cm. What is the
total electric flux through
a) the surface of the shell?
𝑄 12𝑥10−3 𝐶 9 𝑵
∅= = = 1.3𝑥10
𝜖0 8.85𝑥10−12 𝑪𝒎𝟐
b) any hemispherical surface of the shell?
𝑵
The field is uniform so half of a); 0.678𝑥108
𝑪𝒎𝟐

7.5 – Applications of Gauss’s Law

1. A 10.0-g piece of Styrofoam carries a net charge of -700 𝜇C and is suspended in equilibrium above the
center of a large, horizontal sheet of plastic that has a uniform charge density on its surface. What is the charge
per unit area on the plastic sheet?
Gravity acts down on the Styrofoam and the electrostatic force acts upwards. In class, we derived that
𝝈
the field due to a plate of charge is .
𝟐𝝐𝟎

∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 = 𝑭𝑬 − 𝑭𝒈 → 𝒒𝑬 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎 → 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒒𝑬
𝝈 𝒎𝒈𝟐𝝐𝟎
→ 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒒 ( )→𝝈= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝟐𝝐𝟎 𝒒

2. Consider a thin, spherical shell of radius 14.0 cm with a total charge of 32.0 𝜇C distributed uniformly on its
surface. Find the electric field a) 10.0 cm and b) 20.0 cm from the center of the charge distribution.
a) 0 (no charge is enclosed since this we are inside the radius of the hollow shell).
b) All the charge of the sphere is enclosed in a Gaussian surface with a radius of 20 cm.
𝒌𝑸 (𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 )(𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑪)
𝑬= 𝟐 = = 𝟕. 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝑪
𝒓 (. 𝟐𝟎 𝒎)𝟐

3. The charge per unit length on a long, straight filament is 290.0 mC/m. Find the electric field a) 10.0 cm and
b) 100 cm from the filament, where distances are measured perpendicular to the length of the filament.
𝛌
In class, we derived that 𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝝐 𝒓 for a long line of charge and there was a math competition this
𝟎
weekend so I’m not going to go through deriving that again on the homework solutions.
a) 5.2x1011 N/c b) 5.2x1010 N/c

3. A solid, non-conducting sphere of radius a has a charge of +2Q distributed uniformly throughout its volume.
A conducting shell with an inner radius of b and an outer radius of c is located concentrically around the solid
sphere, and has a net charge of –Q. Express all answers in terms of the given values and fundamental constants.

a) Use Gauss’s Law to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field E at a point located r
away from the center of the spheres, where r > c.
 Create a concentric Gaussian sphere around with a radius greater than c.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 2𝑄 − 𝑄 𝑄 𝒌𝑸
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = → 𝐸𝐴 = → 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = →𝐸= =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝒓𝟐
b) Use Gauss’s Law to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field E at a point located r
away from the center of the spheres, where b > r > a.
Create a concentric Gaussian sphere around with a radius in the zone between the two shells.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 2𝑄 2𝑄 𝟐𝒌𝑸
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = → 𝐸𝐴 = → 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = →𝐸= =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝒓𝟐
c) Identify the total amount of charge induced on the inner surface of the conducting shell, at radius b.
On the inner surface of the conducting shell, –2Q worth of charge is attracted to the +2Q
charge on the inner sphere.
d) Identify the total amount of charge induced on the outer surface of the conducting shell, at radius c.
If there is a net charge of –1Q on the conducting shell, and –2Q at the interior, there must be
+1Q on the outer shell.
e) Use Gauss’s Law to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field E as a function of r,
where r < a.
𝟐𝑸 𝟒 𝟑
𝟒 𝟑 (𝟑 𝝅𝒓 )
𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄 𝝆𝑽 𝟑 𝝅𝒂 𝟐𝑸𝒓𝟑 𝟐𝑸𝒓
∮ 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑨 = → 𝑬(𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) = = → 𝑬(𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) = 𝟑
→𝑬=
𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝟎 𝒂 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒂𝟑
f) Sketch a graph of electric field E as a function of radius r, from r = 0 to 2c, with radii a, b, and c
clearly identified.

4. A very long, solid, nonconducting cylinder of radius R has a positive charge of uniform volume density r . A
section of the cylinder far from its ends is shown in the diagram above. Let r represent the radial distance from
the axis of the cylinder. Express all answers in terms of r, R, r, and fundamental constants, as appropriate.

a) Using Gauss’s law, derive an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at a radius r < R. Draw
an appropriate Gaussian surface on the diagram.
b) Using Gauss’s law, derive an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at a radius r > R.

c) Sketch the graph of electric field E as a function of radial distance r for r = 0 to r = 2R. Explicitly
label any intercepts, asymptotes, maxima, or minima with numerical values or algebraic expressions, as
appropriate.

c) Derive an expression for the magnitude of the potential difference between r = 0 and r = R .

d) The nonconducting cylinder is replaced with a conducting cylinder of the same shape and same linear
charge density. Sketch the electric field E as a function of r for r = 0 to r = 2R. Explicitly label any
 intercepts, asymptotes, maxima, or minima with numerical values or algebraic expressions, as
appropriate.

5. An infinitely long cylindrical conductor has a radius a and a linear charge

density of –λ as shown above. The conductor is surrounded by a cylindrical
shell made of a nonconducting material of inner radius b, outer radius c, and
with a constant volume charge density of +ρ. The conductor and nonductor are
located concentrically about a common axis.
a) Determine the net electric flux per unit length passing through a
cylindrically symmetric Gaussian surface located just outside the surface
of the conductor.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 – λL ∅ – 𝛌
∅= = → =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝑳 𝝐𝟎
b) Use Gauss’s Law to determine the magnitude of the electric field E as a function of radius r, where:
i. r<a
Inside the conductor, there is no charge—charges in an electrical conductor all
reside at the surface. Therefore, E = 0.
ii. a<r<b
A Gaussian cylinder with a radius in the specified zone can be used.
𝑸 –𝛌𝐋 –𝛌 –𝟐𝐤𝛌
∮ 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝝐𝒆𝒏𝒄 → 𝑬(𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳) = 𝝐 → 𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝝐 𝒓 = 𝒓
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
iii. r>c
There are two sources of enclosed charge for this one. The Gaussian cylinder will again be
cylinder around the whole region.
𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄 –𝛌𝐋+𝛒(𝛑𝐋(𝒄𝟐 −𝒃𝟐 )) 𝝆𝝅(𝒄𝟐 −𝒃𝟐 )−𝛌
∮ 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝝐𝟎
→ 𝑬(𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑳) = 𝝐𝟎
→𝑬= 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝝐𝟎

6. A nonconducting, thin, spherical shell has a uniform surface charge density 𝜎 on its outside surface and no
charge anywhere else inside.
a) Use Gauss’s law to prove that the electric field inside the shell is zero everywhere. Describe the
Gaussian surface that you use.

a) The charges are now redistributed so that the surface charge density is no longer uniform. Is the electric
field still zero everywhere inside the shell. Justify your answer.
 No, with a non-symmetric distribution, the fields from individual charges no longer have the net
effect of completely canceling inside the shell.
Now consider a small conducting sphere with charge +Q whose center is at corner A of a cubical surface, as
shown below.

c) For which faces of the surface, if any, is the electric flux through that face equal to zero? Explain your
reasoning.
ABCD, ABGH, ADEH
The electric field from the sphere is radial, so it is parallel to the three correct faces. The electric
field vector does not penetrate the area of any of the three correct faces.
d) At which corner(s) of the surface does the electric field have the least magnitude?
A
e) Determine the electric field strength at the position(s) you have indicated in part (d).
Corner A is inside the small conducting sphere, so the electric field there is zero. All other
corners have a nonzero electric field.
f) Given that one-eighth of the sphere at point A is inside the surface, calculate the electric flux through
face CDEF.

7. A scientist describes an electrically neutral atom with a model that consists of a nucleus that is a point
particle with positive charge +Q at the center of the atom and an electron volume charge density of the form:

𝛽 −𝑟
𝜌(𝑟) = {− 𝑟2
𝑒 𝛼 𝑟<𝑎
0 𝑟>𝑎
where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are positive constants and 𝑟 is the distance from the center of the atom.
a) Sketch the graph for each of the following enclosed by a Gaussian sphere of radius r as a function of
r.
i. The nuclear charge only.

ii. The electron charge only.

b) Use Gauss’s Law to derive an expression for the electric field strength due to the neutral atom for the
following positions:
i. r > a
0, since the charge enclosed is 0.
ii. r < a

c) Based on the model, what is the physical meaning of the constant 𝑎?

Radius of the electron cloud.