Transmission and Distribution-23EEI404

2024-25

Dwarakanath S K
Assistant Professor
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Subject Code : 23EEI404 IA Marks : 50

No. of Lecture Hrs./ Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total No. of Lecture Hrs. : 50 Exam Marks : 50

Syllabus
Course Title: Transmission and distribution Course Code: 23EEI404
Module-1: Transmission & Distribution Systems
Standard voltages for generation, transmission and distribution. Advantages of high voltage
transmission. Feeders, distributors &service mains. Mechanical design of Transmission Lines-
Types of conductors, conductor materials, Calculation of sag in conductors i) At equal supports
ii) At different level supports. Effect of ice covering and wind pressure, factors affecting sag,
Numerical. Overhead Line Insulators-Types of insulators, potential distribution over a string of
suspension insulators. String efficiency & methods of improving string efficiency. Numerical.

Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying.

Module-2: Underground Cables & Corona
Underground Cables: General construction of a cable, classification of cables, material used,
expression for insulation resistance of a single core cable, dielectric stress in a single core cable,
grading of cables, capacitance grading, intersheath grading, measurement of capacitance of a
three core cable, determination of maximum current carrying capacity of underground cables.
Numerical.
Corona: -Phenomena, disruptive and visual critical voltages, corona loss. Advantages and
disadvantages of corona. Methods of reducing corona. Numerical.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-3: Line parameters

Line Parameters-Calculation of inductance of single phase, 3 phase line with equilateral &
unsymmetrical spacing (transposed), calculation of capacitance of a single-phase line and 3 phase
line with symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing (transposed) without considering the effect of
earth on transmission line capacitance, Numerical.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-4: Performance of Transmission Lines

Performance of Transmission Lines: Classification of lines, Short Transmission lines, medium
Transmission lines - nominal T method, nominal π method, numerical, long transmission lines –
Rigorous solution method (excluding numerical), ABCD constants of Transmission lines,
calculation of voltage regulation and transmission efficiency. Numerical.
 Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-5: AC Distribution, Aging and life extension techniques in Transmission &

distribution.
AC Distribution: Introduction, AC distribution with concentrated loads, AC interconnected
systems. Numerical.
Aging and life extension techniques in Transmission & Distribution
Estimation of electrical equipment lifetime, overloading and estimated life of electrical
equipment-circuit breakers, transformers, conductors, underground transmission. Temperature
and estimated life of electrical equipment, Aging factors, Aging of conductors & insulation.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Text Book
1. A Course in Electrical Power Soni Gupta and Bhatnagar Dhanpat Rai
2. 2 Principles of Power System V.K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta S. Chand 1st Edition, 2013

Reference Books
1. Power System Analysis and Design J. Duncan Gloverat el Cengage Learning 4th Edition 2008
2. Electrical power Generation, Transmission and Distribution S.N. Singh PHI 2nd Edition,2009
3. Electrical Power S.L. Uppal Khanna Publication
4. Electrical power systems C. L. Wadhwa New Age 5th Edition,
5. Electrical power systems Ashfaq Hussain CBS Publication 2009
6. Electric Power Distribution A.S. Pabla McGraw-Hill 6th Edition,2012

Course Outcomes:

CO1 Select a suitable insulator & design the transmission line for the required sag and methods
to improve string efficiency.
CO2 Develop a mathematical model of the transmission line with different configurations and
determine the parameters to analyse its performance.
CO3 Explain Construction of cables, types, specifications, classification, grading and
limitations.
CO4 Comprehend the phenomenon of corona, its effects and methods of reducing.
CO5 Explain the AC distribution with concentrated loads and interconnected systems
CO6 Understand the aging factors and life extension techniques of electrical materials and
equipment.
 Module 2
Underground cables and Corona

Underground Cables
INTRODUCTION
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground cables. The
underground cables have several advantages such as less liable to damage through storms or lightning, low
maintenance cost, less chance of faults, smaller voltage drop and better general appearance. However, their
major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages
compared with the equivalent overhead system. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it
is impracticable to use overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas where municipal
authorities prohibit overhead lines for reasons of safety, or around plants and substations or where
maintenance conditions do not permit the use of overhead construction. The chief use of underground cables
for many years has been for distribution of electric power in congested urban areas at comparatively low or
moderate voltages. However, recent improvements in the design and manufacture have led to the
development of cables suitable for use at high voltages. This has made it possible to employ underground
cables for transmission of electric power for short or moderate distances. In this chapter, we shall focus our
attention on the various aspects of underground cables and their increasing use in power system.

UNDERGROUND CABLES REQUIREMENTS

An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and
surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to be used
will depend upon the working voltage and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfil the following
necessary requirements:
(i)The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of high conductivity.
Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more current.
(ii)The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current without overheating and
causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
(iii)The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety and reliability
at the voltage for which it is designed.
(iv)The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the rough use in
laying it.
(v)The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete chemical and
physical stability throughout.
CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES
Fig shows the general construction of a 3-conductor cable. The various parts are

a) Cores or Conductors
A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of service for which it is
intended. For instance, the 3- conductor cable shown in Fig. is used for 3- phase service. The conductors are
made of tinned copper or aluminum and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
b) Insulation
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of layer depending
upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated
paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral compound.
c)Metallic sheath.
In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and
atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is provided over the insulation as shown in Fig.
d)Bedding.
Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous material like jute or hessian
tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury
due to armouring.
e) Armouring.
Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel
tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of
handling. Armouring may not be done in the case of some cables.
f) Serving.
In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar to
bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving.
It may not be out of place to mention here that bedding, armouring and serving are only applied to the cables
for the protection of conductor insulation and to protect the metallic sheath from Mechanical injury.

INSULATING MATERIALS FOR CABLES

The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of insulation used.
Therefore, the proper choice of insulating material for cables is of considerable importance. In general, the
insulating materials used in cables should have the following Properties
(i)High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
(ii)High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
(iii)High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
(iv)Non-hygroscopic., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to decrease the
insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the insulating material is hygroscopic,
it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead sheath.
(v)Non-inflammable.
(vi)Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
(vii)Unaffected by acids and alkalise to avoid any chemical action. No one insulating material possesses all
the above-mentioned properties. Therefore, the type of insulating material to be used depends upon the
purpose for which the cable is required and the quality of insulation to be aimed at. The principal insulating
materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India rubber, impregnated paper, varnished cambric and
polyvinyl chloride.

Rubber
Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical trees or it may be produced from oil products. It has
relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength is about 30 kV/mm and resistivity of
insulation is 1017 cm. Although pure rubber has reasonably high insulating properties, it suffers from some
major drawbacks viz., readily absorbs moisture, maximum safe temperature is low (about 38ºC), soft and
liable to damage due to rough handling and ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber cannot be
used as an insulating material.

Vulcanised India Rubber (V.I.R.)

It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter such as zinc oxide, red lead etc., and 3 to 5% of
sulphur. The compound so formed is rolled into thin sheets and cut into strips. The rubber compound is then
applied to the conductor and is heated to a temperature of about 150ºC. The whole process is called
vulcanisation and the product obtained is known as vulcanised India rubber. Vulcanised India rubber has
greater mechanical strength, durability and wear resistant property than pure rubber. Its main drawback is
that sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason, cables using VIR insulation have tinned
copper conductor. The VIR insulation is generally used for low and moderate voltage cables.

Impregnated paper
It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chippings and impregnated with some compound
such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. This type of insulation has almost superseded the rubber insulation.
It is because it has the advantages of low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high insulation
resistance. The only disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic and even if it is impregnated with suitable
compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the insulation resistance of the cable. For this reason, paper
insulated cables are always provided with some protective covering and are never left unsealed. If it is
required to be left unused on the site during laying, its ends are temporarily covered with wax or tar. Since
the paper insulated cables have the tendency to absorb moisture, they are used where the cable route has a
few joints. For instance, they can be profitably used for distribution at low voltages in congested areas where
the joints are generally provided only at the terminal apparatus. However, for smaller installations, where the
lengths are small and joints are required at a number of places, VIR cables will be cheaper and durable than
paper insulated cables.

Varnished cambric
It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. This type of insulation is also known as empire tape.
The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the form of a tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum
jelly compound to allow for the sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished cambric
is hygroscopic, therefore, such cables are always provided with metallic sheath. Its dielectric strength is about
4 kV/mm and permittivity is 2.5 to 3.8.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

This insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene and is
in the form of white powder. For obtaining this material as a cable insulation, it is compounded with certain
materials known as plasticizers which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer forms a gell and
renders the material plastic over the desired range of temperature. Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation
resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide range of temperatures. It is inert
to oxygen and almost inert to many alkalies and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation is preferred over
VIR in extreme environmental conditions such as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the mechanical
properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of PVC are not so good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC insulated cables are
generally used for low and medium domestic lights and power installations.

CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES
Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to
• the type of insulating material used in their manufacture
• the voltage for which they are manufactured. However, the latter method of classification is generally
preferred, according to which cables can be divided into the following groups:

Low-tension (L.T.) cables — up to 1000 V High-tension (H.T.) cables — up to 11,000 V

Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service for which it is intended. It
may be
(i)single-core
(ii) two-core
(iii)three-core
(iv)four-core etc.
For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core cable can be used depending upon the
operating voltage and load demand. Fig. shows the constructional details of a single- core low tension cable.
The cable has ordinary construction because the stresses developed in the cable for low voltages (up to 6600
V) are generally small. It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded copper (or aluminium) insulated by
layers of impregnated paper. The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which prevents the entry of
moisture into the inner parts. In order to protect the lead sheath from corrosion, an overall serving of
compounded fibrous material (jute etc.) is provided. Single-core cables are not usually armoured in order to
avoid excessive sheath losses. The principal advantages of single-core cables are simple construction and
availability of larger copper section.

Cable For 3-Phase

In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver 3-phase power. For the purpose, either three-
core cable or three single core cables may be used. For voltages upto 66 kV, 3-core cable (i.e., multi-core
construction) is preferred due to economic reasons. However, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-cables
become too large and unwieldy and, therefore, single- core cables areused. The following types of cables are
generally used for 3-phase service :
1. Belted cables — upto 11 kV
2. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV.

1.Belted Cables
These cables are used for voltages upto 11kV but in extraordinary cases, their use may be extended upto
22kV. Fig.3 shows the constructional details of a 3-core belted cable. The cores are insulated from each other
by layers of impregnated paper.
Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the grouped insulated cores. The
gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating material (jute etc.) so as to give circular cross-
section to the cable. The cores are generally stranded and may be of non-circular shape to make better use of
available space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable against ingress of moisture and
mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers of armouring with an outer serving
(not shown in the figure). The belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium voltages as the
electro static stresses developed in the cables for these voltages are more or less radial i.e., across the
insulation. However, for high voltages (beyond 22 kV), the tangential stresses also become important. These
stresses act along the layers of paper insulation. As the insulation resistance of paper is quite small along the
layers, therefore, tangential stresses set up leakage current along the layers of paper insulation. The leakage
current causes local heating, resulting in the risk of breakdown of insulation at any moment. In order to
overcome this difficulty, screened cables are used where leakage currents are conducted to earth through
metallic screens.

2. Screened Cables
These cables are meant for use up to 33 kV, but in particular cases their use may be extended to operating
voltages up to 66 kV. Two principal types of screened cables are H-type cables and S.L. type cables.
(i)H-type Cables
This type of cable was first designed by H. Hochstetler and hence the name. Fig. shows the constructional
details of a typical 3-core, H-type cable. Each core is insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation
on each core is covered with a metallic screen which usually consists of a perforated aluminum foil. The
cores are laid in such a way that metallic screens

Make contact with one another. An additional conducting belt (copper woven fabric tape) is Wrapped round
the three cores. The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armouring and serving follow as
usual. It is easy to see that each core screen is in electrical contact with the conducting belt and the lead
sheath. As all the four screens (3 core screens and one conducting belt) and the lead sheath are at earth
potential, therefore, the electrical stresses are purely radial and consequently dielectric losses are reduced.
Two principal advantages are claimed for H-type cables. Firstly, the perforations in the metallic screens assist
in the complete impregnation of the cable with the compound and thus the possibility of air pockets or voids
(vacuous spaces) in the dielectric is eliminated. The voids if present tend to reduce the breakdown strength
of the cable and may cause considerable damage to the paper insulation. Secondly, the metallic screens
increase the heat dissipating power of the cable.

ii) S.l. Type cables

Fig. shows the constructional details of a 3-core S.L. (separate lead) type cable. It is basically H-type cable
but the screen round each core insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath

but only armouring and serving are provided. The S.L. type cables have two main advantages over H-type
cables. Firstly, the separate sheaths minimize the possibility of core-to-core breakdown. Secondly, bending
of cables becomes easy due to the elimination of overall lead sheath. However, the disadvantage is that the
three lead sheaths of S.L. cable are much thinner than the single sheath of H-cable and, therefore, call for
greater care in manufacture

3.Pressure cables
For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid type cables are unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown of
insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operating voltages are greater than 66 kV, pressure cables
are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of compound and for this reason
they are called pressure cables. Two types of pressure cables viz oil-filled cables and gas pressure cables are
commonly used.
(i)Oil-filled cables.
In such types of cables, channels or ducts are provided in the cable for oil circulation. The oil under pressure
(it is the same oil used for impregnation) is kept constantly supplied to the channel by means of external
reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500 m) along the route of the cable. Oil under pressure compresses
the layers of paper insulation and is forced in to any voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to
the elimination of voids, oil-filled cables can be used for higher voltages, the range being from 66 kV up to
230 kV. Oil filled cables are of three types viz., single-core conductor channel, single-core sheath channel
and three-core filler- space channels.

Fig. shows the constructional details of a single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable. The oil channel is
formed at the center by stranding the conductor wire around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral tape. The oil
under pressure is supplied to the channel by means of external reservoir. As the channel is made of spiral
steel tape, it allows the oil to percolate between copper strands to the wrapped insulation. The oil pressure
compresses the layers of paper insulation and prevents the possibility of void formation. The system is so
designed that when the oil gets expanded due to increase in cable temperature, the extra oil collects in the
reservoir. However, when the cable temperature falls during light load conditions, the oil from the reservoir
flows to the channel. The disadvantage of this type of cable is that the channel is at the middle of the cable
and is at full voltage w.r.t. earth, so that a very complicated system of joints is necessary. Fig. shows the
constructional details of a single core sheath channel oil-filled cable. In this type of cable, the conductor is
solid similar to that of solid cable and is paper insulated. However, oil ducts are provided in them metallic
sheath as shown. In the 3-core oil-filler cable shown in Fig. the oil ducts are located in the filler spaces. These
channels are composed of perforated metal ribbon tubing and are at earth potential.

(ii)Gas Pressure Cable

The voltage required to set up ionization inside a void increase as the pressure is increased. Therefore, if
ordinary cable is subjected to a sufficiently high pressure, the ionization can be altogether eliminated. At the
same time, the increased pressure produces radial compression which tends to close any voids. This is the
underlying principle of gas pressure cables.

Fig Shows the section of external pressure cable designed by Hochstetler, Vogal and Bowden. The
construction of the cable is similar to that of an ordinary solid type except that it is of triangular shape and
thickness of lead sheath is 75% that of solid cable. The triangular section reduces the weight and gives low
thermal resistance but the main reason for triangular shape is that the lead sheath acts as a pressure membrane.
The sheath is protected by a thin metal tape. The cable is laid in a gas-tight steel pipe. The pipe is filled with
dry nitrogen gas at 12 to 15 atmospheres. The gas pressure produces radial compression and closes the voids
that may have formed between the layers of paper insulation. Such cables can carry more load current and
operate at higher voltages than a normal cable. Moreover, maintenance cost is small and the nitrogen gas
helps in quenching any flame. However, it has the disadvantage that the overall cost is very high.

Dielectric Stress In Cable

Under operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is subjected to electrostatic forces. This is
known as dielectric stress. The dielectric stress at any point in a cable is in fact the potential
gradient (or electric intensity) at that point. Consider a single core cable with core diameter d and
 internal sheath diameter D. As proved in Art 8, the electric intensity at a point x meters from the
center of the cable is

By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient. Therefore, potential gradient g at a

point x meters from the Centre of cable is

As proved, potential difference V between conductor and sheath is

Substituting the value of Q from exp. (ii) in exp. (i), we get,

It is clear from exp. (iii) that potential gradient varies inversely as the distance x. Therefore, potential gradient
will be maximum when x is minimum i.e., when x = d/2 or at the surface of the conductor. On the other hand,
potential gradient will be minimum at x = D/2 or at sheath surface. Maximum potential gradient is
The variation of stress in the dielectric is shown in Fig.14. It is clear that dielectric stress is maximum at the
conductor surface and its value goes on decreasing as we move away from the conductor. It may be noted
that maximum stress is an important consideration in the design of a cable. For instance, if a cable is to be
operated at such a voltage that maximum stress is 5 kV/mm, then the insulation used must have a dielectric
strength of at least 5 kV/mm, otherwise breakdown of the cable will become inevitable.

Most Economical Size of Conductor

It has already been shown that maximum stress in a cable occurs at the surface of the conductor. For safe
working of the cable, dielectric strength of the insulation should be more than the maximums tress. Rewriting
the expression for maximum stress, we get,

The values of working voltage V and internal sheath diameter D have to be kept fixed at certain values due
to design considerations. This leaves conductor diameter d to be the only variable in exp.(i). For given values
of V and D, the most economical conductor diameter will be one for which gmax has a minimum value. The
value of gmax will be minimum when d loge D/d is maximum i.e.

Most economical conductor diameter is

and the value of gmax under this condition is

GRADING OF CABLES
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cables is known as grading of cables.
It has already been shown that electrostatic stress in a single core cable has a maximum value (gmax) at the
conductor surface and goes on decreasing as we move towards the sheath.
The maximum voltage that can be safely applied to a cable depends upon gmax i.e., electrostatic stress at the
conductor surface. For safe working of a cable having homogeneous dielectric, the strength of dielectric must
be more than gmax. If a dielectric of high strength is used for a cable, it is useful only near the conductor
where stress is maximum. But as we move away from the conductor, the electrostatic stress decreases, so the
dielectric will be unnecessarily over strong. The unequal stress distribution in a cable is undesirable for two
reasons. Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is required which increases the cable size.
Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation. In order to overcome above disadvantages, it is
necessary to have a uniform stress distribution in cables. This can be achieved by distributing the stress in
such a way that its value is increased in the outer layers of dielectric. This is known as grading of cables. The
following are the two main methods of grading of cables:
(i)Capacitance grading
(ii)Intersheath grading

(i)Capacitance Grading
The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress by using layers of different dielectrics is known
as capacitance grading.

In capacitance grading, the homogeneous dielectric is replaced by a composite dielectric. The composite
dielectric consists of various layers of different dielectrics in such a manner that relative permittivity r of any
layer is inversely proportional to its distance from the center. Under such conditions, the value of potential
gradient any point in the dielectric is constant and is independent of its distance from the center. In other
words, the dielectric stress in the cable is same everywhere and the grading is ideal one. However, ideal
grading requires the use of an infinite number of dielectrics which is an impossible task. In practice, two or
three dielectrics are used in the decreasing order of permittivity, the dielectric of highest permittivity being
used near the core. The capacitance grading can be explained beautifully by referring to Fig. There are three
dielectrics of outer diameter d1, d2 and D and of relative permittivity 1, 2 and 3 respectively. If the
permittivity are such that 1 > 2 > 3 and the three dielectrics are worked at
the same maximum stress, then,

Potential difference across the inner layer is

Similarly, potential across second layer (V2) and third layer (V3) is given by

Total p.d. between core and earthed sheath is

If the cable had homogeneous dielectric, then, for the same values of d, D and gmax, the permissible potential
difference between core and earthed sheath would have been
(ii)Intersheath Grading
In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it is divided into various layers by
placing metallic inters heaths between the core and lead sheath. The inter sheaths are held at suitable
potentials which are in between the core potential and earth potential. This arrangement improves voltage
distribution in the dielectric of the cable and consequently more uniform potential gradient is obtained.

Consider a cable of core diameter d and outer lead sheath of diameter D. Suppose that two inters heaths of
diameters d1 and d2 are inserted into the homogeneous dielectric and maintained at some fixed potentials.
Let V1,V2 and V3 respectively be the voltage between core and intersheath 1, between inter sheath 1 and 2
and between inter sheath 2 and outer lead sheath. As there is a definite potential difference between the inner
and outer layers of each inter sheath, therefore, each sheath can be treated like a homogeneous single core
cable Maximum stress between core and inter sheath 1 is
Since the dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer is the same i.e.,

As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, all the potentials are in phase i.e. Voltage
between conductor and earthed lead sheath is

Inter sheath grading has three principal disadvantages. Firstly, there are complications in fixing the sheath
potentials. Secondly, the inter sheaths are likely to be damaged during transportation and installation which
might result in local concentrations of potential gradient. Thirdly, there are considerable losses in the inter
sheaths due to charging currents. For these reasons, inter sheath grading is rarely used.

Capacitance of 3-core Cable

The capacitance of a cable system is much more important than that of overhead line because in cables
(i)conductors are nearer to each other and to the earthed sheath
(ii)they are separated by a dielectric of permittivity much greater than that of air.
Fig. shows a system of capacitances in a 3-core belted cable used for 3-phase system. Since potential
difference exists between pairs of conductors and between each conductor and the sheath, electrostatic fields
are set up in the cable as shown in Fig (i). These electrostatic fields give rise to core-core capacitances Cc
and conductor-earth capacitances Ce as shown in Fig.(ii). The three Cc are delta connected whereas the three
Ce are star connected, the sheath forming the star point
They lay of a belted cable makes it reasonable to assume equality of each Cc and each Ce. The three delta
connected capacitances Cc (i)can be converted into equivalent star connected capacitances as shown in Fig.
It can be easily *shown that equivalent star capacitance Ceq is equal to three times the delta capacitance Cc
i.e., Ceq = 3Cc. The system of capacitances shown in Fig.(iii) reduces to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
Therefore, the whole cable is equivalent to three star-connected capacitors each of capacitance See Fig.

If Vph is the phase voltage, then charging current IC is given by ;

CORONA
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors who’s spacing is large as compared
to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if
the applied voltage is low. However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical
disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power loss and radio
interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes, and
greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown
value, a flash-over will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation If the conductors
are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout the length of the conductor, otherwise
the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c. voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the two wires.
The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while the negative conductor has spotty glow.

Theory of corona formation

Some ionisation is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations and radioactivity. Therefore,
under normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains some ionised particles and neutral molecules.
When p.d. is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum
value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free electrons acquire
greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity
of free electrons. When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max.
value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough
force to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,
which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus,
the process of ionisation is cumulative. The result of this ionisation is that either corona is formed or spark
takes place between the conductors.

Factors Affecting Corona

The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by the conditions
of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends:
(i)Atmosphere
As corona is formed due to ionisation of air surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected by the
physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number of ions is more than normal and as such
corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with fair weather.
(ii)Conductor size.
The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface
will give rise to more corona because unevenness of the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage.
Thus, a stranded conductor has irregular surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
(iii)Spacing between conductors.
If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as compared to their diameters, there may not be
any corona effect. It is because larger distance between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the
conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
(iv)Line voltage.
The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the condition of air surrounding the
conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the line voltage has such a value that electrostatic
stresses developed at the conductor surface make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is
formed.

Important Terms
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead transmission line. Therefore,
it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in the analysis of corona effects:

(i)Critical Disruptive Voltage

It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona occurs. Consider two conductors of radii r cm and
spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-neutral potential, then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given
by:

In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown strength of air. The
breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm
(r.m.s.) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these conditions, then,
The above expression for disruptive voltage is under standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and 25ºC.
However, if these conditions vary, the air density also changes, thus altering the value of go. The value of go
is directly proportional to air density. Thus, the breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure of b cm
of mercury and temperature of tºC becomes δ go where

Correction must also be made for the surface condition of the conductor. This is accounted for by multiplying
the above expression by irregularity factor mo.

(ii)Visual critical voltage

It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line conductors. It has
been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but
at a higher voltage Vv, called visual critical voltage. The phase- neutral effective value of visual critical
voltage is given by the following empirical formula: where mV is another irregularity factor having a value
of 1·0 for polished conductors and 0·72 to 0·82 for rough conductors.

(iii)Power loss due to corona

Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the form of light, heat,
sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by:
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a
balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
(i)Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual diameter
of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between the
conductors.
(ii)Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
(i)Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
(ii)Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.
(iii)The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence no sinusoidal voltage drop occurs
in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.

Methods of Reducing Corona Effect

It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or above. Therefore,
careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-bars rated for 33 kV and higher
voltages otherwise highly ionized air may cause flash-over in the insulators or between the phases, causing
considerable damage to the equipment. The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods
(i)By increasing conductor size.
By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects are
considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional
area are used in transmission lines.

(ii)By increasing conductor spacing

By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona
effects can be eliminated. However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting
structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.