Transmission and Distribution-23EEI404

2024-25

Dwarakanath S K
Assistant Professor
Dept. Of EEE, SJBIT

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 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Subject Code : 23EEI404 IA Marks : 50

No. of Lecture Hrs./ Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total No. of Lecture Hrs. : 50 Exam Marks : 50

Syllabus
Course Title: Transmission and Distribution Course Code: 23EEI404
Module-1: Transmission & Distribution Systems
Standard voltages for generation, transmission and distribution. Advantages of high voltage
transmission. Feeders, distributors &service mains. Mechanical design of Transmission Lines-
Types of conductors, conductor materials, Calculation of sag in conductors i) At equal supports
ii) At different level supports. Effect of ice covering and wind pressure, factors affecting sag,
Numerical. Overhead Line Insulators-Types of insulators, potential distribution over a string of
suspension insulators. String efficiency & methods of improving string efficiency. Numerical.

Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying.

Module-2: Underground Cables & Corona
Underground Cables: General construction of a cable, classification of cables, material used,
expression for insulation resistance of a single core cable, dielectric stress in a single core cable,
grading of cables, capacitance grading, intersheath grading, measurement of capacitance of a
three core cable, determination of maximum current carrying capacity of underground cables.
Numerical.
Corona: -Phenomena, disruptive and visual critical voltages, corona loss. Advantages and
disadvantages of corona. Methods of reducing corona. Numerical.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-3: Line parameters

Line Parameters-Calculation of inductance of single phase, 3 phase line with equilateral &
unsymmetrical spacing (transposed), calculation of capacitance of a single-phase line and 3 phase
line with symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing (transposed) without considering the effect of
earth on transmission line capacitance, Numerical.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-4: Performance of Transmission Lines

Performance of Transmission Lines: Classification of lines, Short Transmission lines, medium
Transmission lines - nominal T method, nominal π method, numerical, long transmission lines –
Rigorous solution method (excluding numerical), ABCD constants of Transmission lines,
calculation of voltage regulation and transmission efficiency. Numerical.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Module-5: AC Distribution, Aging and life extension techniques in Transmission &

distribution.

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AC Distribution: Introduction, AC distribution with concentrated loads, AC interconnected
systems. Numerical.
Aging and life extension techniques in Transmission & Distribution
Estimation of electrical equipment lifetime, overloading and estimated life of electrical
equipment-circuit breakers, transformers, conductors, underground transmission. Temperature
and estimated life of electrical equipment, Aging factors, Aging of conductors & insulation.
Blooms Taxonomy: L1 – Remembering, L2 – Understanding, L3 – Applying

Text Book
1. A Course in Electrical Power Soni Gupta and Bhatnagar Dhanpat Rai
2. 2 Principles of Power System V.K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta S. Chand 1st Edition, 2013

Reference Books
1. Power System Analysis and Design J. Duncan Gloverat el Cengage Learning 4th
Edition 2008
2. Electrical power Generation, Transmission and Distribution S.N. Singh PHI 2 nd
Edition,2009
3. Electrical Power S.L.Uppal Khanna Publication
4. Electrical power systems C. L. Wadhwa New Age 5 th Edition,
5. Electrical power systems AshfaqHussain CBS Publication 2009
6. Electric Power Distribution A.S. Pabla McGraw-Hill 6 th Edition,2012

Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
CO1 Select a suitable insulator & design the transmission line for the required sag and methods
to improve string efficiency.
CO2 Develop a mathematical model of the transmission line with different configurations and
determine the parameters to analyse its performance.
CO3 Explain Construction of cables, types, specifications, classification, grading and
limitations.
CO4 Comprehend the phenomenon of corona, its effects and methods of reducing.
CO5 Explain the AC distribution with concentrated loads and interconnected systems
CO6 Understand the aging factors and life extension techniques of electrical materials and
equipment.

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 Table of Content

1. Introduction to Power System 5

2. Overhead Transmission Lines 10
3. Mechanical Design Of Transmission Line 18
4. Overhead Line Insulators 24

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 Module-1
Introduction to Power System
STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM
Structure of electric power system: generation, transmission, and distribution; Types of AC
and DC distributors – distributed and concentrated loads – interconnection – EHVAC and
HVDC transmission -Introduction to FACTS.
1.1. BASIC ELECTRIC POWER
Electric power is the product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two quantities can
vary with respect to time (AC power) or can be kept at constant levels (DC power). Most
refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas most
computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug into the mains
typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power).
AC power has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and can be generated
and utilised by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital
systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages (see
HVDC)
The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly,
power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So, in power
systems where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the
voltage of power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the
load. Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than
would be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this
mismatch between voltages can be easily managed Solid state devices, which are products of
the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to transform DC power to different voltages,
build brushless DC machines and convert between AC and DC power.
Nevertheless devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive than their
traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use

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1.2. STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

1.3. COMPONENTS OF POWER SYSTEM

Single Line Diagram:
In single line representation of power system, the components of the system are represented by
standard symbols & the transmission lines are represented by straight lines. “Hence a single
line diagram is diagrammatic of power system in which the components are represented by
their symbols and the interconnection between them is shown by straight lines”.

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1.3.1. ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM
Power transformers
Power transformers are used generation and transmission network for stepping-up the voltage
at generating station and stepping-down the voltage for distribution. Auxiliary transformers
supply power to auxiliary equipment’s at the substations.

Current transformers (CT)

The lines in substations carry currents in the order of thousands of amperes. The measuring
instruments are designed for low value of currents. Current transformers are connected in lines
to supply measuring instruments and protective relays.

Potential transformers (PT)

The lines in substations operate at high voltages. The measuring instruments are designed for
low value of voltages. Potential transformers are connected in lines to supply measuring
instruments and protective relays. These transformers make the low voltage instruments
suitable for measurement of high voltages. For example, a 11kV/110V PT is connected to a
power line and the line voltage is 11kV then the secondary voltage will be 110V.

Circuit breaker (CB)

Circuit breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit under normal as well as abnormal
(faulty) conditions. Different types of CBs which are generally used are oil circuit breaker, air-
blast circuit breaker, and vacuum circuit breaker and SF6 circuit breaker.

Isolators or Isolating switches

Isolators are employed in substations to isolate a part of the system for general maintenance.
Isolator switches are operated only under no load condition. They are provided on each side of
every circuit breaker Busbar: When number of lines operating at the same voltage levels needs
to be connected electrically, busbars are used. Busbars are conductors made of copper or
aluminium, with very low impedance and high current carrying capacity. Different types of
bus-bar arrangements are single bus bar arrangements, single busbar with sectionalisation,
double bus-bar arrangements, sectionalized double bus-bar arrangement, double main and
auxiliary bus-bar arrangement, breaker, and a half scheme/1.5 Breaker scheme, and ring bus-
bar scheme

Transmission
The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second (Hertz), alternating-current (AC)
electricity with voltages between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site, the 3-phase voltage
is stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.

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High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission is the next stage from power
plant to transport A.C. power over long distances at voltages like; 220 kV & 400 kV. Where
transmission is over 1000 kM, high voltage direct current transmission is also favoured to
minimize the losses. Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV or 33 kV constitutes
the next link towards the end user. Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV constitutes the last
link to the consumer, who is connected directly or through transformers depending upon the
drawl level of service. The transmission and distribution network include sub-stations, lines
and distribution transformers. High voltage transmission is used so that smaller, more
economical wire sizes can be employed to carry the lower current and to reduce losses. Sub-
stations, containing step-down transformers, reduce the voltage for distribution to industrial
users. The voltage is further reduced for commercial facilities. Electricity must be generated,
as and when it is needed since electricity cannot be stored virtually in the system.

Distribution
There is no difference between a transmission line and a distribution line except for the voltage
level and power handling capability. Transmission lines are usually capable of transmitting
large quantities of electric energy over great distances. They operate at high voltages.
Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power over shorter distances. Voltage drops in line
are in relation to the resistance and reactance of line, length and the current drawn. For the
same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current drawn and higher the
voltage drops. The current drawn is inversely proportional to the voltage level for the same
quantity of power handled. The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of
current. (i.e., PLOSS=I2R). Higher voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to
minimize line voltage drop in the ratio of voltages, and the line power loss in the ratio of square
of voltages. For instance, if distribution of power is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage
drop would be lower by a factor 1/3 and the line loss would be lower by a factor (1/3)2 i.e.,
1/9. Lower voltage transmission and distribution also calls for bigger size conductor on account
of current handling capacity needed.

Distribution System
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system. In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the
substation fed by the Transmission system and the consumer’s meters. It generally consists of
feeders, distributors, and service mains.
i) Feeders
A feeder is a conductor who connects the sub-station (or localized generating station) to the
area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tapping’s are taken from the feeder so that
current in it remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of a feeder is
the current carrying capacity.

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(ii)Distributor
A distributor is a conductor from which tapping’s are taken for supply to the consumers. In
Fig. AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current through a distributor is not constant
because tapping’s are taken at various places along its length. While designing a distributor,
voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage
variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.
(iii)Service mains
A service main is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumers’
terminals.

EHVAC and HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM Development of EHV transmission

systems
EHVAC
The first 735 kV system was commissioned in Canada in 1965. Since then, voltage levels up
to 765 kV have been introduced in Russia with neighbouring countries, U.S.A, South Africa,
Brazil, Venezuela and South Korea. The general trend of 800 kV investments is indicated in
the diagram, which shows the total capacity of power transformers and generator step-up
transformers for 800 kV delivered by ABB. Since the 90’s, the investments in 800 kV systems
have been much lower compared to the 70’s and 80’s. However, plans are under way for future
introduction of 800 kV in India and China. The planned introductions of voltages in the UHV
range, i.e., 1000 kV and above, have been cancelled or postponed in several countries. e.g.,
Russia, Italy, and U.S.A. Future 1000 kV lines are only considered in Japan.

HVDC
The first HVDC system for ± 500 kV and above was the Cabora Bassa project, commissioned
in 1979. The Brazilian Itaipu project is the only HVDC system operating at ±600 kV so far.
The major HVDC investments at these voltage levels were made in the late 80’s and early 90’s.
However, an increasing interest in high-capacity HVDC links have been noted in recent years,
as seen from the diagram, which shows all HVDC projects for ±500 kV and above. The need
for higher voltage levels can be anticipated for HVDC projects in the near future, especially

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when the transmission line is more than 1000 long. From a technical point of view, there are
no special obstacles against higher DC voltages. Present solutions are extendable to e.g.±800
kV when the need arises. The need for higher voltage levels can be anticipated for HVDC
projects soon, especially when the transmission line is more than 1000 km long. From a
technical point of view, there are no special obstacles against higher DC voltages. Present
solutions are extendable to e.g., ±800 kV when the need arises.

Overhead Transmission Lines

Types of Overhead Conductor
Conductor is a physical medium to carry electrical energy form one place to other. It is an
important component of overhead and underground electrical transmission and distribution
systems. The choice of conductor depends on the cost and efficiency.
An ideal conductor has following features.
1.It has maximum electrical conductivity.
2.It has high tensile strength so that it can withstand mechanical stresses.
3.It has least specific gravity i.e. weight / unit volume.
4.It has least cost without sacrificing other factors.

Commonly used conductor materials

The most used conductor materials for overhead lines are copper, aluminium, steel cored
aluminium, galvanised steel and cadmium copper. The choice of a particular material will
depend upon the cost, the required electrical and mechanical properties, and the local
conditions. All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded to increase the
flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive
layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ...... wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total number
of individual wires is 3n(n + 1) + 1. In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive
layers of wires are twisted or spiralled in opposite directions so that layers are bound together.

TYPES OF CONDUCTOR
Copper
Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and
greater tensile strength. It is always used in the hard drawn form as stranded conductor.
Although hard drawing decreases the electrical conductivity slightly, yet it increases the tensile
strength considerably. Copper has high current density i.e., the current carrying capacity of
copper per unit of X sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, smaller
X- sectional area of conductor is required and secondly, the area offered by the conductor to
wind loads is reduced. Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has high scrap
value. There is hardly any doubt that copper is an ideal material for transmission and

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distribution of electric power. However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, it is rarely
used for these purposes. Now a days the trend is to use aluminium in place of copper.

Aluminium
Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper, but it has much smaller conductivity and
tensile strength. The relative comparison of the two materials is briefed below:
(i) The conductivity of aluminium is 60% that of copper. The smaller conductivity of
aluminium means that for any transmission efficiency, the X-sectional area of conductor must
be larger in aluminium than in copper. For the same resistance, the diameter of aluminium
conductor is about 1·26 times the diameter of copper conductor. The increased X-section of
aluminium exposes a greater surface to wind pressure and, therefore, supporting towers must
be designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires the use of higher towers with
consequence of greater sag.
(ii)The specific gravity of aluminium (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8·9 gm/cc).
Therefore, an aluminium conductor has almost one-half the weight of equivalent copper
conductor. For this reason, the supporting structures for aluminium need not be made so strong
as that of copper conductor.
(iii)Aluminium conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms
are required.
(iv)Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminium, the
sag is greater in aluminium conductors. Considering the combined properties of cost,
conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc., aluminium has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is
being widely used as a conductor material. It is particularly profitable to use aluminium for
heavy-current transmission where the conductor size is large, and its cost forms a major
proportion of the total cost of complete installation.

Steel cored aluminium

Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use
for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission. In order to increase
the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanised steel wires.

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The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel cored aluminium and is abbreviated
as A.C.S.R. (aluminium conductor steel reinforced).
Steel-cored aluminium conductor consists of central core of galvanized steel wires surrounded
by several aluminium strands. Usually, diameter of both steel and aluminium wires is the same.
The X-section of the two metals are generally in the ratio of 1: 6 but can be modified to 1 : 4
in order to get more tensile strength for the conductor. Fig. shows steel cored aluminium
conductor having one steel wire surrounded by six wires of aluminium. The result of this
composite conductor is that steel core takes greater percentage of mechanical strength while
aluminium strands carry the bulk of current. The steel cored aluminium conductors have the
following
Advantages:
(i)The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the
composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminium conductors will produce smaller
sag and hence longer spans can be used.
(ii)Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights can
be used.

Galvanised steel
Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanised steel conductors can be used for
extremely long spans or for short line sections exposed to abnormally high stresses due to
climatic conditions. They have been found very suitable in rural areas where cheapness is the
main consideration. Due to poor conductivity and high resistance of steel, such conductors are
not suitable for transmitting large power over a long distance. However, they can be used to
advantage for transmitting a small power over a small distance where the size of the copper
conductor desirable from economic considerations would be too small and thus unsuitable for
use because of poor mechanical strength.

Cadmium copper
The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is copper alloyed with cadmium.
An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases the tensile strength by about 50% and
the conductivity is only reduced by 15% below that of pure copper. Therefore, cadmium copper
conductor can be useful for exceptionally long spans. However, due to high cost of cadmium,
such conductors will be economical only for lines of small X-section i.e., where the cost of
conductor material is comparatively small compared with the cost of supports.

AAC (All Aluminium Conductor)

•It has lesser strength and more sag per span length than any other category.
•Therefore, it is used for lesser span i.e. it is applicable at distribution level.

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•It has slightly better conductivity at lower voltages than ACSR i.e. at distribu- tion level
•Cost of ACSR is equal to AAC.

ACAR (Aluminium Conductor, Aluminium Reinforce)

•It is cheaper than AAAC but pro to corrosion.
•It is most expansive.

AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy Conductor)

•It has same construction as AAC except the alloy.
•Its strength is equal to ACSR but due to absence of steel it is light in weight.
•The presence of formation of alloy makes it expensive.
•Due to stronger tensile strength than AAC, it is used for longer spans.
•It can be used in distribution level i.e. river crossing.
•It has lesser sag than AAC.
•The difference between ACSR and AAAC is the weight. Being lighter in weight, it is used in
transmission and sub-transmission where lighter support structure is re- quired such as
mountains, swamps etc.

ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced)

• It is used for longer spans keeping sag minimum.
• may consist of 7 or 19 strands of steel surrounding by aluminium strands concentrically.
The number of strands is shown by x/y/z, where ‘x’ is number of aluminium strands,
‘y’ is number of steel strands and ‘z’ is diameter of each strand.
• Strands provide flexibility, prevent breakage, and minimize skin effect.
• The number of strands depends on the application, they may be 7, 19, 37, 61, 91 or
more.
• If the Al and St strands are separated by a filler such as paper, then this kind of ACSR
is used in EHV lines and called expanded ACSR.
• Expanded ACSR has larger diameter and hence lower corona losses.

IACS (International Annealed Copper Stand)

• It is 100 % pure conductor, and it is standard for reference.

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Aluminium Conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)
AAC, AAAC, ACSR form part of the family of Overhead Conductors, Transmission Conduc-
tors and Power Distribution Conductors. These cables are formally known as All Aluminium
Conductor (AAC), All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC) and Aluminium Conductor Steel
Reinforced (ACSR). These overhead aluminium conductors are used as power trans- mission
and distribution lines. All aluminium conductors are made up of one or more strands of
aluminium wire depending on the specific application.
Range of aluminium overhead conductor cables includes:

AAC–ASTM-B All Aluminium Conductor

AAC are a refined Aluminum stranded conductor with a minimum metal purity of 99.7%.
It is principally used in urban areas where spacing is short and the supports are close. It can be
used in coastal regions owing to its high degree of corrosion resistance and is also used
extensively within the Railway and Metro industries.

AAAC-ASTM-B All Aluminum Alloy Conductor

AAAC are used as a bare conductor cable on aerial circuits that require a larger mechanical
resistance than the AAC and a better corrosion resistance than the ACSR. The sag
characteristics and the strength-to-weight ratio of the AAAC conductor cable is better than both
AAC and ACSR.

ACSR-ASTM-B Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

ACSR are available in a range of steel contents ranging from 6% to 40% for additional
strength. The higher strength ACSR conductors are commonly used for river crossings, over-
head earth wires, and installations involving extra-long spans. The ACSR conductor can,
against any given resistance, be manufactured to different tensile strengths, so a high tensile
strength combined with its lightweight properties means it can cover longer distances with
fewer supports. Due to the greater diameter of the ACSR conductor, a much higher corona limit
can be obtained which is advantageous on high and extra high voltage overhead lines.

Aluminum conductors are known by codenames, differing depending on dimensions.

Examples include:
Thermal Resistant Aluminum Alloy Conductors Steel Reinforced.
TACSR Conductors are very similar in construction to a conventional ACSR conductor but
the EC Grade Aluminum wires are replaced with Hard Drawn Aluminum wires of Heat
Resistant Aluminum Alloy (generally known as TAL). TACSR can be safely operated
continuously above 150oC enabling to pump more current through the conductor. Where there
is a need to transmit higher power but restrictions on getting new power corridors approved,
various Types of TAL conductors are one of the best creative solution options to utilities.
Ability of the Zirconium doped aluminum alloy to maintain its electrical and mechanical
properties at elevated temperatures makes these conductors a very cost-effective solution in

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refurbishing the existing lines with enhanced capacity.
Features:
• High Current carrying capacity
• Stable at elevated temperatures
• Good mechanical properties
• Economic design
• Best suited for enhancing the existing line capacity where additional power
corridors are not feasible.

GTACSR/GZTACSR
GTACSR/GZTACSR has a unique construction featuring a small gap between the steel core
and (super) thermal-resistant aluminum alloy layer. The combination of the (super) thermal
resistant aluminum alloy and the "Gap construction" offers excellent sag and current- carrying
characteristics. With this advantage, GTACSR/GZTACSR is useful to up-rate an existing
transmission line by simply replacing the existing conductor to GTACSR/ GZTACSR.
Advantage Construction Feature
• Double*1 the current-carrying capacity for the same size conductor.
• No modification or reinforcement required for existing towers.
• Low cost and short construction period
• Long-term working temperature is 150℃, short-term temperature up to 180℃, to allow
a continuous current carrying capacity which is 1.5 to 1.6 times more than wire size
• Thermal resistant aluminum alloy conductor has the same strength as ordinary
aluminum wire in normal room temperature, high temperature mechanical strength ratio can
be maintained at above 90%
• Thermal resistant aluminum alloy conductor can be keeping the same level creep time
properties compared with ordinary aluminum wire both at normal temperature and at elevated
temperatures
• Thermal resistant aluminum alloy conductor is suitable for substations, power plants
and other large-current transmission, saving engineering investment

Gap-type Conductor/ Gap-type Conductors – GZTACSR

Gap-type Conductors

These conductors have a special construction feature with a small gap filled with grease
be-tween the high strength steel core and the thermal resistant Al-Zr alloy conductive layers.
This allows:
• Tension the core and the external layer independently to have the knee-point at the
installation temperature

• Limiting the sag increase with the increase of the temperature by the thermal expansion
coefficient above knee-point related to the steel core

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 • Maintaining the mechanical strength of the conductor with continuous operating
temperature up to 210°C

• Reduced cost due to no expensive materials being required

Installation method of GZTACSR is well but requires skilled specialists because at the time of
sagging, a special sagging method is required to apply all the tension to the steel core only.

Gap-type conductors are particularly suitable to replace ACSR conductors in flat lands or in
any case with small difference in level.

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINE

SAG IN OVERHEAD LINES
While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If
the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material,
the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break
due to excessive tension. To permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched
but can have a dip or sag. The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest
point on the conductor is called sag. Following Fig. shows a conductor suspended between two
equal level supports A and B. The conductor is not fully stretched but can have a dip. The
lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S. The following points may be noted

(i) When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, it takes
the shap e of catenary. However, if the sag is very small compared with the span,
then sag-span curve is like a parabola.
(ii) The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus, tension TO at
the lowest Point O acts horizontally as shown in Fig. (ii).
(iii) The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire.
(iv) The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at
any point on the wire. Thus, if T is the tension at the support B, then T = TO

Conductor Sag and Tension

This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead lines. The conductor
sag should be kept to a minimum to reduce the conductor material required and to avoid extra
pole height for sufficient clearance above ground level. It is also desirable that tension in the
conductor should be low to avoid the mechanical failure of conductor and to permit the use of
less strong supports. However, low conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible. It

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is because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas a low tension means a loose
wire and increased sag. Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between the two.

CALCULATION OF SAG
In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is within safe
limits. The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and
temperature variations. It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50% of its
ultimate tensile strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in respect of conductor tension should
be
We shall now calculate sag and tension of a conductor when
(i ) supports are at equal levels and ( ii ) supports are at unequal levels.
When supports are at equal levels. Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports A and
B with O as the lowest point as shown in Fig.8.2. It can be proved that lowest point will be at
a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest point as shown in
Fig. It can be proved that lowest point will be at the mid-span.

a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest point as shown in
Fig. It can be proved that lowest point will be at the mid-span.
Let
l = Length of span
w = Weight per unit length of conductor T = Tension in the conductor.
Consider a point P on the conductor. Taking the lowest point O as the origin, let the co-
ordinates of point P be x and y. Assuming that the curvature is so small that curved length is
equal to its horizontal projection (i.e., OP = x), the two forces acting on the portion OP of the
conductor are:
(a) The weight wx of conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.
(b) The tension T acting at O .
Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we get,

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( ii ) When supports are at unequal levels. In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors
suspended between supports at unequal levels. Fig.3 shows a conductor suspended between
two supports A and B which are at different levels. The lowest point on the conductor is O .
Let
l = Span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x 1 = Distance of support at lower level ( i.e., A ) from O x 2 = Distance of support at higher
level ( i.e. B ) from O
T = Tension in the conductor

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EFFECT OF WIND AND ICE LOADING
The above formulae for sag are true only in still air and at normal temperature when the
conductor is acted by its weight only. However, in actual practice, a conductor may have ice
coating and simultaneously subjected to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts vertically
downwards i.e., in the same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due to the wind is
assumed to act horizontally i.e.., at right angle to the projected surface of the conductor. Hence,
the total force on the conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical forces as shown

Total weight of conductor per unit length is

Where w = weight of conductor per unit length

= conductor material density ⋅ volume per unit length Wi = weight of ice per unit length
= density of ice * volume of ice per unit length

ww = wind force per unit length

= wind pressure per unit area projected area per unit length

When the conductor has wind and ice loading also, the following points may be noted: i)The
conductor sets itself in a plane at an angle to the vertical where

ii) The sag in the conductor is given by

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Hence S represents the slant sag in a direction making an angle to the vertical. If no specific
mention is made in the problem, then slant slag is calculated by using the above formula.
iii) The vertical sag =

VIBRATION DAMPER
Aeolian vibrations mostly occur at steady wind velocities from 1 to 7 m/s. With increasing
wind turbulences, the wind power input to the conductor will decrease. The intensity to induce
vibrations depends on several parameters such as type of conductors and clamps, tension, span
length, topography in the surrounding, height and direction of the line as well as the frequency
of occurrence of the vibration induced wind streams. In the wake of wind power plants (up to
3 x diameter of the rotor behind the plant) the wind velocity will be reduced up to 0,5 of the
velocity of the free wind stream, so that lower wind velocities could be expected more
frequently here. That’s why the probability of a higher stresses for the conductors caused by
wind-induced vibrations will be greater than without wind power plants. On the other hand, the
intensity of turbulences will increase which will hinder the arising of vibrations. Both important
parameters for inducing vibrations, wind velocity and turbulence intensity, depends on the
distance to the rotor and the height of it.
The investigations showed an increasing of damage probability on OHTL due to the wake of
wind power plants of the factor 2,5 to 3,5 between one and three rotor diameters behind the
plant which will cause an equivalent decreasing of lifetime of conductors and earth wires.

Vibration Damping
The knowledge of the mechanical self- damping of conductors is an important parameter for
the energy balance calculation. The impedance and the efficiency of the vibration damper have
been measured in relationship to frequency and used as input data for the energy balance.

The velocity of the damper clamp shall be remained under the limit of 10 cm/s. The vibration
dampers are tested at this vibrating velocity in an endurance test. They must stand at least 100

20
million vibrations without damages. If the velocity of the damper clamp remains beneath the
value of 10 cm/s the bending stresses remain in the endurance range so that damages could not
be expected.

STRINGING CHART
For use in the field work of stringing the conductors, temperature-sag and temperature tension
charts are plotted for the given conductor and loading conditions. Such curves are called
stringing charts (see Fig). These charts are very helpful while stringing overhead lines.

SAG TEMPLATE
A Sag Template is a very important tool with the help of which the position of towers on the
Profile is decided so that they conform to the limitations of vertical and wind loads on any
tower, and minimum clearances, as per I.E. Rules, required to be maintained between the line
conductor to ground, telephone lines, buildings, streets, navigable canals, power lines, or any
other object coming under or near the line.

A Sag Template is specific for the particular line voltage, the conductor used and the
applicable

design conditions. Therefore, the correct applicable Sag Template should be used. A Sag

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Template consists of a set of parabolic curves drawn on a transparent celluloid or acrylic clear
sheet duly cut in over the maximum conductor sag curve to allow the conductor curve to be
drawn and the lowest points of the conductor sag to be marked on the profile when the profile
placed underneath it.

The set of curves in the sag template consists of:

a) Cold or Uplift Curve’ showing sag of conductor at minimum temperature (minus 2.5ºC) and
still wind.
b) Hot or Maximum Sag Curve’ showing maximum sag of conductor at maximum temperature
and still wind including sag tolerances allowed (normally 4%), if any, and under maximum ice
condition wherever applicable.
c) Ground Clearance Curve’ which is drawn parallel to the ‘Hot or Maximum Sag Curve’ and
at a distance equal to the specified minimum ground clearance for the relevant voltage.
d) ‘Tower Footing Curve’ which is drawn parallel to the ‘Ground Clearance Curve’ and
separated by a minimum distance equal to the maximum sag at the basic design span.

Overhead Line Insulators

INTRODUCTION
Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of current to
the earth from its supporting points. The insulator plays a vital role in electrical system.
Electrical Insulator is a very high resistive path through which practically no current
can flow. In transmission and distribution system, the overhead conductors are generally
supported by supporting towers or poles. The towers and poles both are properly grounded. So
there must be insulator between tower or pole body and current carrying conductors to prevent
the flow of current from conductor to earth through the grounded supporting towers or poles.

INSULATING MATERIAL
The main cause of failure of overhead line insulator, is flash over, occurs in between line and
earth during abnormal over voltage in the system. During this flash over, the huge heat
produced by arcing, causes puncher in insulator body. Viewing this phenomenon, the materials
used for electrical insulator, has to possess some specific properties.

Properties of insulating material

The materials generally used for insulating purpose is called insulating material. For successful
utilization, this material should have some specific properties as listed below-
1.It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors.
2.It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High Voltage
system.
3.It must possess high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth.
4.There physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by changing temperature

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Porcelain
Porcelain in most used material for overhead insulator in present days. The porcelain is
aluminum silicate. The aluminum silicate is mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar, and quartz to
obtain final hard and glazed porcelain insulator material. The surface of the insulator should be
glazed enough so that water should not be traced on it. Porcelain also should be free from
porosity since porosity is the main cause of deterioration of its dielectric property. It must also
be free from any impurity and air bubble inside the material which may affect the insulator
properties.

Glass Insulator
Now days glass insulator has become popular in transmission and distribution system.
Annealed tough glass is used for insulating purpose. Glass insulator has numbers of
advantages over conventional porcelain insulator

Advantages
1.It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain.
2.Its resistivity is also very high.
3.It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
4.It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5.As it is transparent in nature is not heated up in sunlight as porcelain.
6.The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the glass insulator body because
of its transparency.
7.Glass has very long service life as because mechanical and electrical properties of glass do
not be affected by ageing.
8.After all, glass is cheaper than porcelain.

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Disadvantage
1. Moisture can easily condense on glass surface and hence air dust will be deposited on the
wed glass surface which will provide path to the leakage current of the system.
2. For higher voltage glass cannot be cast in irregular shapes since due to irregular cooling
internal cooling internal strains are caused.

Polymer Insulator
In a polymer insulator has two parts, one is glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin rod shaped core
and other is silicone rubber or EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) made weather
sheds. Rod shaped core is covered by weather sheds. Weather sheds protect the insulator core
from outside environment. As it is made of two parts, core and weather sheds, polymer
insulator is also called composite insulator. The rod-shaped core is fixed with Hop dip
galvanized cast steel made end fittings in both sides.

Advantage
1.It is very light weight compared to porcelain and glass insulator.
2.As the composite insulator is flexible the chance of breakage becomes minimum.
3.Because of lighter in weight and smaller in size, this insulator has lower installation cost.
4.It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5.Its performance is better particularly in polluted areas.
6.Due to lighter weight polymer insulator imposes less load to the supporting structure.
7.Less cleaning is required du e to hydrophobic nature of the insulator.

Disadvantage
1.Moisture may enter in the core if there is any unwanted gap between core and weather sheds.
This may cause electrical failure of the insulator.
2.Over crimping in end fittings may result to cracks in the core which leads to mechanical
failure of polymer insulator.
In addition to these, some other disadvantages might be experienced. Let us give a practical
example where many difficulties are faced in maintaining a distribution network in Victoria
Australia due to polymeric insulator.

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There are many Cockatoos, Galahs & Parrots in that area of Australia, which love to chew on
polymeric strain insulators. Here, the 22KV network has many of polymeric strain insulators
installed and now after a few years of installing polymeric strain insulators, the authority is
now replacing many of them back with Glass disc insulators.
Another disadvantage is that they have had post type polymeric insulators melt and bend in
bushfire areas. They have a concrete pole and a steel cross arm that survives a bushfire,
however the polymers in some cases fail. This would not be the case with glass or porcelain
insulators.
They have also had polymeric insulators fail in areas close to the ocean coastline where there
are high salt levels in the air.
1.Subject to bird attack by Parrots, Cockatoos & Galahs.
2.Not resilient to bushfire temperatures.
3.Not recommended for location near surf beaches due to salt spray.

TYPES OF INSULATOR
There are mainly three types of insulator likewise
1.Pin Insulator
2.Suspension Insulator
3.Stray Insulator
In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator available mainly for low
voltage application, e.i. stay insulator and shackle insulator.

1. Pin Type Insulators

As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There is a
groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes

25
through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same material as the conductor.
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up
to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and
hence uneconomical.

Causes of Insulator Failures:

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type
is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator. The electrical
breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture. In flashover, an arc
occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps
across the air gaps, following shortest distance. Figure shows the arcing distance (i.e. a + b +
c) for the insulator. In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity
unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator. In case of puncture, the
discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the insulator. When such
breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due to excessive heat. In
practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the
line voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor.

Suspension Type

For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in
Figure. Consist of several porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a

26
string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the
string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage,
say 11 kV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage.
For instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the
string.

Advantages of suspension type:

• Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33
kV.
• Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11
kV. Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected
in series.
• If anyone disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the
damaged disc can be replaced.
• The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at
the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take
up the position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
• In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of
conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily
obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
• The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors
run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement provides
partial protection from lightning.

Strain Insulators

When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to
greater tension. To relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For low
voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high
voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as

27
shown in Figure. The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the tension
in lines is exceedingly high, at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.

Shackle Insulators
In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now a day, they are
frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a
horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt

or to the cross arm.

Stay Insulator
For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The insulator used
in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of porcelain and is so designed that
in case of breakage of the insulator the guywire will not fall to the ground. There are several
methods of increasing the string efficiency or improving voltage distribution across different
units of a string.

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POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER SUSPENSION INSULATOR STRING
A string of suspension insulators consists of several porcelain discs connected in series
through metallic links. Fig. shows 3-disc string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion
of each disc is in between two metal links. Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C as shown
in Fig. This is known as mutual capacitance or self-capacitance. If there were mutual
capacitance alone, then charging current would have been the same through all the discs and
consequently voltage across each unit would have been the same i.e., V/3 as shown However,
in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth.
This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not the
same through all the discs of the string Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different.
Obviously, the disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum* voltage. Thus,
referring to Fig V3 will be much more than V2 or V1. The following points may be noted
regarding the potential distribution over a string of suspension insulators:
The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself
uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards the
cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be
punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each unit.
If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c., then voltage across each unit would be
the same. It is because insulator capacitances are ineffective for d.c.

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STRING EFFICIENCY
As stated above, the voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not uniformly
distributed across various units or discs. The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher
potential than the other discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually
expressed in terms of string efficiency.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage
across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency i.e.,

String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution along
the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution. Thus
100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each disc will be exactly
the same. Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should be
made to improve it as close to this value as possible.
Mathematical Expression. Fig. Shows the equivalent circuit for a 3-disc string. Let us suppose
that self capacitance of each disc is C. Let us further assume that shunt capacitance C1 is some
fraction K of self capacitance i.e., C1 =KC. Starting from the cross-arm or tower, the voltage
across each unit is V1,V2 and V3 respectively as shown.

30
The Following Points May Be Noted From The Above Mathematical Analysis
(i)If K = 0·2 (Say), then from exp. (iv), we get, V2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This clearly
shows that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it; the voltage across
other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-arm in approached.
(ii)The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential across the discs
and lesser is the string efficiency.
(iii)The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number of discs in the
string. Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the larger one

METHODS OF IMPROVING STRING EFFICIENCY

It has been seen above that potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not
uniform. The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest to the line conductor and
decreases progressively as the cross arm is approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed
insulator breaks down or flash over takes place, the breakdown of other units will take place in
succession. This necessitates equalizing the potential across the various units of the string i.e.
to improve the string efficiency. The various methods for this purpose are:

31
(I) By Using Longer Cross-Arms
The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K i.e., ratio of shunt capacitance to
mutual capacitance. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more
uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be decreased by reducing the shunt
capacitance. In order to reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor from tower must
be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be used. However, limitations of cost and strength
of tower do not allow the use of very long cross-arms. In practice, K = 0·1 is the limit that can
be achieved by this method.

(II)By Grading The Insulators

In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that each has a different
capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. they are assembled in the string in such
a way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom
unit (i.e., nearest to conductor) is reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to
capacitance, this method tends to equalize the potential distribution across the units in the
string. This method has the disadvantage that a large number of different-sized insulators are
required. However, good results can be obtained by using standard insulators for most of the
string and larger units for that near to the line conductor.

(III)By Using A Guard Ring

The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by using a guard ring which is a
metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator as
shown in the Fig The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line
conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc.
are equal to metal fitting line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that same charging

32
current I flows through each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential
distribution across the units.

Concept of Grounding
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of electrical
equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star- connected system,
one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or
earthing. It is strange but true that grounding of electrical systems is less understood aspect of
power system. Nevertheless, it is a very important subject. If grounding is done systematically
in the line of the power system, we can effectively prevent accidents and damage to the
equipment of the power system and at the same time continuity of supply can be maintained.
Grounding or earthing may be classified as:(i) Equipment grounding (ii) System grounding.
Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current-carrying metal parts of the electrical
equipment. On the other hand, system grounding means earthing some part of the electrical
system e.g. earthing of neutral point of star-connected system in generating stations and
substations.

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