IEEE Project 802

 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers.

 Project 802 does not seek to replace any part of the OSI model or TCP/IP protocol suite. Instead, it is a way of specifying
functions of the physical layer and the data-link layer of major LAN protocols.

 The IEEE has subdivided the data-link layer into two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC).
IEEE 802.X Standards
 IEEE has come up with several standards for wired and wireless networks. They are usually
referred to by their ‘numbers’, such as 802.1, 802.2, etc. We will briefly cover these
standards.

IEEE 802.1
 The IEEE 802.1 standard covers areas related to LAN/MAN architecture.

 Internetworking among LAN/MAN.

 Link security,

 Overall network management,

 Protocol layers above the MAC and LLC sublayers.

IEEE 802.2 (LLC)

 The IEEE 802.2 standard defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer of
the OSI protocol stack

 LLC is the upper half of the data link layer.

 Therefore, the job of the LLC is to provide a uniform interface to the layer above data link layer, i.e.,
to the network layer.

 The other sublayer in data link layer is the MAC layer, which is hardware-dependent (e.g., Ethernet,
802.11, Token Ring, etc).
IEEE 802.2

 Flow control
Different Computer send and receive data at different rates, the
LLC layer makes sure that faster systems do not overrun slower
ones.

 Acknowledgement
The receiving end station acknowledges when it has received a
frame so that the sending node and receiving node can stay in
synchronization.

 Error Checking
It detects frame loss, and sends acknowledgement to source
about retransmission of the data again.
IEEE 802.3 (MAC)

 It manages media access to different devices.

 MAC acts as interface between LLC and Physical Layer.

 It control collision detection using CSMA/CD.

 It resolves the addressing of source station as well as

the destination station

 It generates the frame check sequences and thus

contributes to protection against transmission errors.
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
 The IEEE 802.4 standard covers Token Bus.

 A LAN technology that uses token passing access method and bus topology

 Token Bus is nothing but an implementation of a Token Ring protocol, over a virtual ring over a
coaxial cable.
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)

 The nodes or stations are used to create a virtual ring, and the token is passed from one node
to another node in a sequential manner along this virtual ring.

 The addresses of each node preceding and succeeding stations are known to them.

 The token is required for a station to transmit data.

 When a node on the virtual ring has nothing to send, the token is passed on to the next node.

 A token bus network is similar to the token ring network but works around the virtual ring
instead of a physical ring.
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)

 Only the host that possesses the token has a right to transmit. Of course, if a host possessing the
token does not have anything to transmit, it simply forwards the token.

 The right to transmit, to the next host. For this to be possible, each host needs to know the address
of its immediate neighbors.
 Protocols are designed to handle this, a new addition of hosts, as well as disconnections.

 All of this comes under the IEEE 802.4 standard.

IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)

 The IEEE 802.5 standard is nothing but the Token Ring mechanism.

 The Token Ring standard is based on the idea of a circulating token.

 A host that possesses the token can transmit, others cannot.

 This avoids contentions and collisions in the network.

 A host that does not possess the token must wait even if it has data to be sent out.

 A host that gets the token either can send a frame and forward the token to the next host.

 If it has nothing to send, it simply forwards the token to the next host.
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)

 The IEEE 802.11 set of standards covers Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) which is now popular.

 However, even more popular is its other name, which is Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi).

 We know that Ethernet is the most popular wired LAN technology. Similarly, standards are in use for
wireless LAN as well.

 In wired LAN, every computer has a Network Interface Card (NIC) and a transmitter–receiver
(transceiver) with which it communicates with the external world.

 Here, the NIC works with a wireless (i.e., radio waves-based) modem and an antenna for the actual
transmission.

 There is an antenna on the ceiling of the floor where the wireless LAN is created. Every computer on
the wireless network communicates with this antenna via radio waves in the air.
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)
Architectural Comparison
1. Medium

• The first difference we can see between a wired and a wireless LAN is the medium. In a wired LAN,
we use wires to connect hosts.

• In a wireless LAN, the medium is air, the signal is generally broadcast. When hosts in a wireless LAN
communicate with each other, they are sharing the same medium (multiple access).

2.Hosts

• In a wired LAN, a host is always connected to its network at a point with a fixed link layer
address(MAC Address) related to its network interface card (NIC).

• A host can move from one point in the Internet to another point. In this case, its link-layer address
remains the same, but its network-layer address(IP) will change.

• In a wireless LAN, a host is not physically connected to the network; it can move freely (as we’ll see)
and can use the services provided by the network.
Architectural Comparison
3. Connection to Other Networks

A wired LAN can be connected to another network or an internetwork such as the Internet using a
router.

A wireless LAN may be connected to a wired infrastructure network, to a wireless infrastructure network,
or to another wireless LAN.

Figure. wired versus wireless

Architectural Comparison
3. Connection to Other Networks

• In this case, the wireless LAN is referred to as an infrastructure network, and the connection to the
wired infrastructure, such as the Internet, is done via a device called an access point (AP).

• An access point is gluing two different environments together: one wired and one wireless.
Communication between the AP and the wireless host occurs in a wireless environment;
communication between the AP and the infrastructure occurs in a wired environment.

Figure. Connection of a wired LAN and a wireless LAN to other networks

Architectural Comparison

4. Moving between Environments

• This means that if we have a wired LAN in a building that is connected via a router or a modem to the
Internet, all we need in order to move from the wired environment to a wireless environment is to
change the network interface cards designed for wired environments to the ones designed for wireless
environments and replace the link-layer switch with an access point.

• In this change, the link-layer addresses will change (because of changing NICs), but the network-layer
addresses (IP addresses) will remain the same; we are moving from wired links to wireless links.
Characteristics

There are several characteristics of wireless LANs that either do not apply to wired LANs or the
existence of which is negligible and can be ignored.
1.Attenuation

The strength of electromagnetic signals decreases rapidly because the signal disperses in all
directions; only a small portion of it reaches the receiver. The situation becomes worse with mobile
senders that operate on batteries and normally have small power supplies.

2.Interference

Another issue is that a receiver may receive signals not only from the intended sender, but also from
other senders if they are using the same frequency band.

3.Multipath Propagation

A receiver may receive more than one signal from the same sender because electromagnetic
waves can be reflected back from obstacles such as walls, the ground, or objects. The result is that
the receiver receives some signals at different phases (because they travel different paths). This
makes the signal less recognizable.
Characteristics

4.Error

With the above characteristics of a wireless network, we can expect that errors and error detection
are more serious issues in a wireless network than in a wired network.
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN) Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service set
(ESS).

1.Basic Service Set

• IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building blocks of a wireless LAN.

• A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP).
1.Basic Service Set

• The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs.

• It is called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of
an AP; they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.

• A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure BSS.

 2. Extended Service Set

• An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs are
connected through a distribution system, which is a wired or a wireless network.

• The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.

• Note that the extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary.

• The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.

• The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
 2. Extended Service Set

• When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate
without the use of an AP.

• However, communication between a station in a BSS and the outside BSS occurs via the AP.

Figure Extended service set (ESS)

MAC Sub-layer
IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sub-layers: the distributed coordination function (DCF) and point
coordination function (PCF).
MAC Sub-layer
Distributed Coordination Function

One of the two protocols defined by IEEE at the MAC sub-layer is called the distributed coordination
function (DCF). DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method.
Distributed Coordination Function

Frame Exchange Time Line

Figure shows the exchange of data and control frames in time.

1. Before sending a frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the energy level at the
carrier frequency.

a. The channel uses a persistence strategy with back-off until the channel is idle.

b. After the station is found to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called the distributed inter-
frame space (DIFS); then the station sends a control frame called the request to send (RTS).

2. After receiving the RTS and waiting a period of time called the short inter-frame space (SIFS), the
destination station sends a control frame, called the clear to send (CTS), to the source station. This
control frame indicates that the destination station is ready to receive data.

3.The source station sends data after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS.
Distributed Coordination Function

Frame Exchange Time Line

4. The destination station, after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an acknowledgment
to show that the frame has been received. Acknowledgment is needed in this protocol because
the station does not have any means to check for the successful arrival of its data at the
destination.
MAC Sub-layer
Point Coordination Function (PCF)

The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access method that can be implemented in an
infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc network).
Point Coordination Function (PCF)

• It provide channel access to the stations using poll and response method .

• The polling is done by Point Coordinator(PC) that resides inside the central Access Point(AP).

• PC polls in a round robin technique to provide access to the stations in wireless network.

• AP issues special frame called beacon frame to initiate and repeat polling.
How does it work?

Step 1: PC sends a beacon frame after waiting for PIFS.

The beacon frame reaches to every station in wireless
network.

Step 2: If AP has data for particular station, say station X,

It sends the data and a grant to station X.

Step 3: When station X gets the grant from the AP, if it

has a data frame for AP, it transmits data and
acknowledgement(ACK) to AP.

Step 4: On receiving data from station X, the AP sends

an ACK to it.

Step 5: The AP then sends goes to the next station, say

station Y. If AP has data for Y, it sends data and grant to
Y otherwise it sends only grant to Y.

Step 6: At the end of granting access to all the stations,

the AP sends an ACK to the last station. It then notifies all
stations that this is end of polling.
Addressing Mechanism
Frame Format

The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields, as shown in Figure

Frame Format

Frame control (FC). The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some control
information.

D. This field defines the duration for which the frame and its acknowledgement occupy the channel.

Addresses. There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long. The meaning of each address field
depends on the value of the To DS and From DS subfields and will be discussed later.

Sequence control. This field, often called the SC field, defines a 16-bit value. The first four bits define
the fragment number; the last 12 bits define the sequence number, which is the same in all
fragments.

Frame body. This field, which can be between 0 and 2312 bytes, contains information based on the
type and the subtype defined in the FC field.

FCS. The Frame Check Sequence field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error-detection
sequence.
 Addressing Mechanism

• The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the value of the two flags in
the FC field, To DS and From DS.

• Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.

• The interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in the MAC frame depends on the
value of these flags, as shown in Table
Addressing Mechanism

• Note that address 1 is always the address of the next device that the frame will visit.

• Address 2 is always the address of the previous device that the frame has left.

• Address 3 is the address of the final destination station if it is not defined by address 1 or the
original source station if it is not defined by address 2.

• Address 4 is the original source when the distribution system is also wireless.
Addressing Mechanism

Case 1: 00 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0.

This means that the frame is not going to a distribution system (To DS = 0) and is not coming
from a distribution system (From DS = 0).

The frame is going from one station in a BSS to another without passing through the distribution
system. The addresses are shown in Figure
Addressing Mechanism

Case 2: 01 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1.

This means that the frame is coming from a distribution system (From DS = 1).

The frame is coming from an AP and going to a station. The addresses are as shown in Figure.

Note that address 3 contains the original sender of the frame (in another BSS).
Addressing Mechanism

Case 3: 10 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 0.

This means that the frame is going to a distribution system (To DS = 1).

The frame is going from a station to an AP. The ACK is sent to the original station. The addresses are as
shown in Figure

Note that address 3 contains the final destination of the frame in the distribution system.
Addressing Mechanism
Case 4: 11 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 1.

This is the case in which the distribution system is also wireless.

The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless distribution system.

Here, we need four addresses to define the original sender, the final destination, and two
intermediate APs. Figure shows the situation.
Bluetooth
• Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company. It is named for Harald
Blaatand, the king of Denmark (940-981) who united Denmark and Norway. Blaatand translates to
Bluetooth in English.

• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, and even coffee
makers when they are at a short distance from each other.

• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the
devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet.

• A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large.

• Today, Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15
standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size
of a room or a hall.
Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.

Piconets
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.

• A piconet can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the primary(Master); the rest are
called secondaries (slaves).

• Note that a piconet can have only one primary station. The communication between the primary
and secondary stations can be one-to-one or one-to-many.

• Figure shows a piconet.

• All communication is between master and a slave.

• Salve-slave communication is not possible.

Bluetooth Architecture
Scatternet
• Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.

• A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.

• This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and,
acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second piconet.

• station can be a member of two piconets. Figure illustrates a scatternet.

• A Bluetooth device has a built-in

short-range radio transmitter.

• The current data rate is

1 Mbps with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth.
Bluetooth Applications

• Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or
keyboard can communicate with the computer through this technology.

• Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center.

• Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security
controller.

• Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference.

Mobile Generations (1G, 2G, 3G,4G and 5G).
1St Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice
• Mobile radiotelephones were used sporadically for maritime and military communication during
the early decades of the 20th century.

• In 1946, the first system for car-based telephones was set up in St. Louis.

• This system used a single large transmitter on top of a tall building and had a single channel, used
for both sending and receiving.

• To talk, the user had to push a button that enabled the transmitter and disabled the receiver.
Such systems, known as push-to-talk systems, were installed in several cities beginning in the late
1950s.

• CB radio, taxis, and police cars often use this technology.

• In the 1960s, IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) was installed. It, too, used a high-powered
(200-watt) transmitter on top of a hill but it had two frequencies, one for sending and one for
receiving, so the push-to-talk button was no longer needed.

• AMPS(Advanced Mobile Phone System)

Second-Generation (2G) Mobile Phones: Digital Voice

• The first generation of mobile phones was analog; the second generation is digital.

• Switching to digital has several advantages.

• It provides capacity gains by allowing voice signals to be digitized and compressed.

• It improves security by allowing voice and control signals to be encrypted.

• Finally, it enables new services such as text messaging.

• Just as there was no worldwide standardization during the first generation, there was also no
worldwide standardization during the second also.

• Several different systems were developed, and three have been widely deployed. DAMPS
(Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System) is a digital version of AMPS.

• GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) has emerged as the dominant system, and
while it was slow to catch on in the U.S. it is now used virtually everywhere in the world.

• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), described in International Standard IS-95

Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data

• The third generation of mobile phones, or 3G as it is called, is all about digital voice and data.

• A number of factors are driving the industry. First, data traffic already exceeds voice traffic on
the fixed network and is growing exponentially, whereas voice traffic is essentially flat.

• Many industry experts expect data traffic to dominate voice on mobile devices as well soon.

• Second, the telephone, entertainment, and computer industries have all gone digital and are
rapidly converging.

• Many people are drooling over lightweight, portable devices that act as a telephone, music
and video player, email terminal, Web interface, gaming machine, and more, all with
worldwide wireless connectivity to the Internet at high bandwidth.
Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data
ITU’s IMT-2000(International Mobile Telecommunications)

The basic services that the IMT-2000 network was supposed to provide to its users are:

1. High-quality voice transmission.

2. Messaging (replacing email, fax, SMS, chat, etc.).

3. Multimedia (playing music, viewing videos, films, television, etc.).

4. Internet access (Web surfing, including pages with audio and video).

Additional services might be video conferencing, tele-presence, group game playing, and m-
commerce (waving your telephone at the cashier to pay in a store). Furthermore, all these services are
supposed to be available worldwide (with automatic connection via a satellite when no terrestrial
network can be located), instantly (always on), and with quality of service guarantees.

WCDMA (Wideband CDMA), UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), CDMA2000.

 Fourth-Generation (4G) Mobile Phones

The people are already working on 4G systems under the name of LTE (Long Term Evolution) & IEEE
802.16 Wi-Max.

Some of the proposed features of 4G include:

• high bandwidth; ubiquity (connectivity everywhere);

• seamless integration with other wired and wireless IP networks, including 802.11 access points;
adaptive resource and spectrum management;

• high quality of service for multimedia.

• Video Chats

• MMS

• Mobile TV
Fifth-Generation (5G) Mobile Phones

5G is expected to provide a new (much wider than the previous ) frequency bands along with the
wider spectral bandwidth per frequency channel.

Some of the features of 5G:

• Virtually zero latency

• Faster response time

• Connectivity Everywhere

• Speed up to 10 Gbps

• Wide range of applications

• Lower Battery Usage

End Of Unit 3