### Summary of Important Concepts from Chapters 1 and 2

This summary focuses on the key topics necessary for achieving full marks in **Practice Exercise 1**,
based on **Fundamentals of Database Systems (7th Edition), Chapters 1 and 2**.

---

## **Chapter 1: Databases and Database Users**

### **1. Basic Definitions**
- **Database**: A structured collection of related data.
- **Data**: Facts recorded with implicit meaning.
- **Mini-world**: The real-world domain represented in the database (e.g., a university system).
- **Database Management System (DBMS)**: Software that facilitates database creation and
maintenance.
- **Database System**: The DBMS software + the stored data.

### **2. Database Characteristics**

- **Self-describing Nature**: Metadata (data about data) is stored in a catalog.
- **Program-Data Independence**: Data structure changes do not affect applications.
- **Data Abstraction**: Uses a **data model** to hide storage details.
- **Multiple Views of Data**: Different users see customized views of data.
- **Multi-user Transactions**: Ensures **concurrency control** and **consistency**.

### **3. Types of Database Users**

1. **Actors on the Scene**:
- **Database Administrators (DBA)**: Manage database access and security.
- **Database Designers**: Define structure, constraints, and data organization.
- **End-users**:
- **Casual users**: Occasional database access.
- **Naïve users**: Use predefined functions (e.g., bank tellers).
- **Sophisticated users**: Analysts, scientists, engineers.
- **Stand-alone users**: Maintain personal databases.

2. **Actors Behind the Scene**:

- **System Designers & Implementers**: Build and test DBMS software.
- **Tool Developers**: Create software tools for database management.
- **Operators & Maintenance Personnel**: Maintain hardware and software.

### **4. Advantages of Using a DBMS**

- **Data Redundancy Control**: Reduces duplicate data storage.
- **Data Sharing**: Multiple users can access the database.
- **Data Security**: Access is restricted based on privileges.
- **Query Optimization**: Improves search efficiency.
- **Backup and Recovery**: Ensures data persistence.

### **5. When Not to Use a DBMS**

- **If data is simple and static.**
- **If single-user access is sufficient.**
- **If system has real-time constraints (e.g., telephone switching).**

---

## **Chapter 2: Database System Concepts and Architecture**

### **1. Data Models**
- **Conceptual (high-level)**: Close to how users perceive data (e.g., Entity-Relationship Model).
- **Physical (low-level)**: Describes storage details.
- **Implementation (representational)**: Used by commercial DBMS (e.g., Relational Model).
- **Self-Describing Models**: Combine data description with actual data (e.g., XML, NoSQL).

### **2. Schemas vs. Instances**

- **Database Schema**: The logical structure of the database (static).
- **Database Instance (State)**: The actual data in the database at a given time (dynamic).

### **3. Three-Schema Architecture**

1. **Internal Schema** (Physical Storage Level): Describes how data is stored (e.g., indexes).
2. **Conceptual Schema** (Logical Level): Defines overall database structure and constraints.
3. **External Schema** (View Level): Defines user-specific views of the database.

- **Importance**: Supports **data independence** (logical & physical).

### **4. Data Independence**

- **Logical Data Independence**: Conceptual schema changes do not affect external schemas.
- **Physical Data Independence**: Internal schema changes do not affect conceptual schema.

### **5. DBMS Languages**

- **Data Definition Language (DDL)**: Defines schema structure.
- **Data Manipulation Language (DML)**: Performs queries and updates.
- **SQL**: Standard high-level query language.

### **6. DBMS Interfaces**

- **Stand-alone query languages** (e.g., SQL command line).
- **Embedded programming interfaces** (e.g., JDBC for Java).
- **User-friendly interfaces** (e.g., graphical tools, forms).
- **Web interfaces** (e.g., menu-based, forms-based).

### **7. DBMS Architectures**

- **Centralized**: Data stored on a single machine.
- **Client-Server**: Database runs on a server; clients send requests.
- **Distributed**: Data is spread across multiple locations.
- **Cloud-based**: Hosted in large data centers.

---

## **How This Relates to Practice Exercise 1**

### **Q1: Identify possible entity types**
- **Books**, **Borrowers**, **Employees**.
### **Q2: List attributes for each entity**
- **Book**: ISBN, title, authors, publisher, year, edition, topic.
- **Borrower**: ID, name, address, phone.
- **Employee**: ID, name, address, phone.

### **Q3: Identify relationships**

- **Borrower borrows Book**.
- **Employee manages Borrowing**.

### **Q4: Identify relationship cardinalities**

- **Borrower–Book**: Many-to-Many (m:n).
- **Employee–Borrowing**: One-to-Many (1:m).

### **Q5: Two possible external views**

1. **Librarian View**: Can see all borrowing transactions.
2. **Student View**: Can only see books they borrowed.

### **Q6: Three possible operations**

1. **Issue Book**: Adds a borrowing record.
2. **Return Book**: Updates return date.
3. **Search Books**: Finds books by title, author, etc.

### **Q7: Map Entities & Relationships to Tables**

| Books | Borrowers | Employees | Borrowing |
|------------|------------|------------|--------------|
| ISBN (PK) | ID (PK) | ID (PK) | Borrower_ID (FK) |
| Title | Name | Name | Book_ISBN (FK) |
| Authors | Address | Address | Borrow_Date |
| Publisher | Phone | Phone | Return_Date |

### **Q8: Identify Keys**

- **Primary Keys (PK)**: ISBN (Books), ID (Borrowers, Employees).
- **Foreign Keys (FK)**: Borrower_ID (Borrowing → Borrowers), Book_ISBN (Borrowing → Books).

### **Q9: Identify Relationships Mapped to Columns**

- **Borrower_ID, Book_ISBN** (in Borrowing table).

### **Q10: Identify Relationships Mapped to Tables**

- **Borrowing** table (Many-to-Many relationship).

### **Q11: Effect of Allowing Multiple Copies of Books**

- Add **Copy_ID** to Books table.
- Modify Borrowing table to include **Copy_ID**.
- Cardinality remains Many-to-Many.

---
### **Conclusion**
- **Chapters 1 and 2** provide the theoretical foundation for understanding databases.
- **Applying these concepts** to the **Practice Exercise 1** will ensure full marks.

---

### **References**
- Elmasri, R., & Navathe, S. (2016). *Fundamentals of Database Systems (7th ed.)*. Pearson.
- Chapter 1 and 2 PPT slides provided by user.