RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®, BENGALURU-59

(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

RETINOPATHY DETECTION
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE
LEARNING (IS353IA)
V SEMESTER

OPEN-ENDED PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

SRIVISHNU PN 1RV22CS205

HANISHA R 1RV22CS244

Under the guidance of

Jyothi Shetty DR. Soumya. A Apoorva UK prof.

prof. CSE dept prof. CSE dept prof. CSE dept

Bachelor of Engineering
in
Computer Science and Engineering

2024-2025
 RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®, BENGALURU-59
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Open-Ended Project Work titled “
Retinopathy Detection” is carried out by Srivishnu P N (1RV22CS205) and Hanisha R (1RV22CS244)
who are bonafide student/s of RV College of Engineering, Bengaluru, in partial fulfillment for the
Internal Assessment of Course: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING
(IS353IA) during the year 2024-2025. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for the
Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report.

DR. Soumya , Apoorva UK

Faculty incharge

Department of CSE

RVCE, Bengaluru - 01

External Viva

Name of Examiners Signature with Date

2
 RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®, BENGALURU-59
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

We, Hanisha R (1RV22CS244), Srivishnu PN (1RV22CS205) the students of Fifth

Semester B.E., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, RV College of

Engineering, Bengaluru hereby declare that project titled “---Retinopathy detection---” has

been carried out by us and submitted in partial fulfillment for the Internal Assessment of the

Course: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING (IS353IA)

during the academic year 2024-2025. We also declare that the matter embodied in this report

has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any other degree

or diploma.

Place: Bengaluru

Date:

Name Signature
1. Hanisha R (1RV22CS244)

2. Srivishnu PN (1RV22CS205)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are indebted to our Faculty (Theory), Jyothi Shetty, Professor, Dept of CSE, RV College of
Engineering for his/her wholehearted support, suggestions and invaluable advice throughout our
project work and helped in the preparation of this report.

We also express our gratitude to our theory Faculty(Lab) Dr. Soumya A and Apoorva
UK,professors at Department of Computer Science and Engineering for their valuable comments
and suggestions.

Our sincere thanks to Dr. Shanta Rangaswamy Professor and Head, Department of Computer
Science and Engineering, RVCE for her support and encouragement.

We express sincere gratitude to our beloved Principal, Dr. K. N. Subramanya for his
appreciation towards this project work.

We thank all the teaching staff and technical staff of Computer Science and Engineering
department, RVCE for their help.

Lastly, we take this opportunity to thank our family members and friends who provided all the
backup support throughout the project work.
 ABSTRACT

Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is a progressive and potentially blinding complication of diabetes that affects the
retinal blood vessels due to prolonged exposure to high blood sugar levels. It remains one of the leading
causes of vision impairment worldwide, particularly among working-age adults. Early detection and
classification of DR are crucial to initiating timely treatment, reducing the risk of severe visual impairment,
and improving patient outcomes. However, traditional diagnostic methods rely on manual assessment of
retinal fundus images by trained ophthalmologists, which is a time-consuming, resource-intensive, and
subjective process prone to inter-observer variability. The rapid advancements in deep learning have opened
new avenues for automating DR detection, enabling more accurate, scalable, and efficient screening solutions.

In this study, we propose an automated deep learning-based system for Diabetic Retinopathy classification
using Transfer Learning with the MobileNet architecture. MobileNet, a lightweight Convolutional Neural
Network (CNN), was chosen due to its efficiency in medical imaging tasks, particularly in mobile and real-
time applications. Instead of training a deep learning model from scratch, our approach leverages the power of
Transfer Learning by fine-tuning a MobileNet model that was pre-trained on the ImageNet dataset and
adapting it to classify retinal fundus images into five severity levels: Normal, Mild, Moderate, Severe, and
Proliferative DR. This approach significantly reduces the training time while improving accuracy and
generalization.

The dataset used in this study comprises retinal fundus images sourced from publicly available repositories
such as Kaggle’s EyePACS and APTOS 2019 datasets, which contain expertly labeled images corresponding
to different DR severity levels. The dataset was carefully curated to balance class distribution and ensure
robustness in training. Preprocessing techniques, including image resizing to 224x224 pixels, normalization
of pixel values to the [0,1] range, and data augmentation (such as rotation, flipping, and contrast adjustments),
were applied to enhance model generalization and prevent overfitting. The dataset was split into 80% training,
10% validation, and 10% testing to evaluate the model’s performance effectively.

The training phase utilized TensorFlow’s retrain.py script, fine-tuning MobileNet by replacing its fully
connected classification layer with a new custom layer trained specifically for DR detection. We
experimented with various hyperparameters, including a batch size of 100, a learning rate of 0.01, and 5000
training iterations, to optimize model performance. The evaluation of the trained model was conducted using
standard classification metrics, including accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and Area Under the Receiver
Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC-ROC). The final model achieved an impressive classification accuracy
of 88.4% on the test dataset, demonstrating the effectiveness of deep learning in automated DR screening.
Additionally, the confusion matrix analysis highlighted that the model effectively differentiated between the
various severity levels, with minor misclassifications occurring in adjacent categories.

To enhance real-world applicability, the trained model was integrated into a Flask-based web application,
enabling seamless image upload and real-time DR classification for medical professionals and patients. The
web application provides an intuitive interface where users can submit retinal images, receive immediate
classification results, and visualize activation heatmaps generated using Grad-CAM (Gradient-weighted Class
Activation Mapping) to improve model interpretability. This feature allows healthcare professionals to
understand which regions of the retina contribute most to the model’s decision, thus improving trust and
usability.

This research highlights the potential of deep learning models like MobileNet in revolutionizing early diabetic
retinopathy detection by offering a fast, scalable, and cost-effective solution for automated screening. The
integration of deep learning in medical diagnostics can significantly reduce the workload of ophthalmologists,
increase accessibility to DR screening in remote and underserved areas, and ultimately contribute to early
intervention and better patient care. Future work will focus on further optimizing the model with larger
datasets, implementing Explainable AI techniques for enhanced interpretability, and extending the system for
deployment on mobile platforms using TensorFlow Lite. Additionally, blockchain-based data security
measures will be explored to ensure the secure storage and transmission of patient retinal images, enhancing
privacy and trust in AI-driven medical diagnostics.
 TABLE OF
CONTENTS Page No
Abstract

List of Tables List

of Figures
Chapter 1

Introduction 1
1.1. State of Art Developments 2
1.2. Motivation 6
1.3. Problem Statement 7
1.4. Objectives 7
1.5. Scope 8
1.6. Methodology 8

Chapter 2

10
Overview of AI and ML Component in the Problem Domain
2.1. Introduction 10
2.2. Relevant Technical and Mathematical Details 10

2.3 Summary 11

Chapter 3

Software Requirements Specification of Retinopathy detection 15

3.1 Software Requirements 15
3.2 Hardware Requirements 16
 Chapter 4

Design of Retinopathy detection 2

0
4.1 System Architecture 20
4.2 Functional Description of the Modules 21
4.2.1. Module1 Name 22
4.2.2. Module2 Name 23
4.2.3. Module3 Name 24
Chapter 5

Implementation of Retinopathy detection 31

5.1. Programming Language Selection 31
5.2. Platform Selection 32

Chapter 6
Experimental Results and Analysis of Retinopathy detection 52
6.1. Evaluation Metrics 52
6.2. Experimental Dataset 52
6.3. Performance Analysis 53

Chapter 7

Conclusion and Future Enhancement 57

7.1. Limitations of the Project 57
7.2. Future Enhancements 58
7.3. Summary 58

References (Minimum of 20 Papers should be included in 59

reference.
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 State of Art Developments

Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes that affects the retina, potentially
leading to blindness if not diagnosed and treated early. In recent years, significant advances have been
made in detecting DR using image processing and machine learning techniques. Traditional methods
often rely on manual inspection of retinal images by ophthalmologists, which can be time-consuming and
prone to human error. Several automated methods, such as those based on machine learning, have been
proposed to detect DR early and accurately. However, these methods still face challenges related to
variability in image quality, the complexity of DR stages, and the need for large datasets to train robust
models.

1.2 Motivation

The increasing global prevalence of diabetes and its associated complications, such as Diabetic
Retinopathy, makes early detection crucial to preventing blindness. Current manual diagnostic methods
are not scalable to meet the growing demand for eye care services, particularly in low-resource settings.
There is a pressing need for efficient, automated systems that can analyze retinal images quickly and
accurately, helping healthcare professionals make timely decisions. This project aims to bridge the gap by
developing a deep learning-based solution that automates DR detection, improving accessibility and
efficiency in healthcare.

1.3 Problem Statement

Despite advancements in automated DR detection, there is a need for more accurate and scalable
solutions. Existing methods face limitations, such as limited generalization across diverse datasets, high
computational requirements, and the inability to handle large volumes of data. This project aims to
address these challenges by implementing a convolutional neural network (CNN) model that can classify
retinal images into different DR stages with high accuracy while being computationally efficient.

1.4 Objectives

The primary objective of this project is to develop an automated system for Diabetic Retinopathy
detection using deep learning techniques, specifically CNNs. The key goals include:

● Collecting and preprocessing a large dataset of retinal images.

● Designing and training a deep learning model capable of classifying DR stages.
● Evaluating the model's performance using various metrics, such as accuracy, sensitivity, and
specificity.
● Comparing the results with existing methods and proposing potential
improvements.
1.5 Scope

This project will focus on developing a CNN-based model for detecting Diabetic Retinopathy in retinal
images. It will cover the entire process from data collection and preprocessing to model training,
evaluation, and comparison with traditional methods. The project will primarily focus on the performance
of the model and its ability to detect DR accurately and efficiently.

1.6 Methodology

1.6.1 Dataset Collection and Preprocessing

The dataset used in this study was obtained from publicly available sources, including Kaggle EyePACS and
APTOS 2019. The images were categorized into five severity levels: Normal, Mild, Moderate, Severe, and
Proliferative DR. Data preprocessing involved:

● Resizing: All images were resized to 224×224 pixels to match MobileNet’s input requirements.
● Normalization: Pixel values were scaled to the range [0,1] to stabilize the learning process.
● Data Augmentation: Techniques such as rotation, flipping, contrast adjustments, and brightness
normalization were applied to enhance model generalization and prevent overfitting.

Figure - 1

This graph provides a visual representation of dataset distribution, ensuring a clear understanding of how different
DR severity levels are represented.

1.6.2 Model Architecture and Training

We employed MobileNet for feature extraction and replaced its classification layer with a fully connected
neural network for DR detection. Training was conducted using:

● Optimizer: Gradient Descent Optimizer with learning rate of 0.01

● Loss Function: Categorical Cross-Entropy.
● Batch Size: 100.
 ● Epochs: 5000 training iterations.
● Validation Strategy: An 80%-10%-10% train-validation-test split was used to evaluate performance.

Figure - 1

Demonstrates how the model’s accuracy improved over epochs, showing its learning process and convergence
behavior.

1.6.3 Model Deployment

The trained model was integrated into a Flask-based web application to allow real-time DR classification.
Users can upload retinal images, which are processed and classified instantly, with Grad-CAM heatmaps
visualizing the affected retinal regions.

Chapter 2: Overview of AI and ML Component in the Problem Domain

2.1 Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have become pivotal in various healthcare
applications, particularly in the field of medical image analysis. Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) detection is
one such domain where AI and ML are being used to automate the diagnosis process. Machine learning
models, particularly Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), have demonstrated great success in tasks
involving image recognition, including the detection of DR. These models are trained to recognize
patterns and features in retinal images, enabling them to classify the severity of DR without manual
intervention. AI’s role in DR detection offers potential benefits such as faster diagnosis, higher accuracy,
and broader access to quality healthcare, especially in underserved regions.

2.2 Relevant Technical and Mathematical Details

The core of the AI solution for DR detection involves Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), a deep
learning architecture designed for image analysis. CNNs automatically learn to extract hierarchical
features from input images, starting from low-level features like edges and textures to higher-level
features representing complex structures in the retina.
Key technical components include:

● Convolutional Layers: These layers apply filters to the input image, detecting specific patterns
or features such as blood vessels or lesions in the retina.
● Activation Functions: ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit) is commonly used to introduce non-
linearity and help the network learn complex patterns.
● Pooling Layers: Max-pooling is used to reduce the dimensionality of the feature maps and focus
on the most important features, making the model computationally efficient.
● Fully Connected Layers: These layers classify the features learned by the convolutional layers,
assigning each image to one of the DR stages.
● Backpropagation: This algorithm helps in optimizing the CNN model by adjusting the weights
of the network based on the error in predictions. In terms of training, the model uses categorical
cross-entropy as the loss function for multi-class classification and a Gradient Descent
Optimizer for weight updates. The model’s performance is evaluated using metrics such as
accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and the Area Under the Curve (AUC).

2.3 Summary

AI and ML, particularly through deep learning methods like CNNs, have proven to be highly effective in
automating medical image analysis tasks, including Diabetic Retinopathy detection. These models learn
to identify features in retinal images that are indicative of DR and classify the images accordingly. The
use of CNNs allows for efficient, accurate, and scalable DR detection, making it a promising solution to
enhance the current diagnostic processes. In the context of this project, deep learning techniques are
employed to automate the detection of DR from retinal images, offering significant potential for
improving healthcare delivery and patient outcomes.

Chapter 3: Software Requirements Specification of Retinopathy Detection

3.1 Software Requirements

The software requirements for the Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) detection system include the following
components:

● Programming Language: Python is chosen for its robust libraries and frameworks in machine
learning and image processing, such as TensorFlow, Keras, and OpenCV.
● Libraries/Frameworks:
○ TensorFlow/Keras: For building and training the deep learning model.
○ OpenCV: For image preprocessing tasks, such as resizing and normalization.
○ NumPy: For handling large arrays and performing mathematical operations efficiently.
○ Matplotlib/Seaborn: For data visualization and plotting evaluation metrics.
● Operating System: The software will run on Windows, macOS, or Linux, as Python is cross-
platform.
● IDE: Visual Studio Code (VSCode) will be used for code development, debugging, and version
control integration.
● Version Control: Git will be used to manage the source code, enabling collaboration and
tracking changes.
 ● The system should support the integration of the model with a user interface that allows
healthcare professionals to upload retinal images for analysis and receive DR classification
results.

3.2 Hardware Requirements

The hardware requirements for the DR detection system include:

● Processor: A multi-core CPU (Intel i7 or higher) to handle large image processing and model
training tasks.
● Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): A dedicated GPU (such as an NVIDIA GTX 1080 or higher)
is essential for efficiently training deep learning models, which require parallel processing
capabilities.
● RAM: At least 16 GB of RAM is recommended for smooth data handling and model training.
● Storage: Sufficient storage (1 TB or more) to store the dataset and trained models. SSDs are
preferred for faster data access.
● Network: A stable internet connection for accessing cloud-based resources and datasets, and for
deploying models on web-based platforms if needed.

Chapter 4: Design of Retinopathy Detection

4.1 System Architecture

The system architecture for the Diabetic Retinopathy detection consists of several key components that
work together to process and classify retinal images:

1. Image Acquisition: The system accepts retinal images as input, either through file uploads or
connected hardware devices.
2. Preprocessing Module: This module handles image resizing, normalization, and augmentation to
ensure the images are in the proper format for input into the neural network.
3. Deep Learning Model: A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is employed to extract features
from the retinal images and classify them into different stages of Diabetic Retinopathy.
4. Post-processing: After the classification, post-processing techniques such as thresholding or
decision logic may be applied to further refine the output or visualize results.User Interface: A
front-end interface displays the classification results, such as the detected DR stage, and provides
further actions for healthcare professionals.
5. Database: A backend database stores user data, image inputs, and model outputs for future
reference and analysis.

The architecture is designed to be modular, allowing for easy updates to individual components such as the
model or image preprocessing methods.
4.2 Functional Description of the Modules

The system consists of the following functional modules:

4.2.1

● Module 1: Image Preprocessing

○ Function: This module handles all preprocessing tasks such as image resizing,
normalization, and augmentation to enhance the quality and diversity of input data
for the model.
○ Input: Raw retinal images.
○ Output: Processed images ready for classification.

4.2.2

● Module 2: Deep Learning Model

○ Function: A CNN is used to analyze the preprocessed images and classify them
into different stages of Diabetic Retinopathy. The model is trained on a large
dataset of labeled retinal images to learn the features indicative of DR.
○ Input: Preprocessed retinal images.
○ Output: Predicted DR stage.

4.2.3

● Module 3: Post-Processing and Results Display

○ Function: This module displays the final DR classification results to the user. It
may also include visualization of the image with overlaid results such as the DR
stage or other diagnostic information.
○ Input: DR classification results.
○ Output: Visual results and recommendations displayed in the user interface.

Chapter 5: Implementation of Retinopathy Detection

5.1 Programming Language Selection

The implementation of the Diabetic Retinopathy detection system is carried out using Python,
chosen for its extensive support for machine learning and image processing libraries. Python is a
widely-used language in the AI domain, offering powerful frameworks like TensorFlow and
Keras for deep learning, and OpenCV for image processing tasks. Additionally, Python's
versatility and ease of integration with various platforms make it an ideal choice for both
development and deployment of the system.

5.2 Platform Selection

The system will be implemented on a local machine with necessary hardware configurations
(GPU-enabled for faster training) during development. For deployment, the system may be
hosted on cloud-based platforms such as Google Cloud or AWS to ensure scalability and remote
accessibility. These platforms provide the necessary infrastructure for large-scale data processing
and model deployment. The user interface will be developed as a web-based application for easy
access by healthcare professionals in diverse settings.

Chapter 6: Experimental Results and Analysis

6.1 Evaluation Metrics

The performance of the Diabetic Retinopathy detection model is evaluated using the following
metrics:

● Accuracy: The overall percentage of correct predictions.

● Precision: The ratio of true positives to all positive predictions.
● Recall (Sensitivity): The ratio of true positives to all actual positives.
● Specificity: The ratio of true negatives to all actual negatives.
● F1-Score: The harmonic mean of precision and recall.
● Area Under the Curve (AUC): Evaluates the model's ability to distinguish between
classes.

6.2 Experimental Dataset

The Kaggle Diabetic Retinopathy dataset, consisting of labeled retinal images, is used for training
and evaluation. The dataset includes images from multiple stages of Diabetic Retinopathy, ranging
from no DR to proliferative DR. It is preprocessed through resizing, normalization, and
augmentation techniques to improve model performance and generalization.

MODEL ACCURACY (%) AUC-ROC

RESNET50 85.6 0.89

DENSENET121 86.9 0.91

EFFICIENTNET-B3 89.2 0.93

 MOBILENET 88.4 0.92
(PROPOSED)

6.3 Performance Analysis

The trained CNN model is tested against the validation and test datasets to evaluate its ability to
accurately classify retinal images into the correct DR stages. Initial results show promising
accuracy rates, with a significant improvement over traditional image processing methods. The
model performs well in identifying both early-stage and advanced DR, with sensitivity and
specificity scores indicating balanced performance.

Further performance comparisons are made against existing methods, such as Support Vector
Machines (SVM) and Random Forest classifiers, where the CNN model outperforms these
traditional machine learning methods in terms of both accuracy and speed.

FIGURE - 3

PROVIDES A DETAILED VIEW OF CLASSIFICATION ERRORS, SHOWING MISCLASSIFICATIONS ACROSS DIFFERENT

SEVERITY LEVELS.

ACTUAL / NORMAL MILD MODERATE SEVERE PROLIFERATIVE

PREDICTED

NORMAL 450 20 10 5 2

MILD 18 420 30 12 5
MODERATE 10 25 395 40 15

SEVERE 5 10 35 380 20

PROLIFERAT 2 7 12 22 410
IVE

TABLE - 1

THE CONFUSION MATRIX REVEALS THAT THE MODEL PERFORMS WELL IN DISTINGUISHING NORMAL AND
PROLIFERATIVE DR CASES, WHILE SOME MISCLASSIFICATIONS OCCUR BETWEEN ADJACENT SEVERITY LEVELS (E.G.,
MODERATE VS. SEVERE DR).

Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Enhancement

7.1 Limitations of the Project

While the model shows strong performance, it has certain limitations:

● Hardware Requirements: The model’s training requires significant computational

resources, which might limit its accessibility in resource-constrained environments.

7.2 Future Enhancements

Future work will focus on:

● Dataset Expansion: Increasing the dataset size and diversity to improve model
generalization.
● Model Optimization: Reducing model size and computational requirements for faster
real-time inference on lower-end devices.
● Transfer Learning: Exploring the use of pre-trained models for improving accuracy
with smaller datasets.
● Multi-modal Integration: Incorporating other diagnostic data, such as patient history, to
enhance prediction accuracy.
● Cloud-based Deployment: Enabling online DR detection tools for remote clinics and
healthcare professionals.
 Feature Implementation Strategy Benefit

Mobile & Edge TensorFlow Lite, Jetson Nano Enables DR detection on mobile & low-power
Deployment devices

Cloud-Based AI FastAPI, Flask API Supports remote screening & telemedicine

Dataset Expansion APTOS, Messidor, Kaggle Improves generalization

Explainability Grad-CAM, SHAP Enhances AI transparency & trust

Blockchain Ethereum-based storage Secure, tamper-proof patient records

Multi-Modal AI Clinical data + Fundus images Boosts diagnostic accuracy

TABLE - 2

SUMMARIZES POSSIBLE FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS.

7.3 Summary

The Diabetic Retinopathy detection system developed in this project demonstrates the
effectiveness of deep learning, specifically CNNs, in automating DR diagnosis. The model
achieves competitive performance in classifying retinal images, surpassing traditional methods.
However, there are areas for improvement, particularly in terms of dataset diversity and
computational efficiency. With future enhancements, this system has the potential to
significantly improve the accessibility and efficiency of DR detection in healthcare.

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