MODULE – 2

2.1- Introduction:
 AC stands for alternating current, means voltage or current that changes polarity or direction over
time.
 An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at regular
intervals of time.
 AC voltage and current can be defined in two types namely single phase and three phase.
 The variation in the AC quantity plotted against time is known as a wave. And the pattern of the
wave is known as the wave shape or wave form.
 The wave form is said to be sinusoidal if the variations in the magnitude and direction can be
represented by the sine function.
 Generally the AC voltages generated at the large scale are sinusoidal voltages & corresponding
currents are sinusoidal currents.
 Any alternating quantity can be represented by a simple sine wave as shown in fig below
2.2 – Advantages of Sine wave or AC
 Sine wave is one of the most natural wave form
 Sinusoidal voltage can be conveniently generated in the large AC generators
 Sinusoidal quantities can be mathematically expressed & analyzed in a simple manner
 The vector representation of a sine wave is useful in the solution of the complicated AC circuits.
 Sinusoidal voltages produce uniform torque, minimum vibration & least noise in the electric
motors.
2.3 – Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
This law can be stated as
 “Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an EMF is always induced in it.” OR
it is also defined as “whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an EMF is induced in that
conductor.”
 The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage and the direction
of the induced EMF is such that the induced EMF opposes the cause of it production.

 Consider a coil with ‘n’ turns & flux through it changes from initial value φ1 to φ2 in time t, thus
the flux linked with coil of ‘n’ turns are n φ 1 & n φ 2 respectively.
Initial flux linkage = n φ 1
Final flux linkage = n φ 2
 The induced EMF is given by
𝑛𝜑1−𝑛𝜑2
 E = −[ 𝑡
]
𝑑𝜑
 E= - N 𝑑𝑡
 The negative sign in the above equation indicates that the induced EMF sets up the current in
such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing it.
 The direction of induced EMF is given by Lenz’s law.
 Lenz’s law - The negative sign in the above equation indicates that the induced EMF sets up the
current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing
it.
  Hence, the induced EMF always opposes the cause producing it.
 There are two possible methods by which EMF can be induced in the circuit.
 First one is moving a permanent magnet having magnetic field around near the coil.
 When magnet is moved relative to coil such a way that, the number of lines of force passing
through the coil changes, hence magnetic flux changes with respect to time and EMF is induced.
 Second method is keeping magnet fix and rotating a coil or conductor in magnetic field.
 Here also, there is change in magnetic flux with respect to time and EMF is induced in the coil or
conductor.

2.4 – Generation of Sinusoidal voltage

 Consider a single turn rectangular coil is kept in the magnetic field as shown in fig. The coil is so
placed that it can be rotated in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.
 The coil is made up of conducting material like copper or aluminum and two conductors a-b and
c-d.
 Consider the coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction and while rotating, the conductors a-b and
c-d cuts the line of flux in magnetic field.
 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, EMF is induced in the conductors and
this EMF depends upon the position of the coil in the magnetic field which can be explained as
follow.
 ɵ = 0°: The initial position of the coil as shown in fig.3.3 (a). The plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field. The conductors move parallel to the magnetic
field or magnetic lines of force. Hence the flux cutting is almost zero, so EMF induced is zero.

Fig 2.1 (a) - ɵ = 0° fig 2.2 (b) - ɵ = 90° fig 2.3 (c) - ɵ = 180°

 ɵ = 90°: Now, the conductor is rotated by angle 90° in anticlockwise direction as shown in fig
2.3 (b).While rotating from ɵ = 0° to ɵ = 90° it will cut maximum flux. At ɵ = 90° maximum
lines of flux are cut hence maximum EMF is induced.
 ɵ = 180°: When again coil rotates from ɵ = 90° to ɵ = 180° the flux cutting of the coil reduces. At
ɵ = 180°as shown in fig 2.3(c), the conductors plane becomes perpendicular to magnetic lines of
force. In this position conductors move parallel to magnetic lines of force hence no flux is cut and
EMF induced is zero.
 The conductors move in same direction from ɵ = 0° to ɵ = 180°, so the induced EMF is having
same polarity during this period called positive or first half cycle.
  As shown in fig. 2.3 (d), from ɵ = 180° to ɵ = 270° the direction of force on conductor a, b and c,
d is changed. Conductor a, b is now going in downward direction and conductor c, d is going in
upward direction. Due to this, the polarity of induced EMF changes.
 At ɵ = 270°,the conductors moves at right angle to magnetic lines of force hence maximum lines
of force are cut by conductor and maximum EMF is induced in opposite direction.

Fig. 2.3 (d) -180°< ɵ < 270°

 This set of variation repeats for every revolution as conductors rotate in a circular motion with
certain speed.
 The instantaneous values of induced EMF in any conductor as it rotates from ɵ = 0° to ɵ = 360°
is shown in fig. 2.4 and from figure it is clear that the waveform generated is pure sine wave.

Fig. 2.4 – Graphical representation of induced EMF

2.5 - Some important terms related to AC circuit:

 Instantaneous value – The value of alternating quantity at a particular instant is known as
instantaneous value.
 Waveform – The graph plotted by taking instantaneous values of alternating quantity against time is
called as waveform. The graph of alternating quantity is sinusoidal.
 Cycle – Each repetition of a complete set of changes undergone by the alternating quantity is called
as cycle. Or complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as cycle.
One cycle of alternating EMF is shown in fig. 2.4.
 Time period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called time
period.
 Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second completed by an alternating quantity is called as
frequency.
1
𝑓=
𝑇
 Amplitude: The maximum value obtained by an alternating quantity during its positive or negative
half cycle is called as amplitude or peak value.
 Angular frequency: It is defined as frequency expressed in electrical radians per second and it is
denoted as ‘ω’.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

 Mathematical equation and waveform of alternating current and voltage:

Fig. 2.5(a) – Alternating current fig. 2.5(b) – Alternating voltage

 Phase difference: When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points,
they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of phase
difference. As shown in below fig, phase difference between two waveforms is given by angle ‘φ’.

Fig. 2.6 – phase difference

 In phase: Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero.
That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that the
voltage and current are in phase.

Fig. 2.7 – Voltage and current in phase

Mathematical expression when voltage and current are in phase can be written as,
v = Vm Sin(ωt)
i = Im sin(ωt)
In resistive circuits or load, current is in phase with voltage.

 Lagging: In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the
voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor diagram is
shown in below fig.

Fig. 2.8 – Current lagging supply voltage

Mathematical representation is as shown.

V = Vm Sin(ωt) ; i = Im sin(ωt – φ)
 From above equation we can say that current is lagging voltage by angle φ and hence there is phase
difference of angle φ.
Generally, in inductive circuits or loads current is lagging the supply voltage.
 Leading: In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the
voltage waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor diagram is as
shown.

Fig. 2.9 – Current leading supply voltage

Mathematical representation is as shown.

v = Vm Sin(ωt); i = Im sin(ωt + φ)
From above equation we can say that current is leading voltage by angle φ and hence there is phase
difference of angle φ.
In capacitive circuits or loads current is leading the supply voltage.
2.6 – Concept of Average and RMS value:
2.6.1 – Average Value of current or voltage: The arithmetic average of all the values of an
alternating quantity over one cycle is called its average value of that quantity.
Consider, an alternating current waveform having maximum value (amplitude) Im as shown in fig
For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes equal to zero
because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical waveforms, the average value
is calculated for half cycle.

Fig. 2.10 – Alternating current waveform

 Area under one half cycle
Average value =
Base
So, from above fig. avg. value of current for half cycle for 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 can be written as,
π
∫0 i dθ
Iavg =
π
Putting, i = Im sinθ in above equation
1 𝜋
Iavg = 𝜋 0
∫ Im sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
I π
= πm ∫0 sinθ dθ
I
= m [−cosθ] π0
π
−Im
= [−1 −1]
π
= 2Im / π
Iavg = 0.637 Im
Similarly, average voltage can be written as, Vavg = 0.637 Vm

2.6.2 – RMS Current or Voltage:

√(Area under squared wave one half cycle)
RMS value =
Base
Consider an alternating current waveform as shown in fig.3.10 above.
For this waveform, i = Im sin(ωt) RMS value of current can be find as,
𝜋
Area under the squared wave for half cycle = ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃 , and base = π
Mean value of current for a half cycle is,
1 𝜋
I= 𝜋
∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
Put i = Im sinθ
1 𝜋 2
I= ∫ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0 𝑚
2
𝐼𝑚
= 2𝜋
[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃] 𝜋0
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
= 2𝜋
[𝜃 − 2 ] 𝜋0
2
𝐼𝑚
= 2𝜋
[𝜋]
2
𝐼𝑚
= 2
To find RMS value, we have to find square root of mean value.
2
𝐼𝑚
Irms = √
2
𝑚𝐼
= √2 = 0.707 Im
Hence, Irms = 0.707 Im
Similarly, Vrms = 0.707 Vm

2.6.3 – Form Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity.
RMS Value
Form factor = Average Value
From above equations we can write,
 RMS value = 0.707 × Maximum value
Average value = 0.637 × Maximum value
Hence, by taking the ratio form factor can be written as,
0.707 × Max.Value
Form factor = 0.637×Max.Value
Form factor = 1.11

2.6.4 – Peak Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity.
Max. Value
Peak factor =
RMS Value
Max.Value
= 0.707×Max.Value
1
=
0.707
Peak factor = 1.414

2.7 – SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS:

The resistor, inductor, capacitor are the basic elements of any electrical circuit. To analyze any
electric circuit, it is necessary to understand the three cases,
a. AC through pure resistive circuit
b. AC through pure inductive circuit
c. AC through pure capacitive circuit

In each case, it is assumed that a purely sinusoidal alternating voltage given by equation v = V m Sin(ωt) is
applied to the circuit. The equation for current, power and phase shift is developed in each case.

2.7.1 – AC Circuit With Pure Resistance:

Consider a simple circuit containing a pure resistance ‘R’ ohms connected across an alternating voltage
source v = Vm sin(ωt) as shown in fig
According to Ohm’s law, the current (i) in the circuit is given by,
i = v/R
Vm sinωt
=
R

Fig. 2.11 – Purely resistive circuit

Comparing the above equation to i = Im sin(ωt + φ), we can write,

Im = Vm / R and φ = 0
Hence we can say that there no phase difference between voltage and current which means both voltage
and current are in phase with each other.
Maximum value of current can be given by Im = Vm / R
The waveform and phasor diagram is shown in below fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.12 – Phasor and waveform of purely resistive circuit

Power In Purely Resistive Circuit:

Power in electrical circuit is nothing but the multiplication of voltage and current.
Equation of voltage and current is
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 and i = Im sin 𝜔𝑡
Hence, power (P) is, P = v × i
P = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 × Im sin 𝜔𝑡 = Vm Im sin2(ωt)
By using trigonometric relation sin2(ωt) can be written as
(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
sin2(ωt) =
2
Hence,
(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
P = V m Im 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P=[ - cos 2𝜔𝑡 ]
2 2

From above equation of power we can say that the power is having two parts
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
a. 2
is s constant part which is the actual power consumed in the circuit.
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
b. 2
cos2ωt is variable part which is having the term ‘cos(2ωt)’ so, its average value over one
cycle is zero.
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Hence average power over one cycle is 2
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
Average Power = 𝟐
= Vrms× Irms

2.7.2 – AC Circuit With Pure Inductance:

Consider a simple circuit containing a coil having inductance ‘L’ Henry, connected across an alternating
voltage source v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 as shown in fig.2.13
 Fig.2.13 – Purely Inductive Circuit

When current is flowing through coil having inductance ‘L’, it sets up alternating magnetic field around
the inductance. This alternating flux links with the coil and due to self-inductance, EMF is induced in the
coil.
The voltage around the inductor which is same as supply voltage is given as,
𝑑𝑖
v=L( 𝑑𝑡
) 3.4
But, v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 (𝑑𝑡 )
Vm
di = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Integrating both sides we get,
−Vm 1
i= 𝐿
cos 𝜔𝑡 . 𝜔
𝜋
Here, −cos 𝜔𝑡 can be written as sin( 𝜔𝑡 − )
2
Hence,
𝐕𝐦 𝝅
i= 𝝎𝑳
𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐 )
𝐕𝐦
The maximum value of current Im =
𝝎𝑳
Putting in equation (3.9.5) we get,
𝜋
i = Im sin( 𝜔𝑡 − ) and equation of voltage is
2
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Comparing these two equations we can say that, there is phase difference of (− 2 ) rad or 90°
𝝅
That is, current is lagging the supply voltage by 𝟐
rad or 90°
The phasor diagram and waveforms of this condition is shown below in fig 2.14.

Fig.2.14 – Phasor and waveform of pure inductive circuit

Inductive reactance:
Vm
From equation 3.9.5, maximum value of current can be given as Im = 𝜔𝐿
Where the term ‘ωL’ is known as Inductive reactance (XL) which is nothing but the opposition offered by
inductance of a circuit to flow of alternating current.
It is given by.
XL = ωL = 2πfL

Average Power In Purely inductive Circuit:

Equation of voltage and current in purely inductive circuit is written as
𝜋
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 and i = Im sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
Hence, power (P) is, P = v × i
𝜋
P = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 × Im sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
−𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= 2
(2 sin 𝜔𝑡. cos 𝜔𝑡)
−𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= (sin 2𝜔𝑡)
2
Thus average power in inductive circuit is a sine wave with frequency doubles that of voltage and current
wave.
Hence the mean value of power taken over one cycle is zero.
Avg power = 0

2.7.3 – AC with Pure Capacitor:

Fig.2.15 - Purely capacitive Circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure.

The alternating voltage ‘v’ is given by
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
The current flowing in the circuit is ‘i’. The voltage across the capacitor is given as ‘V C’ which is the
same as ‘V’.
We can find the current through the capacitor as follows
q = Cv
q = C Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞
i= 𝑑𝑡
Hence, differentiating equation 3.9.7 w.r.t ‘t’
i = C Vmcos 𝜔𝑡× 𝜔
 𝜋
= 𝜔CVm sin(ωt + 2 )
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= sin(ωt + )
1/𝜔𝐶 2
In above equation
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Im = =
1/𝜔𝐶 𝑋𝐶
, and XC is called as capacitive reactance given as
𝟏 𝟏
XC = 𝝎𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
Hence, equation 3.9.8 can be written as,
𝜋
i = Im. sin(ωt + 2 )
and voltage equation is v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡,
From these equations we can say that in purely capacitive circuit current is leading the supply voltage by
𝝅
or 90°. This can be shown by phasor diagram and waveform
𝟐

Fig.2.16 – Phasor diagram and waveform of pure capacitive circuit

Average power in pure capacitive circuit:

Equation of voltage and current in purely capacitive circuit is written as

𝜋
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 and i = Im sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
Hence, power (P) is, P = v × i
𝜋
P = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡 × Im sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
𝜋 sin(2𝜔𝑡)
But, sin ( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) = cos 𝜔𝑡 and sin 𝜔𝑡. cos 𝜔𝑡 = 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= (sin 2𝜔𝑡)
2
Thus average power in capacitive circuit is a sine wave with frequency doubles that of voltage and current
wave.
Hence the mean value of power taken over one cycle is zero.

2.8 - Some Important Terms Related To AC Circuits:

2.8.1 – Power Factor:-
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current. It
is denoted as ‘cos(φ)’. The power factor can be lagging or leading depending upon the type of circuit and
type of the load connected.
Power factor is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance of the circuit
Or “The ratio of active power to the apparent power “

2.8.2 – Active power:-

It is the actual power or useful power that is consumed by the circuit. This power may be converted into
heat or any useful form. It is denoted by ‘P’ and its unit is ‘Watt’ (W) or larger unit is Kilo-watt (KW) or
Mega Watt (MW)
Active power is given by,
P = V×I×cos(φ) Or P = I2R
2.8.3 – Reactive Power:-
It is the power developed in the components like inductor or capacitor in the circuit. This power is not
useful power and it is not the actual output power but it circulates in the circuit. It is denoted by ‘Q’ and
its unit is Volt-Amperes- Reactive (VAR).
Q = V×I×sin(φ) Or
Q = I2XL for inductive circuit and Q = I2XC for capacitive circuit.
2.8.4 – Apparent Power:-
It is defined as product of RMS voltage and RMS current. It is also defined as the total power in the
circuit.
It is denoted by ‘S’ and its unit is Volt- Ampere (VA) or Kilo-volt-ampere (KVA).
S= V×I
Or, S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2

2.9 – Series R-L Circuit

Fig. 2.17 – Series R – L circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in the
figure. The alternating voltage v is given by,
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
The current flowing in the circuit is ‘i’.
The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the inductor is VL. In above circuit,
VR=I.R is in phase with I
VL=I.XL leads current by 90 degrees with the above information; the phasor diagram can be drawn as
shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage VL
leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the figure 2.18 (a).
 Fig. 2.18 (a) – phasor diagram fig. 2.18 (b) – waveform

From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in other words
the
current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. The waveform for an RL series circuit is also shown
above.
Due to inductive nature of circuit, the current is lagging supply voltage by some angle ‘φ’. The waveform
is shown in fig. 2.18 (b)
The equations of voltage and current are given as,
v = Vm sin ωt
i = Imsin (ωt – φ)
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle ‘φ’ can be derived as
follows
V = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
Where, VR = IR, VL = IXL
And XL = 2πfL
Also, V = I.Z
From phasor diagram,
𝑉𝐿 𝑋𝐿
tan(φ) = 𝑉𝑅
= 𝑅
𝑿𝑳
Hence, φ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝑹
Voltage triangle and Impedance triangle for R-L circuit:

Fig. 2.19 (a) - Voltage triangle fig 2.19 (b) - Impedance triangle

From impedance triangle, power factor can be written as

𝑹
cos (φ) = 𝒁

and Impedance, Z = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑳 3.17

Average power P = V ×I× cos(φ) Or P = I2R
Hence the power in an RC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The capacitance does not
consume any power.

Solved Example

Ex.3.1) A 200 V, 50 Hz, inductive circuit takes a current of 10A, lagging 30 degree. Find
(i) Resistance (ii) Reactance (iii) Inductance of the coil.
Solution: Given data
V= 200 V
F = 50 Hz
I = 10 A
Φ = 30°
By using equation 3.14 from above,
V = I.Z we can write,
V 200
Z= I
;= 10
= 20
Z = 20 Ω
By using equation 3.16,
R
cos (φ) = Z
R
cos (30°) =
20
R = 20×0.866
R = 17.32 Ω
From equation 3.17 we can write as,
XL = √𝑍 2 − 𝑅 2 = √202 − (17.32)2
XL = 10 Ω
XL = 2πf.L
L = XL /2πf
L = 0.031 H
Ans – i) R = 17.32 Ω , ii) Reactance = XL = 10 Ω , iii) Inductance L = 0.031 H

Ex.3.2) A circuit has resistance of 10 Ω and inductance of 50 mH. It is connected to 50 Hz , 230 V

AC supply. Calculate: a) Inductive reactance b) Impedance c) Current in the circuit d) phase
difference between voltage and current
Solution: Given data
R = 10 Ω
L = 50 mH = 50×10-3 H= 0.05 H ( Converted mH into H)
V = 230 V
F= 50 Hz
XL = 2πf.L
Putting the required values from given data
XL = 2×3.142×50×0.005
XL = 15.76 Ω

Z = √R2 + X L2 = √102 + (15.76)2 = 18.66 Ω

V 230
V = I.Z; I = Z
= 18.66
= 12.32 A
𝑅 𝑅
Now, cos (φ) = ; φ = cos −1
𝑍 𝑍
(10)
φ = cos −1 (18.66) = 57.76°
Ans –a) Inductive reactance XL = 15.76 Ω b) Impedance Z = 17.66 Ω c) Current I = 12.32 A
d) Phase difference between voltage and current φ = 57.76°

2.10 – Series R-C Circuit

Fig. 2.20 – Series R-C circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in the
figure. The alternating voltage v is given by,
v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
The current flowing in the circuit is ‘i’.
The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the capacitor is VC. In above circuit,
VR=I.R is in phase with I
VC=I.XC lags current by 90 degrees as per the above information; the phasor diagram can be drawn as
shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage VC
lags the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the figure 2.21

Fig. 2.21
From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or in other
words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ. The waveform for an RC series circuit is also shown
above.
Due to capacitive nature of circuit, the current is leading supply voltage by some angle ‘φ’.
The equations of voltage and current are given as,
v = Vm sin ωt
i = Imsin (ωt + φ)
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle ‘φ’ can be derived as
follows

V = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2
Where, VR = IR, VC = IXC , and V = I.Z
1
XC =
2𝜋𝑓𝑐
𝑉 𝑋𝐶
tan(φ) = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑅
𝑅
𝑿𝑪
Hence, φ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝑹
Voltage triangle and Impedance triangle for R-C circuit:

Fig. 2.22 (a) fig. 2.22 (b)

From impedance triangle fig.3.22 (a), power factor can be written as
𝐑
cos (φ) =
𝐙

and from fig 3.22 (b), Impedance, Z = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑪

Average power P = V ×I× cos(φ) Or P = I2R
Hence the power in an RC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The capacitance does not
consume any power.
Solved Example

Ex 3.3) A Capacitor of capacitance 79.5μF is connected in series with a non-inductive resistance of

30 Ω across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Find (i) Capacitive Reactance (ii) impedance (iii) current (iv)
phase angle
Solution : Given data –
V = 100 V
R = 30 Ω
F= 50 Hz
C = 79.5 μF = 79.5×10-6 F ( micro-farad converted into Farad)
Now, By using the formula for Capacitive Reactance (XC)
1 1
XC = = = 40 Ω
2πfc 2×3.142×50×79.5×10−6

Z = √R2 + X C2 = √302 + 402 = 50 Ω

Current is calculated by using the formula,
V 100
I= Z
= 50
=2A
Now using equation 3.19 to calculate the phase angle,
𝑋𝐶 40
φ = tan−1 = tan−1
𝑅 30
φ = tan−1 (1.33)
φ = 53.3°
Ans: (i) Capacitive Reactance = XC = 40 Ω (ii) impedance Z = 50 Ω (iii) current I = 2A
(iv) phase angle φ = 53.3°

2.11 - R – L – C Series Circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in series as
shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v = Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is ‘i’. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage across the
inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC

Fig. 2.23 – Series R-L-C circuit

As these components are in series, the current flowing through them is same but voltage across each
component is different. According to the nature of resistance, inductance, and capacitance and as
explained earlier, the voltage across each component can be given as,
VR=IR is in phase with I
VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
The impedance of the circuit is given as,
Z = √R2 + X 2
Where X = (XL - XC) or (XC - XL)
So, there can be three possible cases
i) If XL ˃ XC – When inductive reactance is greater than capacitive reactance then the voltage
across inductor VL is greater than VC. Hence the resultant voltage across the L-C combination is
 (VL – VC). The total voltage V is resultant of VR and (VL – VC). Due to high inductive reactance
the nature of circuit is inductive and the resultant voltage is leading the current I or current is
lagging the supply voltage V. This is shown is phasor diagram in fig.2.24 (a)

Fig. 2.24 (a) - XL ˃ XC fig. 2.24 (b) - XC ˃ XL

ii) If XC ˃ XL : When capacitive reactance is greater than inductive reactance then the voltage across
capacitor VC is greater than VL. Hence the resultant voltage across the L-C combination is (VC –
VL). The total voltage V is resultant of VR and (VC – VL). Due to high capacitive reactance the
nature of circuit is capacitive and the resultant voltage is lagging the current I or current is leading
the supply voltage V. This is shown is phasor diagram in fig.2.24 (b)
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle φ can be derived as ,

V = √VR 2 + (VL − Vc )2 Assuming VL ˃ VC

V = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (IX L − IX c )2
V = I (√(𝑅)2 + (X L − X c )2)

V = I.Z
Where, Z = √(𝑹)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐜 )𝟐
Z is called as impedance of the circuit.

iii) If XC = XL : When inductive reactance is equal to capacitive reactance, voltage across inductor
VL is equal to VC. Hence the resultant voltage across the L-C combination is (VL – VC) = 0 or
VL= VC
Hence, from equation 2.22, the impedance Z = R ( as XL – XC = 0).
This condition is called as ‘resonance’.
R Z
The power factor in resonance condition is cos (φ) = = =1
Z Z
Hence power factor is unity in resonance condition.
 Sample Example:

Ex.3.4) A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is applied to a coil of 0.06 H inductance and 2.5 Ω resistance
connected in series with a 6.8 μF capacitor. Calculate (i) Impedance (ii) Current (iii) Phase angle
between current and voltage (iv) power factor (v) power consumed in the circuit.
Solution: Given data – V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
L = 0.06H
R = 2.5 Ω
C = 6.8 μF = 6.8×10-6 F
Now, using formula for XL and XC
XL = 2πfL = 2×3.142×50×0.06 = 18.84 Ω
1 1
XC = = = 468 Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2×3.142×50×6.8×10−6

(i) Z = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐜 )𝟐 = √(2.5)2 + (18.84 − 468)2 = 449.2 Ω

V 230
(ii) I=Z= 449.2
= 0.512 A
𝑅 2.5
(iii) Φ= cos−1 𝑍 = cos −1 449.2 = 89.70°
(iv) Power factor = cos (φ) = cos (89.70°) = 0.0055

2.12 – Various Power’s in AC circuit:

In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as
1. Real or Active power
2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
 Real or active power in an AC circuit is the power that does useful work in the circuit.
 Reactive power flows in an AC circuit but does not do any useful work.
 Apparent power is the total power in an AC circuit.

A) Real Power : The power due to the active component of current is called as the active power or real
power. It is denoted by P.
P = V x I × cos( φ) = I2R
Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by the resistance. The
unit of real power is Watt (W).
B) Reactive Power: The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive power.
It is denoted by Q.
Q = V x I×sin(φ) = I2XL
Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in th L and C components. The
unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).
C) Apparent Power:
The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S.
S = V x I = I2Z
S = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2
The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).
Power Triangle:

Fig.2.25 – Power triangle

2.13 - Power Factor:

 The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the “cosine of the angle between voltage and
current”. It is denoted as ‘cos(φ)’. The power factor can be lagging or leading depending upon
the type of circuit and type of the load connected.
 Power factor is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance of the circuit
 From power triangle, power factor can be defined as the ratio of active power to the apparent
power. In above diagram of power triangle, taking cosine of angle ‘φ’
P Active power
cos(φ) = S = Apparant power

2.14 - Disadvantages of low power factor:

 The power factor plays an important role in ac circuits depending upon the load. As we know that
lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa.
 Lagging power factor has some disadvantages like large KVA rating because the KVA is
inversely proportional to the power factor.
 Due to low power factor cost of generation, transmission, distribution increases.
 Another demerit is the large copper losses, at low power factor the conductor carries large current
hence more copper losses occurs since copper loss is nothing but I2R.
 Large voltage drops in transmission lines.