BUILDING SERVICES - 1

UNIT I - WATER QUALITY, TREATMENTS AND

DISTRIBUTION
B.ARCH., III year – (2015-2019)
Asst.Professor,
Ar. G.SORNALATHA
Prime College Of Architecture
DESIGN OF STRUCTURE

BUILDING
BUILDING MATERIAL
CONSTRUCTION

ARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

BUILDING SERVICES
ADVANTAGES WHEN WE CONSIDERING BUILDING SERVICES
IN DESIGN

• COST EFFECTIVE

• TIME SAVING

• AVOID CONFLICTING

• GETTING A QUILIFIED BUILDING

IF NOT ........
1. Sources : Sources of water
2. Quality : Treatment of water
3. Distribution system : For towns
4. Distribution system : For building
5. Quantity
6. Storage : Storage tanks
7. Pumps
8. Pipes
9. Valves, water meter , fire hydrants
1. Sources :
3. Quality :

Treatment of water Physical impurities: turbidity, colour, taste, odour

Chemical impurities: hardness of water
Bacteriological impurities: harmful pathogenic bacteria in water treatment plant

The stages of water treatment followed are as:

Screening at inlet: large floating matters are removed. Aeration: enriched by adding
oxygen from atmosphere.

Sedimentation: to arrest and remove suspended particles at bottom.

Coagulation: hardness or chemical impurities are removed by adding alum

(colourless astringent compound) or similar chemicals.

Filtration: water is made to pass through different types of filter media where
most of the physical and bacteriological impurities are arrested.

Disinfection: finally water is disinfected before distribution either by adding

chlorine or ozone or passing water through ultra violet rays.
Distribution system: For towns
• Treated water is distributed through a network system of
underground pipes, pumps and other control, maintenance and
safety devices to the town.
• It could be of two types continuous or intermittent (during
fixed times only)
• Topography plays important role.
• Elevated reservoirs are preferred to distribute water with
gravitational force.
• Sub-pumping stations are built in different localities to boost
the water supply.
Distribution system : For towns

• Layouts of Distribution System

1. Dead End or Tree System

2. Grid Iron System
3. Circular or Ring System
4. Radial System

•Method of Water Distribution System

1. Gravity System
2. Pumping System
3. Dual System
Layouts of Distribution System

• The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the

entire scheme.
• The should convey the treated water upto consumers with the same
degree of purity.
• The system should be economical and easy to maintain and
operate.
• It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible
should not be laid below sewer lines.
• Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs
are undertaken.
• The system should be so designed that the supply should meet
maximum hourly demand. A peak factor 2.5 is recommended for the
towns of population 0.5. to 2 lakhs. For larger population a factor of 2.0
will be adequate.
DEAD END (OR) TREE SYSTEM
1. Suitable for irregularly developed towns or cities
2. One main starts from service reservoir along the main road
3. Sub mains are connected to the main in both the direction along other
road, which meets the main road.
4. In streets, lanes and other small roads, which meet the roads, carrying
sub mains, branches and minor distributors are laid and are connected to
sub mains
5. From these branches service connection are made to individual houses.
ADVANTAGE OF DEAD END (OR) TREE SYSTEM
1. Cheap in initial cost and easy determination of pipe diameters, valves
sizes etc.
2. Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is
calculated easily
3. The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in
number.

DISADVANTAGE OF DEAD END (OR) TREE SYSTEM

1. Formation of dead ends and if pipes break down or is closed for repair,
the whole locality beyond the point goes without water
2. Since the water is reaching at each point from one side only, it cannot
meet the fire demand nor can the supply be increased or diverted from
other points. This is a serious handicap and limit the fire fighting
capacity.
3. There is stagnant water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.
Grid Iron System
ADVANTAGE OF GRID IRON SYSTEM
1. In case of fire, more quantity of water can be diverted towards the
affected area by closing the valves of nearly localities.
2. When water supplied from both the sides to every point, very small
area will be affected during repair.
3. Since the water reaches every point from more than one route, the
friction losses and the sizes of the pipes are reduced.
4. All the dead end are completed eliminated therefore the water.
remains in continuous flow and there is no stagnation and chance of
pollution is reduced to the minimum.

DISADVANTAGE OF GRID IRON SYSTEM

1. More number of valves and longer length of pipe is required in this
system, there by increasing the overall cost.
2. If one section is to be repaired more number of valves are required to
close it.
3. The design is difficult and costlier as the accurate calculation of the
discharge and pipes in various lines is tedious, require the services of
computers and expert designers.
CIRCULAR (OR) RING SYSTEM
1. Can be adopted only in well planned localities.
2. Each locality is divided into square or circular blocks and the water
mains are laid around all 4 sides of the square or around the circle.
3. The branches, sub mains etc are well laid along the inner roads.
4. All the sub mains and branches are taken off from the boundary
mains and are inter connected.
5. Thus every point receives its supply from two directions.
6. This system is the best compared to all the other system, but it
require many valves and more pipes length but the design of this
system is easier.
7. The ring system is more suitable for towns and cities having well
planned roads.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF CIRCULAR (OR) RING SYSTEM

1. Same as Grid Iron system.
RADIAL SYSTEM
1. This system is not adopted in India, as far this system roads should
be laid out radically from a center.
2. This is reverse of the ring system and water flows towards the
outer periphery from one points
3. This is a zone system. The entire district is provided for each zone
which is in the center of the zone. Water line are laid radically
from it.
4. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes
5. This is most economical system also if combined pumping and
gravity flow is adopted.

ADVANTAGE OF RADIAL SYSTEM

1. This system gives very quick and satisfactory water supply and
also the calculation of pipes sizes is very easy.
Methods of Distribution
 Gravity System
 Pumping System
 Dual System or combined gravity and pumping system
Various methods of water supply distribution systems in a town adapted are;
1. Gravity system:
The source of supply is at a sufficient elevation above the
distribution area (i.e. consumers). So that the desired pressure can be
maintained.

Source (Reservoir) (Consumers) Gravity-Supply System HGL or EGL

HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line EGL = Energy Grade Line

Advantages of Gravity supply:

No energy costs
Simple operation
Low maintenance costs
No sudden pressure changes
Gravity System
Pumping System
When the demand is high, the flow in
the distribution system comes from
both the pumping station as well as the
elevated reservoir
 Since the line is fed from two
sources – the reservoir and the
pumping station, it is called dual system
 The excess water during low
consumption remains in the elevated
reservoir and it is supplied during the
peak period.
 The pumps are usually worked at constant rate and this rate of pumping is
so adjusted that the excess quantity of water stored in reservoir during low
consumption is nearly equal to the extra demand of water during peak
period.
 This system is reliable and economical
 It requires uniform rate of pumping, but meets low as well as maximum
demand.
 Water stored in elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand
during breakdown or fire.
SUPPLY OF WATER
The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two
systems.
 CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
 INTERMITTENT SYSTEM

CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
• This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours.
• This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply.
• In this system sample of water is always available for fire fighting and due to
continuous circulation water always remains fresh.
• In this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be
less.
• Losses will be more if there are leakages in the system.
• This method is suitable when then source of supplies such as lakes, rivers or
impounding reservoirs is at higher level than the city.
INTERMITTENT SYSTEM
• If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones and
each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days.
• As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system.

DISADVANTAGE –
1. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This
increases the maintenance cost.
2. There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water through leaks
during non-flow periods.
3. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the people to store more water
than required quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh water each
time.
• In spite of number of disadvantages, this system is usually adopted in most of
the cities and towns of India.
• In this system water can be supplied in the high level localities with adequate
pressure by dividing the city in zones. The repair work can be easily done in
the non-supply hours.
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF DEMAND
 Domestic water demand
 Commercial water demand
 Industrial water demand
 Public Use
 Fire demand
 Loses and wastes
• PER CAPITA DEMAND
• FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
a) Climatic conditions
b) Size of community
c) Living standard of the people
d) Industrial and commercial activities
e) Pressure in the distribution system
f) System of sanitation
g) Cost of water • VARIATION IN DEMAND
 Seasonal Variations
h) Quality of Water
 Daily Variations
i) Policy of Metering  Hourly Variations
INTRODUCTION TO WATER DEMAND
• While designing the water supply scheme for a
city; or a village. We must determine the total
quantity of water required for various purposes.
• First Water demand is determined and then
suitable sources are identified.
• Big Cities need not have just one source of water
supply, they can depend on several sources of
water supply.
• Water requirement / demand is determined by
 Population
 Consumption/ head/ day
 Water Supply Project includes huge and costly construction
such as dams, reservoirs, treatment works and networks of
distribution pipelines.
 These cannot be replaced easily.
 Their capacity also cannot be increased.
The number of years for which the project is designed for is
called DESIGN PERIOD. The design period for a water
supply project will be 20 to 30 years.
The following are the standard methods by which the
forecasting population is done.
 Arithmetical increase method
 Geometrical increase method
 Incremental increase method
 Simple graph method
 Decrease rate of growth method
 Comparative graph method
 The master plan method
TYPES OF DEMAND
• Determining yearly and monthly demand, will be necessary
as monthly demand varies.
• However, it is not possible to accurately determine the
actual demand.
TYPES OF DEMAND
 Domestic water demand
 Commercial water demand
 Industrial water demand
 Public Use
 Fire demand
 Loses and wastes
DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
• The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking,
bathing, cooking, washing, etc is called domestic water demand
and mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic
conditions, income group and customs of the people.

• As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic

consumption of water in India is about 135 litres/day/capita.
But in developed countries this figure may be 350
litres/day/capita because of use of air coolers, air conditioners,
maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances.

• The world’s average urban water consumption per capita is

150 litres per day or about 55 m3 per year.
• The world’s average rural water consumption per capita is 50
litres per day or about 18 m3 per year.
DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND
• The details of the domestic consumption are
a) Drinking ----------------- 5 litres
b) Cooking ----------------- 5 litres
c) Bathing ------------------ 55 litres
e) Washing clothes ------ 20 litres
f) Washing Utensil ------- 10 litres
f) General Household -- 10 litres
Purposes
--------------------------
135 litres/day/capita
COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND
• Universities, Institution, commercial buildings
and commercial centres including office
buildings, laundries, warehouses, stores,
hotels, shopping centers, health centers,
schools, temple, cinema houses, railway and
bus stations etc comes under this category.
• As per IS:1172-1963, water supply
requirements for the public buildings other
than residences as follows.
COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND
• Railways and Airports
 Own arrangements for water requirement.
 Water demand is not ordinarily included in any
public water supply scheme.
 Railways – provide 25 to 70 litres of water per
head per day depending upon the nature of station
and facilities like bathing etc.,
 Airport Authorities – 70 litres of water per head
per day
COMMERCIAL WATER DEMAND
INDUSTRIAL WATER DEMAND
• The water required in the industries mainly
depends on the type of industries, which are
existing in the city.
• The water required by factories, paper mills,
Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar
refineries etc. comes under industrial use.The
quantity of water demand for industrial
purpose is around 20 to 25% of the total
demand of the city.
PUBLIC USE
• Quantity of water required for public utility
purposes such as for washing and sprinkling on
roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks,
gardens, public fountains etc comes under public
demand.
• To meet the water demand for public use, provision
of 5% of the total consumption is made designing
the water works for a city.
FIRE DEMAND
Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires
by short circuiting, fire catching materials, explosions,
bad intension of criminal people or any other
unforeseen mis-happenings. If fires are not properly
controlled and extinguished in minimum possible
time, they lead to serious damage and may burn
cities.
• All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during
the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for
throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore
provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient
quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains
for this purpose.
FIRE DEMAND
• In the cities fire hydrants are provided on the water
mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire demand.
• The quantity of water required for fire fighting is
generally calculated by using different empirical
formulae. For Indian conditions kuichings formula gives
satisfactory results.
Q=3182 √p
where ‘Q’ is quantity of water required in litres/min
‘P’ is population of town or city in thousands
• This formula is used for towns having population upto 2
lakhs. When the population is more than 2 lakhs, 54600
l/min is required
• An extra provision of 9100 to 36400 l/min is req for a
second fire.
LOSES AND WASTES
All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach
the consumers.
The following are the reasons ,
1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes,
faulty valves and fittings.
2. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps
even when they are not using the water and allow the
continuous wastage of water .
3. Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections.

While estimating the total quantity of water of a town;

allowance of 15% of total quantity of water is made to
compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water
PER CAPITA DEMAND
• If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various
purposes by a town per year and ‘p’ is population of town, then
per capita demand will be
Q
Per capita demand = ---------- litres/day
P x 365
• Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like
standard of living, no and type of commercial places in a town
etc. For an average Indian town, the requirement of water in
various uses is as under
PER CAPITA DEMAND
1. Domestic purpose --- 135 litres/c/d
2. Industrial use --------- 40 litres/c/d
3. Public use ------------- 25 litres/c/d
4. Fire Demand ---------- 15 litres/c/d
5. Losses, Wastage
and thefts ------------- 55 litres/c/d
--------------------------
Total : 270 litres/capita/day

The total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be
270 multiplied with the total population in litres/day.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
The following are the main factors affecting for capita
demand of the city or town.
a) Climatic conditions
b) Size of community
c) Living standard of the people
d) Industrial and commercial activities
e) Pressure in the distribution system
f) System of sanitation
g) Cost of water
h) Quality of Water
i) Policy of metering
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
A. Climatic conditions :
The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is
more than cold countries because of the use of air
coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns,
gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of
clothes and bathing etc. But in very cold countries
sometimes the quantity of water required may be more
due to wastage, because at such places the people often
keep their taps open and water continuously flows for
fear of freezing of water in the taps and use of hot water
for keeping the rooms warm.
B. Size of community :
Water demand is more with increase of size of town
because more water is required in street washing,
running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
C. Living standard of the people :
The per capita demand of the town increases with the
standard of living of the people because of the use of air
conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of
flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.
D. Industrial and commercial activities :
As the quantity of water required in certain industries is much
more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will
enormously increase per capita demand of the town. As a
matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no
direct link with the population of the town.
E. System of sanitation:
Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system
will be more in town where this proper system is not being
used.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
F. Pressure in the distribution system:
The rate of water consumption increase in the
pressure of the building and even with the required
pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of
water will automatically increase.
An increase of pressure from 2 to 3 kg/cm2 may
lead to an increase in consumption to about 25 to
30 percent.
This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use
of water freely by the people as compared when
they get it scarcely and more water loss due to
leakage, wastage and thefts etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

G. Cost of water:
The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the
cost of water is more, less quantity of water will be
used by the people as compared when the cost is
low.
H. Quality of Water:
The improvement in quality of water – increase of
rate of water consumption. Public use safe and
various uses of the available water. If water has
unpleasant taste or odour, rate of water
consumption will come down
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
I. Policy of Metering:
The quality of water supplied to a building is
recorded by a water meter and the consumer is
then charged accordingly. The installation of meter
reduces the rate of consumption.
It is easy to locate the points of leakage when
meters are installed.
The consumer is charged in proportion to the
quantity of water which he uses.
The reduction in consumption of water results
in decrease in loads on purification plants, pumps,
sewers, etc. The wastage of water is decreased.
VARIATION IN DEMAND
• The per capita demand of town is the average
consumption of water for a year. In practice it has
been seen that this demand does not remain
uniform throughout the year but it various from
season to season, even hour to hour.
• VARIATION IN DEMAND
 Seasonal Variations
 Daily Variations
 Hourly Variations
SEASONAL AND DAILY VARIATION
• SEASONAL VARIATION
The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the
water demand is maximum, because the people will use more
water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling.
This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less
water will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn
watering. The variations may be upto 15% of the average
demand of the year.
• DAILY VARIATION
This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic
conditions and character of city as industrial, commercial or
residential. More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays
due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to
other working days. The maximum daily consumption is usually
taken as 180% of the average consumption.
HOURLY VARIATION
On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about
8 A.M. due to late awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M.
and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow may be between 12 P.M. to
4 P.M. when most of the people are sleeping.

But in highly industrial city where both day and night shifts
are working, the consumption in night may be more. The maximum
consumption may be rise up-to 200% that of average daily demand.

The determination of this hourly variations is most necessary,

because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet up
the demand in all hours.
PIPES
Pipes convey raw water from the source to the treatment plants in the
distribution system.
• Water is under pressure always and hence the pipe material and the fixture
should withstand stresses due to the internal pressure, vacuum pressure,
when the pipes are empty, water hammer when the valves are closed and
temperature stresses.
• The water can be conveyed either through gravity conduits or through
pressure conduits.
REQUIREMENTS OF PIPE MATERIAL
1. It should be capable of with standing internal and external pressures.
2. It should have facility of easy joints.
3. It should be available in all sizes, transport and erection should be easy.
4. It should be durable.
5. It should not react with water to alter its quality.
6. Cost of pipes should be less.
7. Frictional head loss should be minimum.
8. The damaged units should be replaced easily.
PIPES SELECTION AND TYPES
PIPE SELECTION
The pipe material is selected – Keeping the forces to be resisted by it.
Stresses to which pipes are subjected
1) Stress due to change in direction
2) Stress due to internal water pressure
3) Stress due to soil above the pipes
4) Stress due to water hammer
5) Stress due to yielding of soil below pipes and
6) Temperature Stresses

Final selection of material for the pipe – consideration factors

 Availability of fund
 Type of water to be conveyed
 Carrying capacity of the pipe
 Maintenance Cost
 Durability
PIPES TYPES
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES
1. Cast Iron
2. Steel
3. Pre-stressed concrete
4. R.C.C
5. A.C. Pipes
6. Galvanized Iron (G.I)
7. P.V.C and plastic pipes
CAST IRON PIPES
1) Extensively used for the Conveyance of water
2) Pipes are joined by bell and spigot joint or by expansion joint or flanged joint
3) Manufactured either by sand moulding or centrifugal process

S.No Type of Advantages Disadvantagesld

Pipe
1. Cast iron 1. Cost is moderate 1. Breakage of pipes are
Pipes 2. The pipes are easy to large
join 2. The carrying capacity of
3. The pipes are not these pipes decreases with
subjected to corrosion the increase in life of pipes.
4. The pipes are strong 3. The pipes are not used
and durable for pressure greater than
5. Service connections 0.7 N/mm2
can be easily made 4. The pipes are heavier
6. Usual life is about and uneconomical beyond
100 years 1200 mm dia.
STEEL PIPES

S.No Pipe Advantages Disadvantages

2. Steel 1. No. of Joinings are less 1. Maintenance cost is
Pipes because these are high
available in long lengths 2. The pipes are likely to
2. The pipes are cheap in be rusted by acidic or
first cost alkaline water
3. The pipes are durable 3. The pipes require more
and strong enough to time for repairs during
resist high internal water breakdown
pressure and hence not suitable
4. The pipes are flexible to for distribution pipes
some extent and they can 4. The pipes may deform
therefore laid on curves in shape under combined
5. Transportation is easy action of external forces
because of light weight.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PIPES
S.N Type of Advantages Disadvantages
o Pipe
3. Prestressed 1. The inside surface of 1. The pipes are heavy
concrete pipes can be made and difficult to transport
Pipes smooth 2. Repairs of these pipes
2. Maintenance cost is are difficult
low 3. The pipes are likely to
3. The pipes are durable crack during transport
with life period 75 years and handling operations
4. No danger of rusting 4. There pipes are
5. These pipes donot affected by acids, alkalies
collapse or fail under and salty water
normal traffic loads
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE PIPES
1) May be plain, reinforced or prestressed with dia – 500 mm to 2500 mm or more
2) P.C.C. pipes – used for low heads upto about 15 m
3) R.C.C. pipes – adopted for heads upto about 75 m and for larger heads, prestressed cement
concrete pipes are used
S.No Pipe Advantages Disadvantages
4. R.C.C 1. There are pipes are 1. Transportation is
Pipes most durable with usual difficult
life of about 75 years 2. Repair work is difficult
2. The pipes can cast at 3. Initial cost is high
site work and thus there 4. These pipes are
is reduction in transport affected by
charges acids, alkalies and salty
3. Maintenance cost is waters.
less
4. Inside surface of pipe
can made smooth
5. No danger of rusting.
ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES
1) Mixture of asbestos fibres and cement
2) Convey water under very low pressure and their use in conveying and supplying water is
very much restricted
S.N Type of Advantages Disadvantages
o Pipe
5. A.C Pipes 1. The inside surface of 1. The pipes are brittle
pipes are very smooth and therefore handling is
2. The joining of pipe is difficult
very good and flexible 2. The pipes are not
3. The pipes are durable
anticorrosive and cheap in 3. The pipes cannot be
cost laid in exposed places
4. Light in weight and 4. The pipes can be used
transport is easy only for very low
5. The pipes are suitable pressures
for distribution pipes of
small size.
GALVANISHED IRON PIPES
1) Used for service connections
2) Diameter vary from 6 mm to 75 mm

S.N Type of Pipe Advantages Disadvantages

o
6. Galvanished 1. The pipes are cheap 1. The pipes are affected
Iron Pipes 2. Light in weight and by acidic or alkaline
easy to handle waters
3. The pipes are easy to 2. The useful life of pipes
join is short about 7 to 10
years.
P. V. C. PIPES
1) Low density polythylene pipes (LDPE) – flexible and used for point to point conveyance of
water in long runs.
2) High density polythylene pipes (HDPE) – tough and used for conveyance of water in long
runs from point to point with large diameter

3) Rigid PVC pipes are 3 times as rigid as polythylene and used in the water mains.
S.No Pipe Advantages Disadvantages
7. P.V.C. 1. Pipes are cheap 1. The co-effcient of
Pipes 2. The pipes are durable expansion for plastic is high
3. The pipes are flexible 2. It is difficult to obtain the
4. The pipes are free from plastic pipes of uniform
corrosion composition
5. The pipes are good 3. The pipes are less
electric insulators resistance to heat
6. The pipes are light in 4. Some types of plastic
weight and it can easy to impart taste to the water.
mould any
shape.