28-Oct-24

ECT 3201: INSTRUCTIONAL Definition of the term System

TECHNOLOGY • Systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory
about the nature of complex systems in
Topic: General Systems Theory, nature, society and science.
Approach and Applications in – Systems theory can therefore be defined as a
framework by which one can investigate and/or
Education describe any group of objects that work together
to produce some result.
Dr. P. Kyalo Mulwa
Department of Educational Communication, Technology & – This could be a single organism, a organization,
Pedagogical Studies
Faculty of Education
society, an electro-mechanical objects or
University of Nairobi informational artifact – real or abstract.
Email: [email protected]

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 4
Kyalo Mulwa

Objectives Definition of the term System

At the end of this lecture the learner should be • Common examples of systems in our day to day lives are:
– Human Body Systems: in our bodies, we have system
able to: such as digestive, circulatory, nervous etc.
– Mechanical Systems: - For examples refrigeration
a) Define the term system systems, generator system, computer systems and
b) Identify components of a system different types of engines.
– Social systems: These include such organizations as a
c) Explain characteristics of a dynamic system family, educational systems, political parties, trade
unions movements, industries, churches etc.
d) Describe systems approach models – Natural systems: For example physical features such as
river, forests etc.
e) Explain applications of systems approach in – An education system
education. • NB: A system has an objective or goal/mission to be
achieved

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 2 28-Oct-24 5
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Definition of the term System Types of Systems

• Roiszowki (1981) defines a system as a set of • A system can either be open or closed system and
elements or components or objects which are system can take the form of mechanical, biological, or
interrelated and work towards an overall social systems
objective.
• An open system is one which can interact with its
• Groenewegen (1993) defines a system as a environment. An open system demonstrates a
complex of factors interacting according to an phenomenon called principal of equifinality which
overall plan for a common purpose.
means it can reach its final state in a number of different
• For the purpose of this course, system will be ways because it can interact with its surroundings by
defined as a set of component/elements which receiving ideas and inputs from the environment
each perform its own unique task but all work in
synergy to achieve a common objective or (society) and gives back to the same environment
goal/mission • Examples of opens systems are: the human body, a
school, etc
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 3 28-Oct-24 6
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

1
 28-Oct-24

Types of Systems General Characteristics of a system

• A closed system is one which operates in a) Goals and mission – each system works towards a
isolation from its environment. It does not get specified goal or the accomplishment of a given
any input from it surroundings. Its final state is mission.
dependent on its initial state. b) A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships. Each
• An examples of closed systems is a watch/clock functional unit forms sub-systems with elements
because it is it is a relatively self-contained, self- that cannot work independently, otherwise, such a
maintaining unit that has little interactions or system is a suprasystem.
exchange with its environment
– The term suprasystem relates to the totality of the
• NB: Most systems are open since it is difficult to system itself; it is composed of systems and
completely isolate a system from all outside subsystems which are referred to as components,
influences. elements, attributes or sets of a system.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 7 28-Oct-24 10
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Components/Elements of a System General Characteristics of a system

• Generally a system is distinguished by the following NB: We have seen that systems are composed of
components:- interrelated parts. When one of these parts is
a) Goals – Every system has a goal which is the target itself a system (i.e. that part consists of two or
to be achieved. All members work towards the more interrelated parts) we call the smaller
achievement of the goal
system a subsystem and the larger system its
b) Elements - there are more than one elements in a
suprasystem.
system. The elements in a system are interrelated
and interacting subjects.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 8 28-Oct-24 11
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Components/Elements of a System General Characteristics of a system

c) Harmony – there is coherent interaction for • An example of a suprasystem from the educational
achieving the common goal – elements work in context would be the Ministry of Education.
synergy. The elements work in harmony, but each – Within this ministry there are departments handling affairs
has its own function which it contributes in in various sectors of education. For example, there is the
achieving the goal of the system. Inspectorate in charge of various courses that are taught at
all levels of education in Kenya.
d) Feedback - a provision for assessing the quality of
– The Inspectorate in this case is a system under the
the success level in the interaction leading to the suprasystem i.e. the Ministry of Education. Within the
attainment of the intended goal. Inspectorate as a system, there are subsystems. Examples
of subsystems in the Inspectorate include technical
courses, science courses, social studies courses, creative
arts, etc.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 9 28-Oct-24 12
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

2
 28-Oct-24

General Characteristics of a system The Environment of a System

• Every system has an environment in which it
c) A system has boundaries which distinguish such
operates. This is a set of all objects, a change in
part from the other parts of the system thus
whose attributes affect the system and also those
ensuring that a specific task is performed at a
objects whose attributes are changed by the
particular point, yet both parts depend on each
behavior of the system.
other.
• According to Richey (1986) a system is a complete
d) Each system has environment. This consists in a set
whole and functions as part of a larger system or
conditions that are relevant but not directly under
environment referred to as the supra systems.
the influence of the system usually environment of
a system contains the resources and constrains. • Richey argues that the supra system and the
immediate environment makes up the entire
environment.
•
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 13 28-Oct-24 16
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

General Characteristics of a system The Environment of a System

• Within the target system, there are sub-systems with
e) Systems are likened to livings things because they
organized and identifiable structures whose
receive input and act on them to produce output
purposes and functions are limited to the target
and are capable of growth.
system itself.
– In this context, open system receive ideal inputs
• The ultimate function of a system is necessarily
from the environment.
determined by the component processes operating
– There is always some degrees of disorders. with the target system.
System objectives operate within constrains and
• There is a flow both inward and outward the system
there is a critical point at which the system may
into the environments
collapse. There is thus a need to ensure flexibility
in operational objectives of a system to minimize
entropy (moving from order to disorder).
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 14 28-Oct-24 17
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

General Characteristics of a system The Environment of a System

f) Feedback – this is specific input into the system that • In order to survive, the system must interact with
gives information about the achievement (output) and adjust its environments and the other parts of
for purposes of re-examining the system. the supra system.
g) Growth – a system grows through either • Richey further argues that, there is a relationship
transformation or diversification or multiplication. between the system and its environment such that:-
h) Dynamic stability (equilibrium) – each system is a) Environment provides the input such as money,
dynamically in harmony with the environment and people; resources etc which enter the system
exhibit levels of balance among its elements or sub- and which will be a great extent determine the
systems based on common expectations. quality of the operation of the system.
i) Equifinality –The same final point, end point or b) The environment and the supra system establish
system outputs can be achieved by any potential the constraints such as inadequate material upon
means or pathways. the system.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 15 28-Oct-24 18
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

3
 28-Oct-24

The Environment of a System The School as a System

c) The supra system receives the product of an • The school receives its goal from the society. Society
open system which becomes a functioning parts is the environment as well as the supra-system of
of the environment, thus influencing the schooling from which the school receives its goal.
operation of the supra system. • In Kenya, most of these long term goals come from
d) The environment consists of resources and the ministry of education and will therefore, be
constraints that affect the system either stated in schools syllabi or educational reports. The
positively or negatively realized through its teachers with the help of other school operators
products. have the duty of discerning, defining objectives of
e) Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) different subjects.
with the environments and exhibits various levels • These long term goals include the National Goals of
of balance among its elements based on Education defined in a country education system. In
condition expectations and goals. Kenya, the national goals of education are:
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 19 28-Oct-24 22
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Application of the Concept of System in

The School as a System
Education
i. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote
• According to Hooper (1971) education is a system national unit
because it has a set of inputs (money, students,
ii. Promote social, economic, technological and
learning resources, etc) which are subjected to a
industrial needs for national development
process in order to attain certain objectives which
appear as outputs (educated students/human • Social needs
capital). • Economic needs
• Further, education can be viewed as a system • Technological and industrial need
because of self adjusting combination of interacting iii. Promote individual development and self-
people and things designed by humans to fulfillment
accomplish some predetermined purpose iv. Promote sound moral and religious values
v. Promote social equality and responsibility
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 20 28-Oct-24 23
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

The School as a System The School as a System

• From the foregoing can a school be considered as a vi. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s
system? rich and varied cultures
• The answer is yes, the concept of a system is vii. Promote international consciousness and foster
applicable to the school organization because of the positive attitude towards other nations
following characteristics: viii. Promote positive attitude towards good health
a) Goal – the school receives raw materials (the and environmental protection
learners) whose behavior is transferred through the • Whatever is done in the system must address these
process of education. The output is then of adults goals.
whose behavior has been transformed and the
quality of this transformation has been accepted by
quality controller.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 21 28-Oct-24 24
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

4
 28-Oct-24

The School as a System The School as a System

b) Elements – They include head teachers, BOM, PA, • In summary, school as system has:
teachers, learners, teaching/learning resources, a) Goals – from the society
physical facilities, non teaching staff, community, b) Elements – include teachers, students’ resources,
sponser, etc. the operators of the school should be physical facilities, etc.
able to interact with each other as well as the
learners so as to move from an input condition of c) Harmony – evidenced by working together of all in
original or entering behavior to an output condition the school.
of modified behavior. All these elements are part of d) Feedback – obtained through evaluation of all the
education system. school activities can be positive or negative.
c) Harmony – for the goals to be realized the elements
all those involved in the education process must
work harmoniously otherwise the goals will not be
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 25 28-Oct-24 28
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

The School as a System The School as a System

realized if one element is out of control. • As stated earlier, a system approach is applied in
• The head teacher as an administrator must provide everyday life situation consciously or sub consciously,
effective administration. The teachers’ task is to however, in education, we have to make effort to
facilitate learning. He has to establish conditions, apply the concept consciously to enable all
which make it possible to achieve effective learning. concerned to reap all inherent benefits in the
The teacher should teach in class the right material at approach.
the right time. Teachers should provide an
environment with optimum conditions of learning.
• The learners must work harmoniously with their
teachers, head-teachers and support staff for learning
and teaching to be effected. The learners must be
disciplined because lack of order will disrupt learning
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 26 28-Oct-24 29
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

The School as a System Systems Approach in Educational

and therefore the attainment of goals.
Technology
• Support staff must perform their respectful roles e.g. • Mukwa (1979) defines systems approach as a
cooks, nurses, cleaners etc. must do their parts. process by which, needs or problems are identified
d) Feedback – Both the teachers and the learners need to and requirements for the problems solutions are
get feedback from the learning process to test whether selected from alternatives, methods and means are
the products are being processed in the desired way. obtained and implemented, results are evaluated
The feedback can be positive or negative. If feedback is and required revisions to all or part of the system are
positive; the teacher will be encouraged to continue made so that the needs are eliminated.
knowing that he/she is in course. If the feedback is
negative, the teacher will have to apply quality control –
by adjusting his teaching methods, resources,
approaches and class management to have the learners
back in the track.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 27 28-Oct-24 30
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

5
 28-Oct-24

Systems Approach in Educational Systems Approach in Educational

Technology Technology
• Kaufman (1970) summarizes systems approach in 6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required
two words: analysis and synthesis. 7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers,
– Analysis is related to the identifying component students and supporting staff
parts and determining the relationships among 8. Implementing the programme
those parts and between the parts and the whole 9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original
system. objectives measured in student performance
– On the other hand, synthesis involves the design 10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to
of a raw system so that the identified problem can improve students’ learning.
be solved.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 31 28-Oct-24 34
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Systems Approach in Educational MODELS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH IN EDUCATIONAL

Technology TECHNOLOGY

• We can therefore conclude that system approach is • A model can be defined as an abstract
scientific in nature, is orderly, is a process or representation of reality.
procedure, has elements which are interrelated and • A model is a picture or a pictorial representation that
has a purpose to fulfill. effectively tells us at a glance how the systems
• We can also conclude that our school programme approach works. Examples of systems approach
qualifies to be considered as an example of a system. models in educational technology include;
a) The Simple Model
• The simplest technological model also referred to as
the linear model consists of three basic elements: -
Input, process and Output.
• This is diagrammatically represented as shown.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 32 28-Oct-24 35
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Systems Approach in Educational SIMPLE/LINEAR MODEL OF A SYSTEM

Technology APPROACH
• Major steps in the systems approach in education PROCESS OUTPUT
INPUT
are:
Learner who is ignorant The process is the The output is an
1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to of the content to be teaching/learning educated person who is
highly knowledgeable
be achieved and defining instructional goals covered at this level.
However, the learner has
process. It is facilitated
by the teacher. The (facts, laws, processes,
some entry behaviour teacher may be qualified concepts, ideas, etc),
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals which is expected to be or unqualified, highly skilled
improved through the experienced or (Intellectual, motor,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements teaching/learning inexperienced, social, affective,
process. Such entry enthusiastic or dull. The observational, logical,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective behaviour may include:
• Background
teachers chooses the
teaching method,
language skills etc), has
positive attitude and
learning to take place experiences
• Knowledge
resource
learning
materials,
activities,
behaviours determined
by the exam grades
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from • Skills
• Values
evaluation procedure, etc (certificate, exam grades,
employer, parents,
available alternatives • Attitudes
• Behaviour, etc
teachers,
etc)
community,

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 33 28-Oct-24 36
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

6
 28-Oct-24

Improved Simple Model of Systems Approach

SIMPLE MODEL OF A SYSTEM APPROACH
with Control (Ayot and Patel, 1987)
• In this model, results of the process are checked
• The above illustration reveals that if you want to
through the feedback mechanism.
produce some new product, you have to carry out
certain processes on the original material. • The actual output is evaluated against the expected
output.
• In the case of education, learners are the inputs who
are put in the Educational system. • If does not measure up to the specified standard, it
will go back through the process.
• They are then processed at different levels of
Education, finally coming out as educated individuals • Despite this, there is still one snag, teaching- learning
(output of the system). is a dynamic process, but in the model the element
process is like a dark box. No one knows what is
NB: Here, the model does not say anything about the
going on inside the box.
quality of the product.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 37 28-Oct-24 40
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Improved Simple Model of Systems Approach

SIMPLE MODEL OF A SYSTEM APPROACH
with Control (Ayot and Patel, 1987)
• It is obvious that anybody undergoing a process will
• If we consider the box (process) represents a
come out as a changed person
classroom teaching – learning programme, then it is
• In education we need to know or see the effect of under the control of the teacher, who plans his
the changes approaches, uses the necessary to check the final
• To be able to accommodate the element of product product, modifies his approach on the basis of
quality, Ayot and Patel (1987) improved the feedback, and makes sure that the quality meets the
linear/simple model to include elements of quality required standard.
control. • This model needs to add checks and balances in the
• They did this by adding some more elements such as process.
specification of the desired output, checking actual
output against expected output and processing the
unaccepted output.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 38 28-Oct-24 41
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Improved Linear/Simple Model of Systems Improved Model with Check and Balances
Approach with Control (Ayot and Patel, 1987)
• There are other educationists who have developed
models of system approach.
• They have done this with some modification because
it is difficult to implement the idea of the system
approach in education without proper
understanding.
• One such educationist is Robert Glaser (1962) who
has accommodated the ground rules of a system but
his model is different from the input-process-output
model. He has come out with four major elements in
his model.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 39 28-Oct-24 42
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

7
 28-Oct-24

Improved Model with Check and Balances by Robert Improved Model with Check and Balances by
Glaser (1962) Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971)

Glaser’s Model of Teaching & Learning (1962)

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 43 28-Oct-24 46
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Improved Model with Check and Balances by Robert Improved Model with Check and Balances by
Glaser (1962) Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971)
• If you want to make sure whether this model follows a • In order to know where the learning has to start, the
system approach or not, we have to check against knowledge level of the learner in relation to the
those basis criteria. content has to be determined, for instance, you have
– Goal – instructional objectives are to be formulated. to find out what the learner knows about the content
– Elements – it has four elements. to be taught or the experience he has about that
– Harmony – reversible arrows, suggests that there is inter content.
relationship among elements. • This will be the starting point of learning as you
– Feedback – performance assessment provided feedback to progresses from known to unknown.
the elements. Feedback can be used for quality control
• The entry behavior will influence and will turn be
• To teach a specific part of the content following this affected by the teaching strategies that you choose to
model, one will have to check with learners present use, the type of target group and the time allocated for
knowledge or their performance level the content to be taught.
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 44 28-Oct-24 47
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Improved Model with Check and Balances by Improved Model with Check and Balances by
Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971) Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971)
• In this model the elements are arranged in such a way • The learning space available is important in
that one can see the integration among them, Gerlach determining the effectiveness of the teaching method
and Ely have retained the concept of the Glaser adopted.
model’s four elements, but they have added some • The content and objectives will further influence your
elements. selection of resources to be used in teaching for the
• For you to make use of this model requires that you achievement off the stated objectives.
specify the objectives which should be realized by • At every stage of the learning/teaching process,
teaching a given topic. evaluation is done. This is meant to check whether or
• Based on objectives, the content will be selected or not the content is being learnt and objectives are being
vice versa. achieved. If there is any dissatisfaction, then the
process has to start all over, that is, after analyzing
feedback, the product has
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 45 28-Oct-24 48
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

8
 28-Oct-24

Improved Model with Check and Balances by A Model Showing the Application of System’s
Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971) Approach Teaching and Learning
to go back to the process, or objectives have to be re- • In this model, technical terms are translated into
stated again, content selected a fresh the entry educational and more familiar words, which make it
behavior determined, teaching strategies arranged etc easier for teachers to understand
before assessment is done again. • The model is applicable to the education system as a
• Double arrows between content and objectives show whole or to teaching of a unit or even to a single
that content can influence objectives and vice versa. lesson.
The same applies to entry behavior and assessment of • The most crucial part of this system, which
performance and related elements. differentiates it from other systems, is the sharing of a
• Thus Gerlach and Ely’s model meets the requirement box by objectives and evaluation
of a system approach. • This element is the same as the quality control
• Teaching and learning is done systematically using the elements of any science and technological system.
syllabus which specify the objectives and the content
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 49 28-Oct-24 52
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

Improved Model with Check and Balances by A Model Showing the Application of System’s
Vernom Gerlach and Donald Ely (1971) Approach Teaching and Learning
taught and which must be related to the goals of • You exactly know what you want to produce since the
education. specifications of the standard outcome are described
• In conclusion we can consider a model which is or decided in every detail.
different from the Glaser’s and Gerlach & Ely’s models
and is recommend for use by teachers while applying
systems approach to teaching and learning.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 50 28-Oct-24 53
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

A Model Showing the Application of System’s

Approach Teaching and Learning
Exercise
1. Define the term system, system theory and systems
approach.
2. Show how the concept of a system is applicable to the
school organization.
3. Discuss at least five general characteristics of systems
and explain how they apply to the teaching of your
subject.
4. Define systems approach
5. Why is it important to consider the following elements
in the teaching/learning process?
a) Learner entry behavior
b) Instructional procedures
TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P. TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.
28-Oct-24 51 28-Oct-24 54
Kyalo Mulwa Kyalo Mulwa

9
 28-Oct-24

Exercise
6. Some secondary schools in this country are known for
producing reliable and responsible citizen, while others
produce social misfits and deviants. To what extent
would you attribute the differences of the two types of
schools to their respective elements.
7. Discuss system approach models used in teaching and
learning
8. The Gerlach & Ely’s model has stood the test of time
and continues to serve the classroom teachers well.
Discuss how the model guides the teacher in selection
of instructional technology to employ.

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 55
Kyalo Mulwa

……..END……..

TCT 201: Instructional Technology by P.

28-Oct-24 56
Kyalo Mulwa

10