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CIE IGCSE Physics Your notes

2.2 Thermal Properties & Temperature

Contents
2.2.1 Thermal Expansion
2.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity
2.2.3 Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
2.2.4 Melting & Boiling
2.2.5 Evaporation

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2.2.1 Thermal Expansion

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Thermal Expansion
When materials are heated, they expand
This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which causes
them to knock into each other and push each other apart

When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart
Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that increases. The molecules
themselves remain the same size.
Thermal expansion occurs in solids, liquids and gases

When temperature is increased (at constant pressure);

Solids will tend to expand the least
Gases expand the most
Liquids fall in between the two

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Thermal Expansion in Terms of Particles

EXTENSION Your notes
Molecules do not expand, but the space in between them does
When solids, liquids and gases are heated:

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Uses & Consequences of Thermal Expansion

The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but also has some undesirable Your notes
consequences

Applications:
Thermometers rely on the expansion of liquids to measure temperature
Temperature-activated switches work when a bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that
expand at different rates, bends by a predictable amount at a given temperature

The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit

Consequences:
The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get too hot
This could include:
Metal railway tracks
Road surfaces
Bridges
Things that are prone to buckling in this way have gaps built in, this creates space for the expansion
to happen without causing damage

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Exam Tip
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Remember that it is the material that expands, not the molecules. This trips up many students, losing
marks.
As heat is added;
1. The increase in temperature...
2. Leads to an increase in kinetic energy, so that...
3. Molecules and atoms move more quickly...
4. And move apart
This separation of the the molecules makes the substance bigger!

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2.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity

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Internal Energy
A rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
This can be thought of as due to an increase in the average speed of the particles
Increasing speed increases kinetic energy

Internal energy is defined as:

The total energy stored inside a system by the particles that make up the system due to
their motion and positions
Motion of the particles affects their kinetic energy
Positions of the particles relative to each other affects their potential energy
Together, these two make up the internal energy of the system

Substances have internal energy due to the motion of the particles and their positions relative
to each other

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Average Kinetic Energy

EXTENDED Your notes

Heating a system changes a substance's internal energy by increasing the kinetic energy of its
particles
The temperature of the material, therefore, is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules

This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore internal energy) can:

Cause the temperature of the system to increase
Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)

As the container heats up, the gas molecules move faster

Faster motion causes higher kinetic energy and therefore higher internal energy

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Your notes

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Specific Heat Capacity

EXTENDED Your notes

How much the temperature of a system increases depends on:

The mass of the substance heated
The type of material
The amount of thermal energy transferred in to the system
The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as:
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1 °C
Different substances have different specific heat capacities
If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down quickly (ie. it takes less
energy to change its temperature)
If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down slowly (ie. it takes more
energy to change its temperature)

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Your notes

Low vs high specific heat capacity

Calculating Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a given mass by a given amount can be
calculated using the equation:
ΔE = mc Δθ

Where:
ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

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Worked example
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Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J / kg °C.
Calculate the amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Mass, m = 0.48 kg
Change in temperature, ΔT = 0.7 °C
Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J/kg °C
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

ΔE = mc Δθ
Step 3: Calculate the thermal energy transferred by substituting in the values

ΔE = (0 . 48) × (4200) × (0 . 7) = 1411 . 2

Step 4: Round the answer to 2 significant figures and include the units
ΔE = 1400 J

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Exam Tip
Your notes
You will always be given the specific heat capacity of a substance, so you do not need to memorise any
values.
However, it's useful to have the general idea that, the larger the number, the less the substance will
increase in temperature for a given amount of heat.
You can see this for yourself in your own kitchen at home. Metal pans, which have a relatively low
specific heat capacity get very hot, very quickly when put on the hob. Add water to the pan, which has
a relatively high specific heat capacity and the water will take much longer to heat up.
Notice the units of specific heat capacity:
joules per kilogram per degree Celsius : J / kg °C
'per' means 'divided by'. We say 'per' in front of every value that is being divided by, hence 'per
kilogram per degree Celsius'

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2.2.3 Investigating Specific Heat Capacity

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Investigating Specific Heat Capacity (Extended)
EXTENDED

Aims of the Experiment

The aim of the experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance, by linking the
decrease of one energy store (or work done) to the increase in temperature and subsequent increase
in thermal energy stored
Variables:
Independent variable = Time, t
Dependent variable = Temperature, θ
Control variables:
Material of the block
Current supplied, I
Potential difference supplied, V
Equipment List

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Your notes

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Thermometer = 1 °C
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Voltmeter = 0.1 V
Ammeter = 0.01 A
Method

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Your notes

Apparatus to investigate the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block

1. Start by assembling the apparatus, placing the heater into the top of the block
2. Measure the initial temperature of the aluminium block from the thermometer
3. Turn on the power supply and start the stopwatch
4. Whilst the power supply is on, the heater will heat up the block. Take several periodic measurements,
eg. every 1 minute of the voltage and current from the voltmeter and ammeter respectively, calculating
an average for each at the end of the experiment up to 10 minutes
5. Switch off the power supply, stop the stopwatch and leave the apparatus for about a minute. The
temperature will still rise before it cools
6. Monitor the thermometer and record the final temperature reached for the block
An example table of results might look like this:

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Analysis of Results
The thermal energy supplied to the block can be calculated using the equation:
E = IVt
Where:
E = thermal energy, in joules (J)
I = current, in amperes (A)
V = potential difference, in volts (V)
t = time, in seconds (s)
The change in thermal energy is defined by the equation:
ΔE = mcΔθ

Where:
ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)

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Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

Rearranging for the specific heat capacity, c:
Your notes

To calculate Δθ:
Δθ = final temperature – initial temperature

To calculate ΔE:
ΔE = IVtf – IVti

Where:
I = average current, in amperes (A)
V = average potential difference (V)
tf = final time, in seconds (s)
ti = initial time, in seconds (s)
These values are then substituted into the specific heat capacity equation to calculate the specific
heat capacity of the aluminium block
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Make sure the voltmeter and ammeter are initially set to zero, to avoid zero error
Random Errors:
Not all the heat energy supplied from the heater will be transferred to the block, some will go into the
surroundings or heat up the thermometer
This means the measured value of the specific heat capacity is likely to be higher than what it
actually is
To reduce this effect, make sure the block is fully insulated
A joulemeter could be used to calculate energy directly
This would eliminate errors from the voltmeter, ammeter and the stopwatch
Make sure the temperature value is read at eye level from the thermometer, to avoid parallax error
The experiment can also be repeated with a beaker of water of equal mass, the water should heat up
slower than the aluminium block
Safety Considerations
Make sure never to touch the heater whilst it is on, otherwise, it could burn skin or set something on fire

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Run any burns immediately under cold running water for at least 5 minutes
Allow time for all the equipment, including the heater, wire and block to cool before packing away the
equipment Your notes
Keep water away from all electrical equipment
Wear eye protection if using a beaker of hot water

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2.2.4 Melting & Boiling

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Fixed Points of Water
The melting and boiling points of pure water are known as fixed points
Ice melts at 0 °C
Pure water boils at 100 °C
These are the accepted values for pure water at atmospheric pressure

Ice melts at 0 °C and water boils at 100 °C

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Melting & Boiling

While a substance is changing state, either Your notes
Melting or freezing
Boiling or condensing
The substance does not change temperature, even though energy is being transferred to or away
from the thermal energy store of the substance

Boiling
When liquid water is heated by adding thermal energy (say from the gas flame or kettle element), the
temperature of the water rises until the water boils
At the boiling point, even if more thermal energy is added, the liquid water does not get any hotter
This means that the internal energy is not rising

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The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between the molecules
of water
As the forces are overcome, the liquid water becomes water vapour (steam) Your notes
This is evaporation or vaporisation; the water is now a gas
The process is repeated backwards for cooling as energy is transferred away
A gas turns back into liquid through condensation
Melting
When solid water (ice) is heated by adding thermal energy (from the surroundings, or a flame), the ice
melts
At the melting point, even if more thermal energy is added, the solid water does not get warmer
This means that the internal energy is not rising
The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between the molecules
of the solid ice
As the forces are overcome, the solid water becomes liquid
This is melting; the ice is now a liquid
The process is repeated backwards for cooling as heat is transferred away
A liquid turns back into a solid through freezing

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Condensation & Solidification

Heating and cooling graphs are used to summarise: Your notes
How the temperature of a substance changes when energy is transferred to or away from it
Where changes of state occur
Heating and cooling graphs tend to be the same
Heating is when energy is transferred to the system and the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases (red arrows to the right)
Cooling is when energy is transferred away from the system (or dissipated to the surroundings)
and the kinetic energy of the molecules decreases (blue arrows to the left)
Condensation
The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a gas condenses into a liquid
The gas has already lost heat energy (cooled down)
The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between
molecules
The particles get closer together
They only have enough energy to flow over one another
The gas has condensed into a liquid with no change of temperature
Solidification
The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a liquid solidifies into a solid
The liquid has already lost heat energy (cooled down)
The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between
molecules
The particles get closer together
They only have enough energy to vibrate about their fixed position
The liquid has solidified into a solid with no change of temperature

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Your notes

Heating/cooling curve of a substance showing the energy changes as temperature is

increased/decreased

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2.2.5 Evaporation
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Cooling by Evaporation
Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas
It happens;
At any temperature
Only from the surface of a liquid

The molecules in a liquid have a range of energies

Some have lots of energy, others have very little
Their average energy relates to the temperature of the liquid

Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules moving near the surface of the liquid have
enough energy to escape
The average energy of the liquid is reduced
Therefore liquids are cooled down by evaporation

Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape

EXTENDED
Temperature, Surface Area & Air Movements

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These factors all affect the rate of evaporation

Your notes
Increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid
Molecules with more energy are more likely to overcome the intermolecular forces holding them
in the liquid state and escape the surface
Therefore higher temperature leads to a higher rate of evaporation
Molecules only escape the intermolecular forces of attraction at the surface of the liquid
Therefore a larger surface area leads to a higher rate of evaporation
Air movement carries away the water vapour which has just evaporated
This dries the air and allows more water molecules to escape
Therefore increasing air movement (when indoors this is sometimes called draughts) increases
the rate of evaporation
EXTENDED

Evaporation & Cooling

The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down:
If an object is in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid will cool as well
This process is used in refrigerators and air conditioning units

Boiling vs Evaporation
EXTENDED
Boiling is also a change in state from liquid to gas
Boiling happens only at the boiling point of the liquid
The change of state happens all through the liquid (seen as bubbles in boiling water, for example)

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