%.fimany responsible for the First World War?

— 1908 October "~ Proclamation of the annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina by Austria

|- 1909 February Germany agrees to recognise French political influence in Morocco

in return for recognition of Germany's economic interest

1911 Jfily Gunboat Panther arrives off the Moroccan coast in the Second
Moroccan Crisis.
~ September Libyan war breaks out between ltaly and the Ottoman Empire

|-1912 February British Minister of War, Lord Haldane, visits Berlin

March German Naval Bill increases number of ships and personnel
October First Balkans War breaks out
What is this unit about?
7 May Treaty of London ends First Balkans War
The outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 was not unexpected. 1913
Tt fie H v S June Second Balkans War breaks out
Diplomatic tension between the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary)
i
and the entente powers of Russia, France and Britain had been rising for a number L1914 June Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo
of years. The first section of the unit is dedicated to explaining developments in
German foreign policy up to 1914. The second section deals with the question of
the extent to which Germany was guilty of causing the war. This section is different
from much else in the book in that the focus is sharply on the controversy of Source A KILLS BUIL
Germany’s involvement. In the Skills builder section at the end of the chapter, you
and members of your class are invited to undertake research that will broaden Economic expansion was the basis of Germany’s political world diplomacy, which ‘What is the
your understanding. vacillated in its methods between rapprochement and conciliation at one impression of
moment, aggressive insistence on Germany’s claims the next, but never wavered German foreign
You will: policy given in this
in its ultimate objective, the expansion of Germany’s power.
« examine the development of German foreign policy between 1900 and 1914 source?
From Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War,
« work with conflicting interpretations of how and why Germany was involved in published in 1967
the outbreak of the war in 1914.

Key questions
« What were the most significant events in the run-up to war in 19147
German foreign policy c.1900-14
« To what extent can Germany be blamed for the outbreak of war in 1914?
« Why has responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War generated so
much controversy?
SKILLS BUILDER
We are going to investigate the development of German foreign policy
Timeline in the years running up to the First World War. Read through this
— 1900 June Second German Naval Law passed, providing for a fleet of section and then answer the following questions:
38 battleships to be built in 20 years Did the alliance system make war more or less likely?
Entente AngloFrench Entente © What factors turned Britain and Germany into rivals?
French for ‘understanding’. First Moroccan Crisis — Kaiser visits Tangier * How did the Moroccan crises and Weltpolitik affect international
The term is used here Bjorko Treaty signed by Kaiser Wilhelm and Tsar Nicholas of Russia tensions?
because the agreements to improve relaticns between the countries — it comes to nothing
between Britain, France
Britain launches HMS Dreadnought
and Russia were more - 1906 Alliances and war plans
Act of Algeciras confirms Morocco's independence but France’s
understandings than
influence over the country German victory in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 was followed up by the
formal alliances.
Germany decides to increase size of its battleships and widen the Creation of a system of alliances to protect the new empire. The architect
Kiel Canal of this alliance system was the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
Anglo-Russian Entente
27
 m&many responsible for the First World War?
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 190045

sending a telegram to President Kruger of the South African Republic

At its heart was the isolation of France, which sought revanche for the loss of
Definition Alsace-Lorraine and the humiliation of 1870. The pillars of this policy were:
congratulating him for the defeat of British raiders led by Dr Jameson.
There is a possibility that at this point Germany might still have been
Revanche : o the Dreikaiserbund of 1881, which was an understanding of how the trying to woo the British into the Triple Alliance, but the following years
peace could be kept between Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany saw a fundamental sea change in the relationship between Britain and
The idea that one day
France would be able to o the Triple Alliance of 1882 between Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany:
Germany, which was a defensive alliance between the three.
gain revenge for the o Flottenpolitik and a series of Navy Laws (see page 17) were a direct
events of the early 1870s. Wilhelm II's accession to the throne in 1888 and Bismarck’s subsequent challenge to British naval supremacy and were viewed as such in Britain.
Although it did not departure from the post of Chancellor was to have a profound impact on Their impact was to spark a naval race between the two nations. The
remain the political German foreign policy. In March 1890, the Kaiser embarked on his ‘new launch in 1906 of the British battleship HMS Dreadnought with its ten
priority for the next 40 course’ by refusing to renew the Reassurance Treaty between Germany 12-inch guns prompted Germany into massive naval expenditure to
years, revanche still had and Russia that guaranteed that each country would not attack the other. avoid falling further behind.
the power to stir French Instead, the Kaiser signalled an even warmer relationship with Vienna, o German support for the Boers in the Boer War, 1899-1902, further
emotions. while the Chief of the General Staff of the army, Field Marshall Schlieffen, antagonised relations.
began to work on a plan that would mean that Germany could fight a war
Dreikaiserbund o In 1901, the British made overtures towards the Germans for an alliance,
on two fronts by knocking France out of the war before Russia could
but these were spurned by the German Foreign Office, which insisted
The League of the three mobilise. Schlieffen was Chief of the General Staff from 1891 to 1905, and
that Britain would have to commit to the Triple Alliance. Biilow also
Emperors. the plan was formulated during his time in office. At the heart of the plan
calculated that the British would not find allies elsewhere, given her
was the idea of a lightning strike of German forces through the Low
colonial rivalries with France and Russia.
Countries and northern France before encircling Paris. In Alsace-Lorraine,
French armies would maintain a defensive stance. The French were o However, over the coming years Britain ended its ‘splendid isolation’
expected to capitulate in six weeks. Once France had fallen, German forces and her subsequent alliance with Japan (1902) and entente agreements
would transfer to the Eastern Front to take on the Russians. The plan with France (1904) and Russia (1907) left Germany over-reliant on
relied on slow French and even slower Russian mobilisation. Austria-Hungary.

Germany and Britain Limits to Weltpolitik

The Kaiser’s attitude towards Britain was complex. As a grandson of Queen You have read about von Biilow’s policy of Weltpolitik in the last unit.
Victoria, he both loved and loathed the country of his mother’s birth in The reality was that, despite considerable posturing and pressure from
equal measure. In 1896 Wilhelm antagonised British public opinion by groups such as the Colonial Society, it did not achieve much in terms of
new territory.

o In 1897 German involvement in China resulted in her gaining a lease

on the port of Kiaochow.
In 1898 Germany bought the Pacific islands of the Carolines and the
Marianas from Spain. Definitions
® In 1899 an agreement was made with Britain resulting in Germany
Place in the sun
taking some of the eastern Samoan islands.
A term used to describe
Despite involvement in the Constantinople to Baghdad railway, these gains the desire to have the
L7 did not constitute a great success and did not deliver Germany'’s ‘place in
same number of colonies
the sun'. However, Russia’s misfortune in the Russo-Japanese War of
as Britain and France.
GERMANY 1904-05 and its subsequent weakening due to revolution in 1905 gave
Oriéans® Germany a freer diplomatic hand in the Near East. Sphere of influence
An area in which one
£ pingl
FRANCE The First Moroccan Crisis, 1905-06 nation has control over
(@) Proposed advance of German forces under the Schiieffen Plan /' In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm made a visit to Tangier in Morocco, which another or others.
(2) Proposed advance of French forces under Plan VIl Belfoty was, at least in theory, within the French sphere of influence although
2.1 The Schlieffen Plan o
From Kaiser to Filhrer: Germany 190045 m&rmwnsponslble for the First World War?

Germany had a number of economic interests in Tangier. Plans by the The naval race between Britain and Germany persisted, despite Biilow and
French to increase influence in Morocco had been discussed with other Bethmann-Hollweg's attempts to persuade the Kaiser to come to some
European powers including Britain and Italy. agreement. He would not compromise, and in March 1909 the British
government set aside a budget to build nine dreadnought-class battle ships
¢ The Germans demanded an international conference to discuss the
in the year. The failure of the Haldane Mission in February 1912 marked
future of Morocco, hoping to drive a wedge between Britain and France,
the last chance for the two countries to come to some agreement:
but the opposite happened.
* They also attempted to prise the Russians away from their friendship o Lord Haldane travelled to Berlin in the hope of improving relations
with the French by the Treaty of Bjérks, which was signed by the Kaiser between Britain and Germany.
and the Tsar in July 1905. Aimed at creating closer bonds between o The Germans would agree to a limit on fleet expansion only if the
Berlin and St Petersburg, this measure failed because of opposition in the British agreed to neutrality in any future European land war.
Russian foreign office from those who did not want the close friendship o The Kaiser and Tirpitz were committed to increasing the size of
with France to be damaged. the fleet. In March 1912 the Germans published a new Naval Bill
® At the Algeciras Conference and in the subsequent Algeciras Act, Morocco proposing further expansion. The Haldane mission was well and
was confirmed in the French sphere and the entente was strengthened. truly sunk.

The episode had been a humiliation for the Germans, and the highly
influential head of the Political Office at the Foreign Ministry, Friedrich B Avea of Turkey in Europe before Treaty of Berlin, 1678
[ Avea of Turkey in Europe before the Balkan Wars, 1912-13
von Holstein, was forced to resign. A mentality was emerging that was to [0 Area ceded by Bulgaria to Romania, 1913
have a profound impact on Germany's military and political leaders for the -~ Boundaries before the Balkan Wars
—— Boundaries after the Balkan Wars
next eight years. At Algeciras the only country that supported Germany
was Austria-Hungary, and the launching of HMS Dreadnought posed a real
threat: for many in Germany, the fear of encirclement was real.

The Second Moroccan Crisis, 1911

In February 1909, the French and German governments signed an
agreement to respect each other’s interests in Morocco. However,
disturbances in the town of Fez in April 1911 led to the military
Black Sea
intervention of the French. Germany complained that this action went
against the Algeciras Act and they backed their protest by sending the
German gunboat Panther to moor off the Moroccan port of Agadir. The
summer of 1911 was dominated by the talk of war, Germany attempting
to bully France into giving her the French Congo in return for Germany
giving up all interests in Morocco. Again the Germans attempted to prise
the entente apart, and again they failed. In his ‘Mansion House’ speech in
July 1911, the Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George,
warned Germany against further aggression. The Second Moroccan Crisis
resulted in Germany gaining two strips of land in the Congo, but with
Germany having to promise to accept French control of Morocco.

Tension mounts
German foreign policy was based on an understanding that the imperial Look carefully at the
rivalries of Britain and France in Africa, and Britain and Russia in Asia, ‘map of the Balkans.
would mean that Germany would be able to divide and dominate these What are the
three countries. Increasingly, this was clearly not the case, and in 1907 ) potential tensions in
Britain and Russia signed an entente that put their differences over empire this region?
in Asia behind them. 2.2 The Balkans
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900-45 w{fl for the First World War?
" Unit 2: Was Germany responsible

The Balkans which promised to mobilise the German armed forces in support even
It was the Balkans that provided the spark for the outbreak of the war in though it had not been consulted by the Habsburgs prior to the
The Habsburgs 1914. The Balkans provided the theatre, the stage on which the imperial annexation. The upshot of the Bosnia Herzegovina crisis was that Russia
and racial rivalries were to be acted out. Germany was not a central player
had been damaged and Germany had become involved.
The royal family of
in the Balkans, but her one close ally, Austria-Hungary, was. Through her
Austria-Hungary, one of
alliance with the Habsburgs, therefore, Germany was to be drawn into The First Balkans War 1912
the most important royal
the politics of Europe’s most unstable region. Up until nearly the end of
families in Europe.
nineteenth century, the Balkans had been dominated by the Ottoman The attack by Italy against the Ottoman Empire in Libya in 1911 further
Empire. The decline of the Ottoman Empire opened the way for both highlighted the growing decline of Ottoman influence. It encouraged the
Ottoman Empire
Russia and the Habsburg Empire to stake a claim for dominance of the forming of the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro
The Turkish based empire with the purpose of seizing territory from the collapsing Ottoman Empire.
region.
that lasted from the In October 1912, the Balkan League launched its attack on the Ottomans.
thirteenth century to the e It also paved the way for nationalities such as the Serbs to assert their The Austrians were horrified, especially when the Serbs invaded Albania.
twentieth century and, in national identity and independence. For the Habsburgs the problem with They were determined to prevent Serbia having access to the sea and
its prime, controlled the the Serbs was that they were Slavs. This meant that they were protected creating a Greater Serbia. In November 1912, Austria demanded the
Balkans region of Europe, by and allied to fellow Slavs, the Russians. creation of an independent Albania. The Serbs, supported by Russia,
the Middle East and North * In Russia, the concept of protecting fellow Slavs - Pan-Slavism - was ignored the Austrians, and the Germans pressed the Habsburgs to make
Europe. popular and strong. their point. The international crisis was such that the Kaiser called a
® The Habsburg Empire contained many nationalities that included Serbs, council of his military advisers to meet on 8 December to consider his
and the Austrians feared that a strong Serbia would lead to unrest and options (more of which we shall hear later). Two days later, the Kaiser
the possible-break up of her multi-ethnic empire. In 1897, the Russians spoke to the Swiss Ambassador about how ‘racial war, the war of Slavdom
and Austria-Hungary had agreed to work together to resolve tensions against Germandom’ was now unavoidable. He was prepared to accept that
in the Balkans and so preserve the status quo in the region, but this was diplomacy might win through this time, and indeed it did - by the Treaty
not to last. of London of 1913, which ended the First Balkans War. However, the
obsession in Berlin that Germany was being encircled and the ever-
increasing Slav threat provided the context for much policy over the
Bosnia Herzegovina
coming months.
In 1903 a strongly pro-Russian dynasty came to power in Serbia. This
signalled a more hostile relationship between the Serbs and the Austrians. o The Army Bill of June 1913 increased the German army’s size by
In 1906 a trade agreement between the two was not renewed, which led 170,000 troops. The response from the French and the Russians was to
to a trade war that became known as the Pig War (because the Austrians increase the length of service in their armies. question but o t
discussing in your group.
blocked the import of Serbian pigs). The real turning point was the o A brief Second Balkans War between the countries of the Balkans League
You may well have some
appointment of Count Aehrenthal as Austria-Hungary’s Foreign Minister saw Serbia emerge strengthened. In the summer, Serbian troops again
good ideas with which
in 1906. entered Albania, and in October 1913 Germany supported the Austrian
you can answer it.
government in another ultimatum, warning Serbia.
* His view, which was supported by the Habsburg Chief of the General
Why did Germany
With a work partner or Staff General Conrad, was that the best way to deal with the Serbs was e While it was clear, for the next few months, that neither Germany nor,
persistently support
to annex the regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which the Austro- for that matter, Austria-Hungary were under any immediate threat, the
in groups, discuss the Austria-Hungary in its
Hungarian government did in October 1908. issue was one of fear for the future. A memorandum from 18 May 1914
following point. arguments with Serbia
® The Russian Foreign Minister Izvolski had attempted to trade off Russian by Count von Waldersee, Quartermaster-General in the German General
Russia had been despite the fact that
approval for this action with Austrian recognition of Russian rights in the Staff, reflects the general impression that, while the Army Bill of 1913
Germany had no direct
humiliated in 1908-09
Dardanelles Straits. had increased the size of the army by 170,000, the entente powers were
over Bosnia and interest in the Balkans?
also increasing the size of their armies and were catching up. The best
Herzegovina. What was o The deal fell through. The Serbs and the Russian government were
time for war was the present.
the likely impact of such a furious, and the Austro-Hungarian understanding of 1897, which had
humiliation on future kept the peace in the Balkans, was finished.
July Crisis
relations with Austria- e When, in February 1909, Austria-Hungary forced Serbia and Russia to
Hungary? recognise the annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina, it did so by threatening On 28 June 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz
" war against Serbia. It did so with the full support of Biilow’s government,: Ferdinand, was shot by Gavril Princip. Princip was a member of the
e—
_—
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900-45 Unit 2: Was Germany responsible for the First World War?

Serbian terrorist organisation called the Black Hand. On 5 July an

Austrian diplomat, Count Hoyos, travelled to Berlin seeking Germany's
support for action against Serbia. The Kaiser and the German government
Source B Source€
Given these indications that the war would not be Thus to the general necessity inherent in the
including Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg, were happy to offer their
localised, there were ample opportunities for Schlieffen Plan for the violation of Belgian neutrality
unconditional support in what became known as the ‘Blank Cheque’.
Germany to back down. Yet the initial British peace and offensive action as soon as possible after
Germany had taken what Bethmann-Hollweg called on 14 July a ‘leap
keeping initiatives were given only the most insincere mobilisation, the attack on Liége required even more
into the dark’. From now on the series of events acquired a momentum
support by Germany. The Germans pressed on, urging immediate action, since it was scheduled to take
of their own.
the Austrians to make haste, and after 26 July openly place on the third day of mobilisation with such
23 July Austria issued Serbia with an ultimatum. Serbia replied in rejecting diplomatic alternatives. Only at the eleventh troops as were immediately available. It was,
conciliatory fashion but rejected the point that suggested that hour did they begin to lose their nerve; the Kaiser therefore, as Molkte was to argue in a long meeting
Austrian officials should be allowed to take part in the enquiry first, on 28 July, and then Bethmann who, after with Bethmann on the evening of 31 July 1914,

in Serbia about the assassination. hearing of Grey’s warning of the 29th to the Germany essential to launch the attack in the west the moment
ambassador [in London] frantically sought the Russia proclaimed mobilisation, so as to carry out the
25 July Russia came out in favour of Serbia, bolstered by French
Austrians to apply the brakes. Berchtold tried to onslaught on France before Russian mobilisation was
assurances of support. complete and before fighting began on the eastern
respond; but it was the German military which
26 July The British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey proposed a ultimately secured, by a combination of persuasion front. And to launch the attack in the west, it was
conference to deal with the Austro-Serb issue. Austria refused and defiance, the mobilisation orders, the ultimate equally essential to capture Liége within three days.
to take part. and declarations of war which unleashed the conflict. The attack on Belgium had therefore to be launched
almost immediately after the proclamation of
28 July Austria declared war on Serbia. From Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War, published in 1998
mobilisation and there was no margin for any delay
29 July Bethmann-Hollweg urged the resumption of Austro-Russian between mobilisation and the start of hostilities. The
negotiations and failed to persuade the British into neutrality.
Discussion points Source D Liége operation had been kept a deep secret, and it
Wilhelm contacted his cousin Nicholas 11 with the result that looks as though the Kaiser himself had not been told
the Tsar downgraded an order of general mobilisation to one Above all, it is time once and for all to discard Lloyd about it and that Bethmann only grasped its
Read the information in
of partial mobilisation. George’s worn out phrase that Europe ‘slithered’ into
the ‘July Crisis’ section E implications on 31 July. While the other powers could
war in 1914. Great powers throughout history have order mobilisation and wait what to do next, in the
and consider the 30 July The Tsar changed his mind after being advised that a partial
rarely, if ever, ‘slithered’ into major wars; rather, they
information in Sources B, mobilisation was not possible. Russia ordered a general case of Germany mobilisation inevitably meant war.
undertake this most difficult of human endeavours
Cand D. Using all of the mobilisation despite numerous general warnings from From James Joll, The Origins ofthe First World War,
only after carefully weighing the advantages and published in 1984
information at your Germany.
disadvantages. In this sense and only in this sense
disposal, discuss the
31 July With the Russians mobilising, events were now set by the can one speak of a ‘calculated risk’ in 1914.
following questions in
Schlieffen Plan. Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia giving From Holder H. Herwig, ‘Industry, Empire and the First
groups.
it 12 hours to cease war preparations on Germany’s frontier. World War’, in Gordon Martel (editor), Modern
1 What was the point The same day Germany refused a request to respect Belgian Germany Reconsidered, 18701945, published in 1992
after which there was neutrality.
no turning back?
1 August ~ France and Germany mobilised their troops for war, and
2 Which country was to
Germany declared war on Russia. To what extent was Germany responsible?
blame for war?
3 What are the 2 August The German armies invaded Luxembourg and demanded that The debate as to responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War
differences between Belgium should give them access through their country. This started almost immediately after the war had ended.
Sources B, C and D? demand was refused. The British gave France assurances of
© The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 placed the blame for the outbreak
In answering this support. of the First World War squarely on the shoulders of the Germans as
question you may well 3 August Germany invaded Belgium and declared war on France you will read in Unit 4. Thereafter, the German authorities published
consider differences in documents selectively to shift the blame for the war onto the shoulders
claiming that her frontier had been violated.
what the sources of others because clause 231 of the Versailles treaty explicitly blamed
suggest, their tone and
4 August Britain declared war on Germany in protection of Belgian
Germany. By the late 1930s a gentle and rather cosy consensus was
emphasis. neutrality as had been agreed in 1839.
shared that, in David Lloyd George’s words, all of the Great Powers had
6 August Austria declared war on Russia. ‘slithered over the brink into the boiling cauldron of fire’.
From Kaiser to Filhrer: Germany 1900-45
for the First World War?
{ Unit 2: Was Germany responsible
That consensus survived the Second World War. In 1951 a group of
these plans had the support of the wider political nation. Indeed the plans
French and German historians met in a Franco-German Historians’
in the 9 September programme represented ‘a complete revolution
Commission. One of the subjects that they discussed was the causes of
in European political and power relations’. The logic was clear: plans
the outbreak of the First World War. The conclusions drawn by the
for annexation that were being written down in September 1914 did not
Commission and accepted by most historians for the period of the next
come from nowhere, they must have been already considered in July 1914.
ten years both fitted in with the general opinion of historians before 1939
Therefore Germany was not the victim but the perpetrator of war. Fischer's
and the desire to build peaceful and lasting relations between France
thesis broke new ground in other ways:
and Germany.
e It placed Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg at the centre of the drive for
France and Germany in expansion.
the 1950s and 1960s were o It removed the distinction between the expansionist military and the
based on the line supposedly more moderate politicians.
expressed by the Franco- e It linked foreign and domestic policy by suggesting that the
The documents do not permit attributing a conscious desire for a Européan War
German Historians” proposed annexations were seen as a means of maintaining domestic
to any one government or people. Mutual distrust had hit a peak, and in leading
Commission. In your dominance.
circles it was believed that war was inevitable. Each one accused the other of
opinion, was that line
aggressive intentions, and only saw a guarantee for security in an alliance system Read the following four sources and study the map.
accurate?
and continual armament increases.
.
From the Franco-German Historians’ Commission 1951

[ Geman Reich, 1914

M+ to be annexed directly by Germany as planned offcially (maximum extent)
TN 1o e ataches o German Rsch s butarysate
Acionl annexaton demanded by Pan-Germen Lesgue
10 ba dapendanton Garmany economicaly and adminsratvely
The Fischer Controversy N\ to e setied by Germans
7/ 10 ba s 0 Gomany sconcmical, especialy as a provider
of sapl products
1o be under Geman nfuence
In 1961 a German historian, Fritz Fischer, launched a historiographical 1o1be eo Gemany ecenomicaly and plticaly
¢ revolution. In his book Griff nach der Weltmacht, which became abridged 10 closely alled withthe Cental Powsrs
NORTH SEA ..+ Fusthst German mitry acvance,wihdates
Turning points In the into the English version Germany’s Aims in the First World War (published S Contst P oy s 1815)
Froners, 1914
writing of history when in 1967), Fischer came to some sensational conclusions:
new ideas are put forward ¢ Germany had gone to war to achieve European and worldwide
that change how people
domination very similar to that aimed for by Hitler and the Nazis
think. These ideas can in the Second World War: it was a bid for world power.
constitute a revolution in
¢ Germany had hoped that the ‘Blank Cheque’ given to Austria in
the writing of history.

N
July 1914 would result in war.
® The roots of German expansionism were to be found in the social,
economic and political tensions which troubled Germany before
1914.

These views were

sensational. Before we go
Fischer’s evidence
Fischer based his evidence partly on a document found in the German
archives written by Bethmann-Hollweg's private secretary Kurt Riezler on
’.’ June 1918
CASPIAN
SEA
on you should reflect on 9 September 1914, in which he outlines the Chancellor’s plans for the BLACK SEA

e
Fischer’s points. From Ppeace negotiations, which he expected to take place in the near future.
what you know, how far Fischer argued that these plans were the continuation of policy made by
do you agree with politicians, military leaders and industrialists before the outbreak of war in
PERSIA
Fischer? 1914. The plans were not just the ideas of Bethmann-Hollweg or even the
leading political, military and industrial figures of the day. To Fischer,
2.3 Germany’s war aims, 1914

]
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900-45 ~ Unit 2: Was Germany responsible for the First World War?

Source F Source H X Source |

Expecting as he did that peace negotiations would be opening shortly, Bethmann- Three points deserve emphasis. Firstly German war It is now apparent that the ‘men of 1914’ in Berlin
Hollweg describes his programme of 9 September as ‘provisional notes on the aims not only exceeded those of any other were working to an elaborate and cunning scenario, a
direction of our policy on the conclusion of peace’. The ‘general aim of the war’ combatant; they were aspirations to world power. secret plot designed either to split the Triple Entente
was, for him, ‘security for the German Reich in west and east for all imaginable Secondly, there was a greater consensus over those wide open in order to effect a massive diplomatic
time. For this purpose France must be so weakened as to make her revival as a aims that pre-Fischer historians like to admit. revolution, which would have given Germany control
great power impossible for all time. Russia must be thrust back as far as possible Annexationist ambitions were not confined to soldiers of the European continent and much of the world
from Germany’s eastern frontiers and her domination over the non-Russian like Hindenburg or Ludendorff, or to Pan-Germans and beyond, or— a better methods in the eyes of many to
peoples broken.” other super-patriots. They were shared by civilian achieve the same goal - to provoke a continental war
The objectives in the east were not yet set out in detail in the programme itself, ministers, civil servants, Catholic and liberal against France and Russia in what appeared to be
since peace with Russia was not yet regarded as imminent, but this does not politicians, liberal intellectuals such as Max Weber, exceptionally favourable circumstances. If that war
mean that they had not yet assumed concrete form. The detailed explanation of even by some Social Democrats. could be brought about through a Balkan crisis rather
‘individual war aims’ was confined to the continental west, where the conclusion From David Blackbourn, History of Germany than through some incident in western Europe, they
of peace seemed within grasp. They ran as follows: 1780-1918, published in 1997 calculated, three highly desirable advantages would
accrue to the Reich: Austria-Hungary would be on the
France. The military to decide whether we should demand cession of Belfort and
front line and would not be able to wriggle out of its
western slopes of the Vosges, razing fortresses and cession of coastal strip from
alliance commitments to Germany; the German
Dunkirk to Boulogne. SKILLS BUILDER population could be manipulated into believing that
The ore field of Briey, which is necessary for the supply of ore for our industry, to Read Sources F and G: Germany was being attacked by ‘barbarous’ Russia
be ceded in any case. and so would rally to the defence of the Fatherland;
1 What is the significance of the September
and Britain might be persuaded to stay out of the
Further, a war indemnity, to be paid in instalments; it must be high enough to Programme for Fischer and what are
war, at least for the first six crucial weeks during
prevent France from spending any considerable sums on armaments in the next Ferguson'’s criticisms?
which France would be defeated by means of a
fifteen-twenty years.
2 Who is right? lightning attack through Belgium.
Furthermore a commercial treaty, which makes France economically dependent on
Using Sources F, G, H and I: From John R&hl, ‘Germany’, in Keith Wilson (editor),
Germany, secures the French market for our exports and makes it possible to
Decisions for War, published in 1995
exclude British commerce from France. This treaty must secure for us financial 3 Summarise the arguments from all four by Palgrave Macmillan
and industrial freedom of movement in France in such fashion that German sources about the extent of German blame
enterprises can no longer receive different treatment from the French. for the outbreak of war.
And so the document goes on for other countries . . . 4 To what extent do Sources H and I agree
with Sources F and G? Explain your answer
From Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War, published in 1967
fully with reference to the sources and your
own knowledge.

Source G
There is a fundamental flaw in Fischer’s reasoning which too many historians have let pass. It is the assumption
Fischer challenged
that Germany’s war aims as stated after the war had started were the same as German aims beforehand. Thus
Fischer's analysis brought a storm of protest. Historians such as Gerhard
Bethmann-Hollweg’s ‘September Programme’ for a separate peace with France — drafted on the assumption of a
Ritter and Egmont Zechlin attacked his thesis. One aspect they objected to
quick German victory in the West- is sometimes portrayed as if it were the first open statement of aims which had
was Fischer's portrayal of Bethmann-Hollweg as central to the push for
existed before the war. If this were true, then the argument that war was avoidable would collapse; for it is clear
war. The diaries of Kurt Riezler were published in the 1980s by Karl
that no British government would have accepted the territorial and political terms which the September programme
Dietrich Erdmann. He was of the opinion that Germany had slipped into
proposed for France and Belgium, as these would have realised the Napoleonic nightmare by giving Germany
war in 1914. What the diaries suggested to Erdmann was that Germany had
control of the Belgian coast. But the inescapable fact is that no evidence has been found by Fischer and his pupils
been part of the push for war but that it had not been planning for war
that these objectives existed before Britain’s entry into the war.
since 1912, nor did it have grand plans for annexation. While the Riezler
From Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War, published in 1998 diaries have proved useful, there are suggestions by some historians that
they were tampered with.

39
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900-45 Germany responsible for the First World War?

Another challenge made to Fischer's thesis was that there was very little
evidence that the outbreak of the war constituted a grasp for world power.
Instead, a group of historians including Klaus Hildebrand, Andreas Asquith did not know how little control the Kaiser and Bethmann exercised. A
Hillgruber and Gregor Schéllgen maintained that war started because of a country where the Chancellor hardly dared to ask the General Staff what they
sense of encirclement in Germany, especially after failure in the First * were doing was outside his comprehension. He assumed that, when it came to
Moroccan Crisis and after the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907. They argued the moment of the decision, the German government would be likely to choose
that between 1909 and 1914 German foreign policy was almost obsessively
KILLS BUILDER
an invasion route which would not force Belgium to call for British military help.
focused on the need to break this encirclement. This mentality was partly
We do not know everything about what happened during the last days of July in
born from the manner in which Germany was born out of war, partly from
geography and partly from events as they unfolded. However, it stresses
Berlin and Potsdam: but we can be sure that events there belied Asquith’s 1 To what extent do
assumptions. The General Staff had concealed from the political leaders the these sources give
that the reasons for going to war were defensive, rather than aggressive.
worst political horror in their war plans, namely that their first objective was the the impression that
capture of Liége and its forts. They needed a head start in the war in order to Bethmann-Hollweg
mount a surprise attack there; and they might decide to follow that with a drove the agenda
~SourceK
massive bombardment. Bethmann does not seem to have been told this until for war?
The picture of Bethmann-Hollweg’s policy in the July The incident that promoted the Kaiser to take further 31 July. The General Staff were in charge. 2 What other issues
crisis, such.as it emerges from the Riezler diaries, fits action was the assassination of his close associate, From Michael Brock, The Coming ofthe First World War, edited by are picked up by
neither into the pattern of a Germany pushed into-a Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro- R.). Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, published in 1990 these sources?
war against her will, nor of a Germany wilfully pushing Hungarian throne, by a Bosnian terrorist supported by
into war. Egmont Zechlin found a very adequate term Serbia on 28 June 1914. With emotions running high,
for this attitude. He called it preventive Abwehr William favoured an immediate Austrian action
(preventive defence). This seems to me to be more to against Serbia. On 5 July, the Kaiser met with the War of illusions
the point than ‘preventive war’, although Bethmann- Austro-Hungarian ambassador to Berlin. William Il In War of Illusions (1969), Fischer made even greater play of the
Hollweg himself, sometime later, called the First informed the ambassador that ‘he expected some relationship between German domestic tensions and foreign policy.
World War ‘in a certain sense’ a preventive war. serious step . .. towards Serbia’ and without He argued that:
Fischer shares the opinion that preventive war is not consulting with Bethmann-Hollweg, [he said] to the
e The German government used war as a solution to difficult internal
the right term, because on the side of the entente ambassador that Austria could ‘rely upon Germany’s
problems and the idea that there was a strong ‘will to war’.
there was objectively no intention of attacking full support’. The Kaiser was under the assumption
Germany. In my view, the term preventive Abwehr fits that any Austrian action could be localised in the War in 1914 was a bold leap forward - Flucht nach vorn (flight or push
better than preventive war, because Germany, though Balkans since ‘Russia at the present time was in no forward) - to establish German dominance and to keep domestic peace.
taking the risk of war, had hope of disrupting the way prepared for war, and would think twice before it * The whole decision-making élite had to take responsibility for war.
entente without war. appealed to arms.” Germany’s leaders were culturally pessimistic and needed to break
From Karl Dietrich Erdmann,
A Judgement on Later that same day, on 5 July, the Kaiser summoned encirclement.
Bethmann-Hollweg, published in 1964 those of his highest military and political advisers Fischer was able to use the diaries of Admiral Miller, which had been
who were available at a moment’s notice to a meeting. published in 1965 and in which there was reference to a meeting on
in Potsdam. The German Army was represented by 8 December 1912 of the Kaiser and his top military advisers. In War of
General Eric von Falkenhayn, the Prussian Minister of Illusions Fisher argued that the ‘War Council’ of 1912 was evidence that the
War and the Chief of the Kaiser’s military Cabinet. path to war had already been decided upon. It was, according to Fischer,
Bethmann-Hollweg and Zimmermann, both with little only postponed because, subsequent to the meeting, Bethmann-Hollweg
knowledge of foreign relations, represented the insisted that Germany had to prepare herself diplomatically and Tirpiz
diplomats at the meeting since Jagow was on leave insisted on the military planners waiting for the opening of the Kiel Canal.
away from Berlin. At the Potsdam Conference the
Kaiser insisted upon Germany supporting Austria-
How significant was the 1912 ‘War Council’?
Hungary because its preservation was vital to German
security. The tensions in European capitals at the end of December 1912 were all
From William Young, German Diplomatic Relations
100 apparent. Serbian expansion to the sea had alarmed Austria to the point
1871-1945, published in 2006 that, in November 1912, the Austrian government announced its opposition
{0 such expansion. In response, the Russian government began to
 ~ Unit 2: Was Germany responsible for the First World War?
From Kaiser to Filhrer: Germany 1900-45

mobilise, and Austria sought support from Germany and Italy in

the case
Source O ><
was
of a general European war. On 5 December the Triple Alliance
renewed, but two days before the British Minister of War,
Lord Haldane, What still needs to be investigated is the crucial question of when war was Discussion point
tolerate
warned the German Ambassador in London that Britain would not decided upon. The exciting hypothesis is gaining ground, as previously hidden
Using the information in
the defeat of France if a war between Russia and Austria led to a German sources come to light, that the decision was not taken in response to the
these sources, as
attack on her French neighbours. In this context the Kaiser
called a Sarajevo assassination but some time before that event took place, as a result of
historians what weight
Admiral
meeting of his top military staff including Molkte, Tirpitz and a long process which began with Germany’s perceived humiliation in the Second
should we give to the
into
Georg von Miiller, whose diaries have given historians such an insight Morocco crisis [which was in 1911].
‘War Council’ of 19127
what Fischer called a ‘war council’. At the meeting the following points In a top secret memorandum of 1 April 1912, Admiral von Tirpitz formulated the Does it show that
were made: question which seems to have informed all military-political thinking in Germany Germany was ready to go
o The Kaiser insisted that Austria-Hungary should be supported in her from Agadir to Sarajevo. Under the heading ‘Bringing about the War’, Tirpitz to war or was it just a
asked: should we speed up [the outbreak of war] or attempt to delay it?
actions against Serbia. meeting at a time of
diplomatic excitement?
If Russia decided to fight then so be it. Austria would be supported by
From John R&hl, ‘Germany’, in Keith Wilson (editor),
y Decisions for War, published in 1995
Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania, which would leave German
free to deal with France on land and Britain at sea.
o Molkte thought that war against Russia was inevitable and the sooner the Primat der Innenpolitik
better. One of the great traditions of German history was that foreign policy was
o Tirpitz suggested that the navy needed another 12 to 18 months to dictated by events outside Germany. This is known as the Primat der
prepare the fleet and for the Kiel Canal to have opened to allow large Aussenpolitik (the dominance of foreign policy). Fischer turned this idea on
German naval vessels passage from the Baltic into the North Sea. its head and stressed the importance of the impact of internal pressures
on foreign policy, this idea being known as the Primat der Innenpolitik
But while many historians praised much of what Fischer had to say in (the dominance of internal policy). The concept has been developed by a
War of lllusions, there has subsequently been considerable debate about the number of historians including Hans Ulrich Wehler. He argued that the
importance of the so-called ‘War Council’ of 8 December 1912. disruptive impact of industrialisation caused tensions in Germany's social
and economic structure. The Junkers, financiers and industrialists resisted
attempts by the middle classes to gain greater political power through the
Source N Reichstag. The growth of the SPD presented a real challenge, especially
Source M '\,< when they won 110 seats in the 1912 election. These tensions were
The meeting [of 8 December] ended with only one
The evidence on the secret ‘military-political diverted outwards, into foreign and diplomatic policy in order to preserve
described as resolution, that a press campaign should prepare for
conference’ of 8 December 1912 must be the status quo.
ss war with Russia. There is no evidence that the press
unusually abundant. If historians neverthele
meeting, that chief of the Foreign Ministry attempted to orchestrate
encounter difficulties in interpreting this
as Bethmann- such a campaign, or that the newspapers could have Source P >§
is primarily because the ‘war council’,
1912, been so manipulated if he had . . . Bethmann-Hollweg
Hollweg angrily described it on 20 December It would be wrong to analyse foreign policy solely in terms of a theory of the Primat der Innenpolitk or to attribute
controversy on was not present at the meeting and did not endorse
cannot be separated from the emotive the decision for war to domestic pressures alone. At the same time there is much evidence to suggest that German
With few its conclusions. The close relationship between the
the immediate causes of the First World War. politicians, generals and admirals were very conscious of the connection between domestic and foreign policy, not
see German Kaiser and his service chiefs would probably permit a
exceptions, even those historians who only because at certain moments they believed that foreign ventures might contribute to a mood of national
main cause of gathering that excluded the political leadership
policy in the July crisis of 1914 as the solidarity at home, but also because they feared the strength of socialist opposition to warlike policies. The balance
pt nonetheless being called a ‘war council’. But
the outbreak of the world war are reluctant to acce between the awareness of internal problems and dreams of world power was always a delicate one; and if recent
Bethmann-Hollweg, not the service chiefs, took centre
that this policy was formulated a year and a half historical writing had stressed the importance of the internal contradictions of German society in determining
earlier by the Kaiser and his faithful followers in the
stage in the crisis that did lead to war. The policy
German foreign policy and the decision for war and has thus drawn attention to factors which had been largely
‘war which he and Germany followed between December
army and navy meeting in a hastily convened overlooked by an older generation of historians, we much not forget that for many leading Germans the positive
1912 and July 1914 is not marked by the consistency
council’. pursuit of world power or the negative securing of Germany’s position in what was regarded as a hostile world was
, which would endorse Fischer’s argument.
From John R, The Kaiser and his Court something to be undertaken for its own sake regardless of the domestic profit and loss.
d
publishe in 1994 From Huw Stachan, The First World War,
published in 2001 From James Joll, Origins of the First World War, published in 1984

43
42

————sesssessssssssee——
|
 2: Was Germany responsible for the First World War?
Unit
-45
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900

Source T '.; SN Source U

Source R X
SourceQ )L
In Vienna in July 1914 a set of leaders experienced in The frivolity and arrogance with which Austro-
the Not many historians nowadays dissent from the
The more direct and immediate consolidation of statecraft, power and crisis management consciously Hungarian statesmen, politicians, military men,
ts of the proposition that the German government, egged on by
Navy Bill was to come from the unifying effec risked a general war to fight a local war. Battered publicists and diplomats wished for and decided on
More indirect its generals, deliberately provoked the war of 1914 . ...
naval armaments programme at home. during the Balkans Wars by Serbian expansion, war against their small neighbour made them
ising benefits In the two years before the July Crisis, Germany’s
and more long-range were the stabil Russian activism and now by the loss of Franz guilty of providing the opportunity that the German
the navy leaders appear to have been gripped by a mood of
which the government hoped to derive from Ferdinand, the Habsburg leaders desperately military were seeking to wage the preventative war
y and Germ an desperation. In December 1912, for instance, a Crown
as an instrument of foreign polic desired to shape their future, rather than let events they had been recommending for years. Austria-
is not Council quite seriously suggested that there should
imperialism in the twentieth century. But it destroy them. The fear of domestic disintegration Hungary bears the responsibility for planning a-
analy sis, the result be war within a year and a half, that the press should
difficult to see that, in the final made war an acceptable policy option. The local third Balkan War against Serbia — the
be prepared, that military increases should be
would be the same. It is in this sense that the Habsburg decision, backed by the Germans, gave responsibility for the escalation of the conflict into a
d an undertaken, and that the Reichsbank should build up
decision to build a large battle fleet represente the July crisis a momentum that rendered peace an European war does not lie with Austria-Hungary, it
to contr ibute a larger war chest. The Reichstag could not control
“inner-political crisis strategy’ designed early casualty. lies in Berlin.
system; the government; at the same time, the Kaiser,
to the survival of the Prusso-German political From Fritz Fellner, “Austria’, in Keith Wilson (editor),
rchy want ed to surrounded, often enough, by hysterical generals and From Samuel Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the
with the help of the Navy the mona Origins of the First World War, published in 1988 Decisions for War, published in 1995
to noblemen, lost any sense of cool raison d’état . . . War
overthrow the status quo internationally in order
squared the circles of German politics. Bismarck had
preserve it at home ... . The trouble is, no complex
any was to conquer Germany in order to rule Prussia. Would
modern society can be ruled like this [as Germ
Bethmann-Hollweg have to conquer Europe in order
on the eve of war] for too long. The political syste
inter nal
m
to rule Germany?
KILLS BUILDER
was no longer capable of overcoming
divisions. The élites were more and more tempt
ed to From 707r7niarrr| Stone, Europe Transformed 1878-1919, Read Sources S, T and U. What are the different judgements made by
use war as the catalyst for the renewed attem
pts to — i in 1983 the authors of these sources with reference to the role of Austria-
Hungary in the causation of war? Discussion point
stabilise the monarchy.
of
From Volker Berghahn, Germany and the Approach What do you think? Is
War in 1914, published in 1973 there a relationship
between domestic policy
Unit summary and foreign policy? Have

What about Austria-Hungary? you any other examples

What have you learned in this unit? from history of rulers
There is not space in this book to outline the role played by other powers
Germany must carry a fair proportion of the blame for the outbreak using domestic policy as
in the outbreak of war. However, there is scope within the Skills builder at
of the First World War. The main argument of Fritz Fischer has been a means of deflecting
the end of this chapter for you to research in greater depth. That said, it is
accepted by most historians, i.e. that Germany bears some responsibility. from foreign policy?
important to explore briefly whether there is an argument to suggest that
KILLS BUILDER Germany was dragged into war by her closest ally, Austria-Hungary.
However, the reasons why German leaders pushed for war are still a
source of some controversy. While Fischer argued that they launched
According to Sources a war of aggression and conquest, many have now suggested that it was
P, Q and R, how more of a defensive war launched to break encirclement. In the 1930s,
significant an impact Source S an argument was presented that Europe ‘slipped into war’. Although
was domestic politics that is perhaps now discredited as an argument, you have learned that
on foreign affairs in In Austria-Hungary there was clearly a sense of desperation at the intractable there is an argument to suggest that war started because of the
Germany in the run- internal and external problems facing the Habsburg dynasty, and military action,
escalation of events.
up to the war? rather than diplomacy, seemed to be the best way to deal with them. By the
end of 1913, the majority of ministers wanted to solve the Serbian problem by
force . . . [it has been] shown that the policy-makers in Vienna pursued a What skills have you used in this unit?
consistently belligerent policy in 1914 and that there was a fateful meshing of Your understanding of the sources has been enhanced by an exploration
“aggressive German Weltpolitik’ with an even more aggressive, irresponsible of German foreign policy from 1900 to 1914. You have analysed
‘Habsburg Balkanpolitik’. interpretations in the sources and you have commented on the
From Ruth Henig, The Origins of the First World War, published in 1993 drguments made.

45
 From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 1900
-45 w 'Was Germany responsible for the First World War?

ILLS BUILDER % Source

V
1 Making a judgement By 1913 the question of civil war and foreign war had indeed become two sides
‘With a work partner, identify five lines of argument brought up by of the same coin in the minds of the Kaiser and his advisers, and it is virtually
Fritz Fischer. For each point make a scoring judgement. Use the impossible to decide which issue obsessed them more. They felt encircled not
following scores: merely by the Triple Entente, but also by the forces of change. Germany’s internal
and external enemies, they believed, wanted to destroy them and the
Agree

W
monarchical order. While the news was bad on the domestic front, it was
Slightly agree arguably worse on the international one. The diplomatic isolation of Germany
Slightly disagree which started in 1904 had worsened and while Bethmann-Hollweg was making

N
Disagree efforts to ease some of the pressure, the generals could only think of further
rearmaments expenditure as a remedy. The 1913 Army Bill, which had now
Now share the lines of argument and scores with another pair.
unleashed yet another major conflict over the distribution of tax burdens, had
2 Hypothesis testing in part been a response to growing tensions in the Balkans and the weakening
Form yourselves into discussion groups. Discuss the following of the position of the Dual Alliance in that part of the world. In view of these
hypothesis: developments, it seemed even more urgent to Helmuth von Molkte, the Chief of
‘Before 1912 Germany was committed to diplomacy to resolving her the General Staff, to fill the gaps which the 1912 Army Bill had left. Yet, rearm as
foreign policy problems. After 1912, she was committed to using strenuously as they might, the Germany military were unable to check the
war. deterioration of the Reich’s international predicament by trying to shift the
balance of power in their favour.
To what extent do you agree with this judgement? This is quite a
complex question to answer and revolves around whether you feel From Volker Berghahn, Modern Germany, published in 1987
that 1912 constitutes a significant turning point.
3 Debate time
Source W Source X
Using the information in this unit, what is your opinion on
Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg: German responsibility for war should not be restricted So there emerged right at the beginning of the war
e guilty of starting the war? to the issue of whether Bethmann, or the German the question of who bore the chief responsibility!
government, or the Kaiser, desired peace in 1912-14 It was latent controversy between the two allies
e an innocent bystander?
or, for that matter, earlier. Of course they would have [Germany and Austria-Hungary] which persisted
preferred to get what they wanted without war. But during the entire war and flared up every time there
German actions going back to the 1890s had done was a military crisis. However, despite this friction
Exam style question much to create international tension. Bethmann and the English declaration [of war], the German plan
personally was a sensitive, passive, fatalistic man, but to unleash a continental war which had crystallised a
This is the type of question that will be found in Section B of your
he was faced with reaping the whirlwind sown by his month previously during the Sarajevo murder, was
examination paper:
predecessors. Others bore more responsibility, like fully realised. Only the constellation of forces against
‘The outbreak of war in Europe in 1914 was due to an aggressive Tirpitz, who built a battle fleet aimed at the British the Central powers was unexpected.
German foreign policy which had been waged since ¢.1900. but professed his peaceful intentions. From John Moses, The Politics of lllusion,
From David Blackbourn, History of Germany published in 1975
How far do you agree with this opinion? Explain your answer using the
1780-1918, published in 1997
evidence of Sources V, W and X and your own knowledge of the issues
relating to the controversy.

Before you start, please read the advice on page 48.

46 47
From Kaiser to Fiihrer: Germany 190045

Make sure vou nnalyse throughout the response, supporting your arguments
with well-chosen own knowledge.
* Be very sure you know what ‘view/ is being expressed in all three sources.
* Make sure you show that you understand the nature of the debate that lles at
What is this unit about?
the heart of the question.
* Cross-reference between the sources by focusing on support and challenge. The First World War was a catastrophe for Germany. The beginning of the war in
1914 was welcomed by a broad spectrum of public and political opinion in the
* Use your wider knowledge both to reinforce and to challenge the points
derived from the sources. country. However, the war effort was managed by a chaotic bureaucratic system

* Synthesise the arguments and points presented in the sources into your that highlighted rather than covered up Germany’s shortcomings insofar as a lack

analysis. Y of raw materials and labour were concerned. Huge casualties sapped morale, as

* Present a substantiated judgement as to the validity of the stated view and/or did growing hunger on the Home Front. Strikes and an ever more restless Reichstag
any alternatives in the light of your understanding of the issues of challenged the military leadership of Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The last
interpretation and controversy. two years of war were marked by growing political polarisation. By 1918 the nation
was exhausted by war and faced defeat.

You will:
« find out about the impact of war on Germany from 1914 to 1918
o explore changes over the course of the war.

The roles played by other countries Key questions

* What were the social and economic effects in Germany of the First World War?
The focus of this unit has been on the debate surrounding the role played by Germany in the run-up
to war and the extent of German war guilt. However, for you to have a full understanding of the * How did the war polarise Germany politically?

reasons for the outbreak of the First World War you will need to undertake some individual
research. There are many excellent books on the subject and some informative websites.
Timeline
You should undertake the research task in groups with an individual or pair choosing one country.
This is often best done by drawing lots out of a hat. Here are the countries to be researched: — 1914 - War breaks out; Belgium attacked
On the Eastern Front, German army wins the Battle of Tannenberg
® Austria-Hungary
Burgfreiden agreed
* France
In the east, Russian army defeated at the Battle of the
e Great Britain
‘Masurian Lakes
® Russia
‘Advance in the west halted at the Battle of the Marne
e Serbia
Race for the sea
For each country you should aim to write up: ~ 1915 ing of bread introduced in Germany
* a timeline of events of how your chosen country was involved in the build-up to war up to uflk off the coast of Ireland
August 1914 1916 Bbmnmng of the Battle of Verdun
* bullet points of analysis explaining how far your chosen country should be blamed for the ] Sea Battle of Jutland inconclusive
outbreak of war. Russians launch Brusilov Offensive
‘Beginning of the Battle of the Somme
This information can be circulated to other groups and each group can give a short presentation. burg and Ludendorff take war command
Labour Law introduced in Germany

- Decision taken by Germany to wage unrestricted submarine

warfare