Database Concepts

CHAPTER
Database Concepts
Data: Row facts figures, number, alphabets and symbols are called as Data.
Information: Processed, Stored, Transmitted data is known as Information.
Tuple/Record/Row: Single entry in a table is called as Tuple.
Field: Each column is identified by a distinct header called as Field.
Attribute: It is defined as named column of a table.
Table/Relation: Table is a collection of data elements organized in terms of rows
and columns.
Entity: Entity is a real world object which is represented in database.
Relationship: Relation between two database table is known as relationship.
Domain: It is defined as a set of allowed values for one or more attributes.
Degree: The number of attributes in a table.
Cardinality: The number of tuples in table.

Types of keys:

1. Primary key: Uniquely identified attribute in the table is known as primary

key.

2. Composite key: Two or more Uniquely identified attribute in the table is know
as composite key.

3. Foreign key: One attribute in one table used to link/refer another table.

4. Alternate key/Secondary key: A key in table which can be used as addition

to the primary key to locate specific data.

5. Super key: Super key is the key that can uniquely identify any row in a
database.

6. Candidate key: A candidate key is a subset of super key and ensure that there
are no duplicate record in a table.
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7. Data Processing Cycle:

Data Collection and Data Preparation: Data collection is the stage of data
processing cycle. Data need to be collected from different resources. Data must be
accurate and well defined.
Data preparation involves classifying the collected data to respective entities and
analyze the quality of gathered data.
Data Input: The collected data has to be given to the computer using any of the
input devices.
Data Processing: Data processing means transforming the input data into more
meaningful form using database queries.
Data output: The processed information is now presented to users in various
forms using any of the output device.
Data Storage: The processed data is stored for future use which can be accessed
or retrieved from any of the stored devices.

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Symbols used in Entity-Relationship diagrams:

Types of Relationship:
1. One-to-One[1:1]:
In this type One entity is associated with only one entity.

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2. One-to-Many[1:N]:
In this type one entity is associated with many entity.

3. Many-to-One[N:1]:
In this type many entity is associated with one entity.

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4. Many-to-Many[N:N]:
In this type many entity is associated with many entity.

Difference between Manual and Electronic data processing system:

Manual data processing Electronic data processing

1. Data is processed manually 1. Data is processed through
without using any machine or computer.
tool.
2. Data is transferred manually from 2. Data is transferred electronically
one place to another place. or in digital form.
3. This method is very slow. 3. This method is fast.

4. Suitable for small volume of data.

4. Suitable for both small and large
volume of data.
5. Consumes more time.
5. Consumes less time.
6. Data are not secure.
6. Data are secured.

7. Data is not accurate.

7. Data is accurate.

8. Storage medium is paper.

8. Data is stored electronically

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Database management system:

DBMS is computer software used to manage the storage, organization,
processing and retrieval of data in a database.

Advantage of DBMS:
1. Data Availability:
The data are made available to wide variety of users in a meaningful
format.
2. Data Integrity:
Data integrity refers to correctness of the data in the database.
3. Control’s data redundancy:
In DBMS environment if redundancy is present, then it can be controlled
by propagating updates in all the places where ever redundant data is
present.
4. Concurrent Access:
DBMS support to access the database parallelly for multiple users.
5. Data Persistence:
Data persistence means that in DBMS all data is maintained as long as it
is not deleted explicitly.
6. Reduced application development time:
It supports many important functions that are common to many
applications. This facility make quick development of applications.
7. Data Security:
In DBMS the only authorized users can access the data, so data are
secured in DBMS.
8. Data Sharing:
DBMS allows sharing of data by several users simultaneously.
9. Standardized Data:
DBMS can ensure that all the data follow the applicable standards and
stores data in particular standard format.

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Disadvantages of DBMS:
1. Danger of a overload:
DBMS is not advisable for small and simple applications.
2. Complexity:
The database system creates additional requirements and complexity.
3. Qualified Users:
To use DBMS it requires professionally trained staff.
4. Lower in efficiency:
A database system is a multi-user software which is often less efficient
than specialized software which is produced, since it is developed by
multiple developer efficiency may vary.
5. Costs:
Through the use of DB system new costs are generated for the system
itself and also due to additional hardware requirements.
Database Users:
To design, to use, and to maintain the database many people are involved,
The people who interact with the database are called database users.
The database users include,
1. End users:
End users are those who use DB in order to query and update the DB
and generate reports.
2. System Analysts:
System analysts determine the requirement of end users, to create a
solution for their business need and focus on Non-technical and
technical aspects.
3. Application programmers:
These users are the developers of DB who design application program
using specifications given by the system analysts.
4. Database Administrators[DBA]:
DBA is a person who has central control over both data and
application. DBA’s gives the authorization access, schema definition,
modification, new system installation, security enforcement and
administration.
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Physical Data file organization / File Organization / File or Record

access methods:
Physical data file organization means how the data is stored in the
database.
a. Sequential and Serial file organization:

 In sequential data organization files are organized by the order in

which they were entered (i.e one after the other in sequential
manner).
 It is one of the simple methods of the organization.
 Files or Records can be added only at the end of the database.
 Searching files starts from the beginning.

Advantages:
1. Simple and Continuous.
2. Easy to organize file incase of system failure.
3. Storage medium required are relatively cheap.
4. Errors in the file remain localized to a particular data block.
5. Very efficient when most of the records be processed.

Disadvantages:
1. Entire disk must be processed even if a single file to be searched.
2. Overall processing is slow.
3. Data redundancy is relatively high.
4. Need to sort the files.

b. Direct Access method / Random Access Method:

 Direct access method works on the bases of hashing technique.
 Hashing technique has two parts, first hashing keys are generated,

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Second it assigns physical address for each key.

 It takes care of conflicts, that no two record are not mapped to the
same physical storage location.
Advantages:
1. This method is mainly useful in online transaction processing system.
2. Sorting of the records are not required.
3. It supports bulk updation.
4. Accessibility is faster.
Disadvantages:
1. This will not provide back-up facility.
2. Expensive.
c. Indexed Sequential Access file organization:
 This process combines both features of sequential file and direct access
file organization.
 The records are stored randomly in the memory.
 The records can be accessed either sequentially or randomly using the
index.
Advantages:
1) Very fast access to records.
2) Searching time is less.
Disadvantages:
1) Expensive because of requirement of special software.
2) Requires more storage space.

3-layered Architecture and Data Abstraction:

Data abstraction means hiding certain internal details how the data are
stored and maintained.

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1. Internal level(physical level):

It is the lowest level of abstraction that describes how the data are
actually stored.
It contains the definition of stored record and method of representing
the data fields and access method used.
2. Conceptual level(Logical level):
 This level describes what data are stored in the data base and what
relationships exist among those data.
 Logical structure of database.
3. External level(End user view):
It consists of definition of logical records and relationship in the
external view.

Data Independence:
The capacity to change data at one level does not affect the data at another
level.
There are two types of data independence,
1. Logical data independence:
Logical data independence is a capacity to change the data in

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conceptual level should not effect the other two level.

2. Physical data independence:
Physical data independence is a capacity to change the data in internal
level should not effect the other two level.

Database Architecture:
The design of a database management system highly depended on its
architecture.
The whole system is divided according to the related modules.
1) 1-Tier architecture:
In 1-tier architecture the user directly interacts with the database and
uses it.

2) 2-Tier architecture:
The 2-Tier architecture of database is based on a client-server model.
The client which can be a user or an application program, client
request is conveyed to the server, the server process the request and
returns an repose to the client.

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3) 3-Tier architecture:
 The 3-Tier architecture is most widely used architecture for web
application.
 Intermediate layer is called application server or web server stores
the web connectivity software and the business logic part of
application used to access the right amount of data from the right
amount of data from the database server.
 This layer acts like medium for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.

Data Models:
It is a collection of conceptual tools which describes the structure of data ,
operations performed, and Relationship between the data.

Types of data model:

1. Hierarchical Data model:
 The hierarchical data model organizes data in a tree structure.
 It consists of one parent node/root node and many child node.
 In this data model data is represented as collection of records and
relationships are represented as links.

Advantages:
1. Simplicity
2. Data Security
3. Data Integrity
4. Efficiency

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Disadvantages:
1. Implementation complexity.
2. Database management problem.
3. Lack of Structural Independence.
4. Operational anomalies.

2. Network data model:

 The network data model organizes data in a graph structure.
 In this data model data is represented as collection of records and
relationships are represented as links.
 Each node can be accessed through several paths.

Advantages:
1. It is simple and easy to implement.
2. It can handle many relationships within the organization.
3. It has better data independence.
Disadvantages:
1. More complex system of database structure.
2. Lack of structural dependence.

3. Relational data model:

 This data model was developed by E F codd in 1970.
 No physical links between nodes.
 Relational data model organizes data in table format.
 Each row(record) is represented as Tuple.
 Each column is represented as Attribute.

Advantages:
1. It is extremely simple and easy to implement.
2. It has a strong mathematical foundation.
3. It has been highly standardizes.
4. Powerful, Flexible and easy to use query capability.
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Disadvantages:
1. Needs comparatively powerful hardware.
2. It hides the implementation complexities and the physical data storage
details.

Data mining:
Data mining refers to extracting or mining knowledge/data from large
amount of data.
Phases or stages of data mining are:
1. Selection: Selecting the data according to some criteria.
2. Preprocessing: Data cleaning stage i.e the data is reconfigured to ensure
a consistent format.
3. Transformation: The data is not transferred, but transformed.
4. Interpretation and evolution: Identified pattern are interpreted into
knowledge which can be used to support human decision making.

Data Warehouse: Data warehouse is a structured repository of

electronically store data.
Major components of data warehousing:
1. Meta data: It is a information about data that describes the data
warehouse.
2. Data marts: The data marts are presented as an alternative to a data
warehouse that takes significantly less time and money to build. In which
data are classified according to there category.
3. Access Tools: The purpose of the data warehousing is to provide
information to business user for strategic decision making. These users
interact with data warehouse using front end tools.
4. Data warehouse Administration and management: It mainly focus on
to security and priority management. It includes monitoring updates from
multiple sources, data quality check, updating and reporting data,
backup and recovery.
5. Information Delivery system: It distributes warehouse stoed data and
other information.

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Generalization:
Generalization is a process in which number of different entities are
combined to form a single entity.

Specialization:
Specialization is a process in which a group of entities is divided into sub
group based on their characteristics.

Relational Algebra:
Relational algebra is a procedural query language that consists of a set of
operation that takes one or more relations as input and results into a new
relation as output.

Types of relational Algebra:

1. Unary Operations:
The operations operating on a single relation are known as unary
operation in relational algebra SELECT, PROJECT and RENAME are
unary operations.
a. SELECT operation:
The select operation retrieves all rows from relation/table that satisfies a
given condition.

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The Greek letter Sigma( ) is used as a select operator.

Ex:
STUDENT
Reg
Name Marks Subject
no.
1001 ABC 80 Computer Science
1002 XYZ 70 Computer Science
1003 PQR 70 Computer Science
1004 AAD 70 Computer Science
1005 AAB 85 Computer Science
1006 ACD 35 Computer Science
1007 ADC 40 Computer Science

(marks) = 70 [STUDENT]

Result:
Reg
Name Marks Subject
no.
1002 XYZ 70 Computer Science
1003 PQR 70 Computer Science
1004 AAD 70 Computer Science

b. PROJECT operation:
The project operation is used to select some required attributes which
satisfies given condition from a Table while discarding the other
attributes.
The symbol pi(π) is used as project operation.
Ex:
STUDENT
Reg
Name Marks Subject
no.
1001 ABC 80 Computer Science
1002 XYZ 70 Computer Science
1003 PQR 70 Computer Science
1004 AAD 70 Computer Science

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1005 AAB 85 Computer Science

1006 ACD 35 Computer Science
1007 ADC 40 Computer Science

π (NAME, MARKS) [STUDENT]

Result:

Name Marks
ABC 80
XYZ 70
PQR 70
AAD 70
AAB 85
ACD 35
ADC 40

2. Binary operations:
The operations operating on two relations are known as binary operation.
a. Cartesian Product operation:
The Cartesian product of two relations R and S is denoted by R X S
defines a new relation which is the concatenation of each tuple of
relation R with each tuple of relation S.
It is denoted by symbol X
Ex:

EMPLOYEE JOB
JID JOB
EID NAME JID 1J Tester
1E ABC J1001 2J Manager
2E XYZ J1005
3E PQR J1020

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Result: EMPLOYEE X JOB

EID NAME JID JOB.JID JOB

1E ABC J1001 1J Tester

1E ABC J1001 2J Manager
2E XYZ J1005 1J Tester
2E XYZ J1005 2J Manager
3E PQR J1020 1J Tester
3E PQR J1020 2J Manager

b. Union operation:
The union operation combines both relation R and S eliminating
duplicate rows. It is denoted by symbol X
Ex:
CRICKET FOOT BALL

ROLL ROLL
NAME AGE NAME AGE
NO. NO.
1001 ABC J1001 1004 LMN J1004
1005 GHI J1006
1002 XYZ J1005
1003 PQR J1020
1003 PQR J1020

CRICKET U FOOT BALL

ROLL
NAME AGE
NO.
1001 ABC J1001
1002 XYZ J1005
1003 PQR J1020
1004 LMN J1004
1005 GHI J1006

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3. Set difference operation:

This operation is used to find tuples(rows) that are present in one relation
but not in other relation. It is denoted by symbol -
Ex:
CRICKET FOOT BALL

ROLL ROLL
NAME AGE NAME AGE
NO. NO.
1001 ABC J1001 1004 LMN J1004
1002 XYZ J1005 1005 GHI J1006
1003 PQR J1020 1003 PQR J1020

CRICKET - FOOT BALL

ROLL
NAME AGE
NO.
1001 ABC J1001
1002 XYZ J1005
4. Set Intersection operation:
Set intersection is used to find common tuples between two relations.
It is denoted by symbol n.
Ex:
CRICKET FOOT BALL

ROLL ROLL
NAME AGE NAME AGE
NO. NO.

1001 ABC J1001 1004 LMN J1004

1002 XYZ J1005 1005 GHI J1006

PQR 1003 PQR J1020
1003 J1020
CRICKET n FOOT BALL
ROLL
NAME AGE
NO.
1003 PQR J1020

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