Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to another

within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014). There is a wide variety of
contexts and situations in which communication can be manifested; it can be a face-to-face interaction, a phone
conversation, a group discussion, a meeting or interview, a letter correspondence, a class recitation, and many
others.

Nature of Communication

1. Communication is a process.

2. Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).

3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions (nonverbal), or both spoken
words and nonverbal actions at the same time.

Elements of Communication

Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or process. These
elements are the following:

1. Speaker – the source of information or message

2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions

3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that the speaker
understands

4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or nonverbal, in which
the encoded message is conveyed

5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver

6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message

7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver

8. Context – the environment where communication takes place 9. Barrier – the factors that affect
the flow of communication

Models of Communication

1. Shannon-Weaver Model

Known as the mother of all communication models, the Shannon-Weaver model (1949) depicts communication
as a linear or one-way process consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a transmitter
(encoder of message into signals); a channel (signals adapted for transmission); a receiver (decoder of message
from the signal); and a destination.

This model, however, has been criticized for missing one essential element in the communication process:
feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will not know whether the receiver understands the message or not.

2. Transaction Model

Unlike the Shannon-Weaver Model, which is a one-way process, the Transaction Model is a twoway process
with the inclusion of feedback as one element.

Functions of Communication

Basically, there are five functions of communication. These are control, social interaction, motivation, emotional
expression, and information dissemination.

1. Control – Communication functions to control behavior.

2. Social Interaction – Communication allows individuals to interact with others.

4. Emotional expression – Communication facilitates people’s expression of their feelings and emotions.

5. Information dissemination – Communication functions to convey information.

Features of an Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the 7 Cs of
Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially in public relations and advertising.

1. Completeness

Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process in general. Hence,
communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear for him/ her to respond, react, or
evaluate properly.

2. Conciseness

Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it direct or straight to the point. Insignificant
or redundant information should be eliminated from the communication that will be sent to the recipient.

3. Consideration

To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about his/her receiver such as mood,
background, race, preference, education, status, and needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build
rapport with the audience.

4. Concreteness

Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by facts, figures, and real-life
examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to the message conveyed.

5. Courtesy

The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of his/her
receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive impact on the audience.

6. Clearness

Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to express ideas. It is also achieved
when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.

7. Correctness

Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases the credibility and
effectiveness of the message.

Barriers to Communication

There are instances when miscommunication and misunderstanding occur because of certain barriers. To
become an effective communicator, you should recognize these barriers that hinder the communication process.
This will enable you to control the situation, reset conditions, and start anew. The table below presents some
barriers to effective communication with corresponding solutions.

Barrier Example Solution

Emotional You are having a bad day or you Recognize these kinds of emotions, and politely ask the other
barriers feel frustrated. person to give you a moment so you can relax or calm yourself.

You sit in a meeting or class where Recognize this kind of attitude, reset, and reflect on how you
you think the speaker is boring. can be interested in what the speaker is pointing out.
Use of jargon You are a scientist discussing a Jargon refers to the set of specialized vocabulary in a certain
certain weather phenomenon with field. To avoid communication breakdown due to lack of
your neighbor who does not know clarity, adjust your language; use layman’s terms or simple
much about the topic. words.

Lack of You are asked to share something Develop self-confidence by joining organizations where you
confidence about your day or weekend, but can share and develop your interests. Look for opportunities in
you are hesitant because you are your school or community that will help you find your
shy. strengths and improve your abilities.

Noisy You are having a conversation with Recognize that noise is a common barrier. Make some
environment some friends when a song was adjustments by asking someone to minimize the volume or by
played loudly. looking for a quiet area where you can resume the
conversation.

Note that these are only some of the barriers; many others may arise out of context, language, physical
restrictions, and the like.

Verbal Communication and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message. For effective and
successful verbal communication, use words to express ideas which can be easily understood by the person you
are talking to. Consider appropriateness, brevity, clarity, ethics, and vividness when engaging in this type of
communication.

1. Appropriateness

The language that you use should be appropriate to the environment or occasion (i.e., whether formal or
informal).

2. Brevity

Speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are found to be more credible. Try to achieve
brevity by being more direct with your words. Avoid fillers and insubstantial expressions which do not add to
the message, such as “uh,” “you know,” “I guess,” and others.

3. Clarity

The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently by a listener; hence, it is essential for
you to clearly state your message and express your ideas and feelings.

4. Ethics

Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, roles, ethnicity, preferences, and status of the
person or people you are talking to.

5. Vividness

Words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually add color and spice to communication.
Hence, you are encouraged to find ways to charm your audience through the use of vivid words.

Nonverbal communication refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and represent meanings. All
kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are classified as nonverbal communication. Examples
of nonverbal communication are stares, smiles, tone of voice, movements, manners of walking, standing and
sitting, appearance, style of attire, attitude towards time and space, personality, gestures, and others.

Mastery of nonverbal communication is important for several reasons:

1. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more meaningful, truthful, and
relevant.
2. It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you saying a word.

3. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.

4. It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.

5. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.

6. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.

7. It helps make your speech more dramatic.

8. It can build a connection with listeners.

9. It makes you a credible speaker.

10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

Definition and Nature of Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create meanings while bringing
in their varied cultural backgrounds (Ting-Toomey, 1999).

For some scholars, intercultural communication pertains to communication among people from different
nationalities (Gudykunst, 2003). Still, others look at intercultural communication as communication that is
influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and sexual orientations.

Both interpretations show that intercultural communication takes place when people draw from their cultural
identity to understand values, prejudices, language, attitudes, and relationships (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003).
Moreover, this facet of communication can also be seen as a bargained understanding of human experiences
across diverse societies. Simply put, intercultural communication is the sending and receiving of messages
across languages and cultures.

Sometimes, intercultural communication can flow smoothly and become very interesting for a cross-cultural
group. However, things may not go as planned when communication is disrupted by cultural collisions.

When you speak, your speech is continuously accompanied by gestures, facial expressions, and other body
movements that add to what you are saying in different ways. For example, nodding means “yes” in the Indian
subcontinent, Iran, most of Europe, Latin America, and North America. However, in Greece, Lebanon, Syria,
Palestine, Turkey, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Albania, nodding indicates disagreement. Moreover, in the case of
Japanese culture, silence as a form of communication is more integrated in their customs than in Western
languages. It is therefore important for you to acknowledge and understand the many communication patterns
present in other cultures.

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) offers a structure that explores how people
experience cultural differences. According to Bennett and Bennett (2004), it has six stages. These are the
following:

Stage 1: Denial. The individual does not recognize cultural differences.

An individual in the denial stage might be heard saying:

“All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops.”

Stage 2: Defense. The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by them, resulting in
either a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for the new one.

An individual in the defense stage might be heard saying:

“This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly better.”

“Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”
 Stage 3: Minimization. Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the universality of
ideas rather than on cultural differences.

An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:

“Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!”

Stage 4: Acceptance. The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors and
eventually in values.

An individual in the acceptance stage might be heard saying:

“These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can learn from one another.”

Stage 5: Adaptation. The individual is very open to world views when accepting new perspectives.

An individual in the adaptation stage might be heard saying:

“To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and my counterpart’s
background.”

Stage 6: Integration. Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and their actions
based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.

An individual in the integration stage might be heard saying:

“I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures.”

Once you understand these stages, you may apply it to 1) recognize communication behaviors which differ from
your own, 2) take into account what can influence these types of behaviors, and 3) try to analyze how linguistic
and cultural communities differ in terms of communication behavior and influencing factors (Allwood, 1985).

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators

World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits that define a competent intercultural communicator.

1. flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty

2. reflectiveness or mindfulness

3. open-mindedness

4. sensitivity

5. adaptability

6. ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and systems-level thinking (or thinking
how each one in a system or organization influences each other)

7. politeness

Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social status, and religion must also be taken
into consideration when communicating with others. Refrain from showing bias when talking to someone by
following the tips below.

1. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.

2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and “man” to refer to a general group of people.

To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid using pronouns. The use of his/her is
also acceptable.

3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.

4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker acts both as
the sender and the receiver of message. “The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is
your brain, which processes what you are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to
yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with others.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 16)

Examples:

• You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other class talked to you on the way
home and you decided it probably meant nothing.

• You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you for submitting your project
before the due date and you reflected on why this was so.

2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among people and establishes personal
relationship between and among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that “the inter part of the word
highlights how interpersonal communication connects people… when you engage in interpersonal
communication, you and another person become linked together… The personal part means that your unique
qualities as a person matter during interpersonal communication…” (p. 5)

Types of Interpersonal Context

Dyad Communication – communication that occurs between two people Example:

• You offered feedback on the speech performance of your classmate.

• You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

Small Group – This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more than twelve people
engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal. In this type of communication, all participants
can freely share ideas in a loose and open discussion.

Example:

• You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to address the concerns of your fellow
students.

• You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish the assigned tasks.

3. Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the message before or in
front of a group. The message can be driven by informational or persuasive purposes. “In public
communication, unlike in interpersonal and small group, the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder
and the gestures are more expansive because the audience is bigger. The speaker might use additional visual
channels such as slides or a Power Point presentation.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 19) Example:

• You deliver a graduation speech to your batch.

• You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or debate contest watched by a number of people.

4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place through television, radio,
newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types of media. Example:

• You are a student journalist articulating your stand on current issues through the school’s newspaper.

Types of Speech Style

1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or individuals.
The language used in this style may not be shared in public.

2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular language are
used.

3. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must in
this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and students, employers and employees,
doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or President and his/her constituents.

4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way. Examples
are sermons by priests and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President, formal speeches, or
pronouncements by judges.

5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies.
Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and Allegiance to country or flag.

Definition of Speech Acts

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of the functions which are
carried out using speech acts are offering an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or
refusal. A speech act might contain just one word or several words or sentences. For example, “Thanks” and
“Thank you for always being there for me. I really appreciate it” both show appreciation regardless of the length
of the statement.

Three Types of Speech Act

According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act

Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context. These are:

1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.

“Please do the dishes.”

2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said.

By uttering the locution “Please do the dishes,” the speaker requests the addressee to wash the dishes.

3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular context in
which the speech act was mentioned.

“Please do the dishes” would lead to the addressee washing the dishes.

There are also indirect speech acts which occur when there is no direct connection between the form of the
utterance and the intended meaning. They are different in force (i.e., intention) from the inferred speech act.

For example, read the following utterance.

“Can you pass the rice?”

Inferred speech act: Do you have the ability to hand over the rice?

Indirect speech act: Please pass the rice.

So while the utterance literally asks the addressee if he or she has the ability to hand a plate of rice, it actually
indirectly requests the addressee to pass the rice to the speaker.

Performatives
Austin also introduced the concept of performative utterances: statements which enable the speaker to perform
something just by stating it. In this manner, verbs that execute the speech act that they intend to effect are called
performatives. A performative utterance said by the right person under the right circumstances results in a
change in the world. Note that certain conditions have to be met when making a performative utterance.

For example, the phrase “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” when uttered by an authorized person such
as a judge will have the actual effect of binding a couple in marriage. However, if the same statement is uttered
to the same couple in the same place by someone who is not authorized to marry them—as in the case of the
accompanying picture, a robot—then there is no effect whatsoever because a condition was not met.

Searle’s Classifications of Speech Act

As a response to Austin’s Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a professor from the University of California,
Berkeley, classified illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.

1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of a
proposition. Some examples of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, swearing, boasting, and
concluding.

Example:

No one makes better pancakes than I do.

2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee perform an
action. Some examples of a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging.

Example:

Please close the door.

3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in the future.
Examples of a commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.

Example:

From now on, I will participate in our group activity.

4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional
reactions. Some examples of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and deploring.

Example:

I am so sorry for not helping out in our group projects and letting you do all the work.

5. Declaration – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation. Simply put,
declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some examples of declarations
are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence, and excommunicating.

Example:

You are fired!

By saying that someone is fired, an employer causes or brings about the person’s unemployment, thus changing
his external situation.

Always keep in mind that speech acts include concrete life interactions that require the appropriate use of
language within a given culture. Communicative competence (i.e., the ability to use linguistic knowledge to
effectively communicate with others) is essential for a speaker to be able to use and understand speech acts.
Idioms and other nuances in a certain language might be lost or misunderstood by someone who does not fully
grasp the language yet.