AS PURE MATHS REVISION NOTES

1 SURDS
A root such as 3 that cannot be written exactly as a fraction is IRRATIONAL
An expression that involves irrational roots is in SURD FORM e.g. 2 3
3 + 2 and 3 - 2 are CONJUGATE/COMPLEMENTARY surds – needed to rationalise the
denominator

SIMPLIFYING = × =

Simplify 75 12

= 5×5×3 2×2×3

=5 3 2 3

=3 3

RATIONALISING THE DENOMINATOR (removing the surd in the denominator)

a+ and a - are CONJUGATE/COMPLEMENTARY surds – the product is always a
rational number
Rationalise the denominator

2 2+ 3 Multiply the numerator and

= ×
2 3 2+ 3 denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator
4+2 3
=
4+2 3 2 3 3

=4+2 3

2 INDICES
Rules to learn
× = = =1

÷ = =

( ) = =

25x = (52)x ( )
Solve the equation
=( ) ( )
Simplify
3 × 25 = 15
(3 × 5) = (15) 2 ( ) + 3( )
2 =1
( ) (2 ( ) + 3)
1
=
2 ( ) (2 2 + 3)

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3 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS

Factorising identifying the roots of the equation ax2 + bc + c = 0

Look out for the difference of 2 squares x2 – a2= (x - a)(x + a)
Look out for the perfect square x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 or x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x -a)2
Look out for equations which can be transformed into quadratic equations

Solve + 1 =0 Solve 6 7 +2=0

Let z = x2
+ 12 = 0
( + 4)( 3) = 0 6 7 +2 = 0
(2 1)(3 2) = 0
x = 3, x = -4
1 2
= =
2 3

= ± = ±

Completing the square - Identifying the vertex and line of symmetry

In completed square form

y = (x + a)2 + b the vertex is (-a, b)

the equation of the line of symmetry is x = -a
y = (x - 3)2 - 4
Line of symmetry Sketch the graph of
x=3 y = 4x – x2 – 1 Line of Symmetry
y = - (x2 - 4x) – 1 x = -a
y = - ((x – 2)2 – 4) – 1
Vertex (2,3)
y = - (x-2)2 + 3

Vertex (3,-4)

Quadratic formula

±
= for solving ax2 + bx + c = 0

The DISCRIMINANT b2 – 4ac can be used to identify the number of solutions

b2 – 4ac > 0 there are 2 real and distinct roots (the graphs crosses the x- axis in 2 places)

b2 – 4ac = 0 the is a single repeated root (the x-axis is a tangent to the graph)

b2 – 4ac < 0 there are no 2 real roots (the graph does not touch or cross the x-axis)

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4 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Solving by elimination
3x – 2y = 19 ×3 9x – 6y = 57
2x – 3y = 21 ×2 4x – 6y = 42
5x – 0y =15 x=3 ( 9 – 2y = 19) y = -5

Solving by substitution
x + y =1 rearranges to y = 1 - x
x2 + y2 = 25
x2 + (1 – x)2 = 25
x2 + 1 -2x + x2 – 25 = 0
2x2 – 2x – 24 = 0
2(x2 - x – 12) = 0
2(x – 4)(x + 3) = 0 x=4 x = -3
y = -3 y=4

If when solving a pair of simultaneous equations, you arrive with a quadratic equation to solve, this
can be used to determine the relationship between the graphs of the original equations
Using the discriminant
b2 – 4ac > 0 the graphs intersect at 2 distinct points
b2 – 4ac = 0 the graphs intersect at 1 point (tangent)
b2 – 4a < 0 the graphs do not intersect

5 INEQUALITIES

Linear Inequality Solve 10 – 3x < 4

This can be solved like a linear equation except that
Multiplying or Dividing by a negative value reverses the inequality -3x < -6

x>2
Quadratic Inequality – always a good idea to sketch the graph!

Solve 4x2 - 25 0
2
Solve x + 4x – 5 < 0
4x2 - 25 = 0
x2 + 4x – 5= 0 (2x – 5)(2x + 5) = 0
(x – 1)(x + 5) = 0 x= x=-
x = 1 x = -5

4x2 - 25 0
x2 + 4x – 5 < 0

-5 < x < 1 x - or x
which can be written as which can be written as
{x : x > -5 } {x : x <1 } {x : x - } {x : x }

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6 GRAPHS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS

y = mx + c
the line intercepts the y axis at (0, c)
Gradient =

Positive gradient Negative gradient

Finding the equation of a line with gradient m through point (x1,y1)

Use the equation (y – y1) = m(x – x1)
If necessary rearrange to the required form (ax + by = c or y = mx – c)

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

y = m1x + c1 y = m2x + c2
If m1 = m2 then the lines are PARALLEL
If m1 × m2 = -1 then the lines are PERPENDICULAR

Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y – 2x = 7 passing

through point (4, -6)

Gradient of y – 2x = 7 is 2 (y = 2x + 7)
Gradient of the perpendicular line = - ½ (2 × -½ = -1)

Equation of the line with gradient –½ passing through (4, -6)

(y + 6) = -½(x – 4)
2y + 12 = 4 – x
x + 2y = - 8

Finding mid-point of the line segment joining (a,b) and (c,d)

Mid-point = ,

Calculating the length of a line segment joining (a,b) and (c,d)

Length = ( ) +( )

7 CIRCLES
A circle with centre (0,0) and radius r has the equations x2 + y2 = r2
A circle with centre (a,b) and radius r is given by (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2

Finding the centre and the radius (completing the square for x and y)
Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 2x – 4y – 4 = 0
x2 + 2x + y2 – 4y – 4 = 0
(x + 1)2 – 1 + (y – 2)2 – 4 – 4 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 32
Centre ( -1, 2) Radius = 3

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The following circle properties might be useful
Angle in a semi-circle The perpendicular from the centre The tangent to a circle is
is a right angle to a chord bisects the chord perpendicular to the radius

Finding the equation of a tangent to a circle at point (a,b)

The gradient of the tangent at (a,b) is perpendicular to the gradient of the radius which meets the
circumference at (a, b)
Find equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 - 2x - 2y – 23 = 0 at the point (5,4)
(x - 1)2 + (y – 1)2 – 25 = 0
Centre of the circle (1,1)

Gradient of radius = = Gradient of tangent = -

Equation of the tangent (y – 4) = - (x – 5) 3y – 12 = 20 - 4x

4x + 3y = 32

Lines and circles Solving simultaneously to investigate the relationship between a line and a circle
will result in a quadratic equation.

Use the discriminant to determine the relationship between the line and the circle

b2 – 4ac > 0 b2 – 4ac = 0 (tangent) b2 – 4ac < 0

8 TRIGONOMETRY

You need to learn ALL of the following

Exact Values

sin 45° = sin 30° = sin 60° =

2
cos 45° = cos 30° = cos 60° =
3
tan 45° = 1 tan 30° = tan 60° = 3

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 Cosine Rule a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc Cos A

Sine Rule = =

Area of a triangle

Identities
sin2x + cos2x = 1 tan x =

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

y = sin y = cos y =tan

Solve the equation sin2 2 + cos 2 + 1 = 0 0° 360°

(1 – cos2 2

cos2 2 – –2=0

(cos 2 –

cos 2 (no solutions)

cos 2 -1

9 POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is an expression which can be written in the form + + ……
when a,b, c are constants and n is a positive integer.
The ORDER of the polynomial is the highest power of x in the polynomial

Algebraic Division
Polynomials can be divided to give a Quotient and Remainder

Divide x3 – x2 + x + 15 by x + 2

x2 -3x +7 Quotient
3
x +2 x - x2 +x + 15
x3 + 2x2
-3x2 +x
-3x2 -6x
7x + 15
7x + 14
1
Remainder

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 Factor Theorem
The factor theorem states that if (x – a) is a factor of f(x) then f(a) = 0

Show that (x – 3) is a factor of x3 -19x + 30 = 0

f(x) = x3 – 19x + 30
f(3) = 33 - 19×3 + 30
=0
f(3) = 0 so (x – 3) is a factor

Sketching graphs of polynomial functions

To sketch a polynomial
Identify where the graph crosses the y-axis (x = 0)
Identify the where the graph crosses the x-axis, the roots of the equation y = 0
Identify the general shape by considering the ORDER of the polynomial

y= + + ……

n is even n is odd
Positive a > 0 Negative a < 0 Positive a > 0 Negative a < 0

10 GRAPHS AND TRANSFORMATIONS

3 graphs to recognise

= = =

Asymptote x = 0
Asymptotes x= 0 and y = 0

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 TRANSLATION
The graph of y = x2 - 1 is translated
To find the equation of a graph after a translation of
3
replace x with (x - a) and replace y with (y – b) by vector . Write down the
2
equation of the new graph
In function notation
(y + 2) = (x – 3)2 -1
y = f(x) is transformed to y = f(x -a) + b
y = x2 - 6x + 6

REFLECTION
To reflect in the x-axis replace y with -y (y = -f(x))

To reflect in the y- axis replace x with -x (y = f(-x))

STRETCHING
To stretch with scale factor k in the x direction (parallel to the x-axis) replace x with x y = f( x)

To stretch with scale factor k in the y direction (parallel to the y-axis) replace y with y y = kf(x)

Describe a stretch that will transform y = x2 + x – 1 to the graph y = 4x2 + 2x - 1

y = (2x)2 + (2x) – 1

x has been replaced by 2x which is a stretch of scale factor ½ parallel to the x-axis

11 BINOMIAL EXPANSIONS

Permutations and Combinations

The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects in a line is n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2)….3 × 2 × 1
!
The number of ways of arranging a selection of r object from n is nPr = ( )!
!
The number of ways of picking r objects from n is nCr = !( )!

A committee comprising of 3 males and 3 females is to be selected from a group of 5 male and 7
female members of a club. How many different selections are possible?

! !
Female Selection 7C3 = = 35 ways Male Selection 5C3 = = 10 ways
! ! ! !

Total number of different selections = 35 × 10 = 350

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 Expansion of ( + )
( 1) ( 1)( 2)
(1 + ) = 1 + + + …………+ +
1×2 1×2×3

Use the binomial expansion to write down the first four terms of (1 - 2x)8
8×7 8×7×6
(1 2 ) = 1+8×( 2 )+ ( 2 ) + ( 2 )
1×2 1×2×3
= 1 16 + 112 448

Expansion of ( + )

( 1) ( 1)( 2)
( + ) = + + + …………+ +
1×2 1×2×3
Find the coefficient of the x3 term in the expansion of (2 + 3x)9

(3x)3 must have 26 as part of the coefficient (3 + 6 = 9)

× ×
× ×
× 2 × (3 ) = 145152 (x3)

12 DIFFERENTIATION
The gradient is denoted by if y is given as a function of x
The gradient is denoted by f’(x) is the function is given as f(x)

= = = = = =0

Using Differentiation

Tangents and Normals

The gradient of a curve at a given point = gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point
The gradient of the normal is perpendicular to the gradient of the tangent that point

Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 8x – x2 at the point (2,12)

=8 2 Gradient of tangent at (2,12) = 8 – 4 = 4

Gradient of the normal = - ¼ (y - 12) = -¼ (x – 2)

4y + x = 50

Stationary (Turning) Points

The points where = 0 are stationary points (turning points/points of inflection) of a graph
The nature of the turning points can be found by:

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 Calculating the gradient close to the point

Maximum point Minimum Point

>0
<0

=0

=0

>0 <0

Find and determine the nature of the turning points

Differentiating (again) to find or f’’(x)
of the curve y = 2x3 - 3x2 + 18

Maximum if <0 =6 6 = 0 at a turning point

6x(x - 1) = 0 Turning points at (0, 18) and (1,17)

Minimum if >0
= 12x – 6 x = 0 < 0 (0,18) is a maximum

x=1 > 0 (1,17) is a minimum

Differentiation from first principles

As h approaches zero the gradient of the chord gets
closer to being the gradient of the tangent at the point
( ) ( )
( ) = lim
(x+h,f(x+h))
Find from first principles the derivative of x3 – 2x + 3
( ) ( )
(x,f(x)) ( ) = lim
( ) ( ) –
h = lim
)
= lim

= lim
= lim (3 +3 + 2)
=3 2

13 INTEGRATION
Integration is the reverse of differentiation
= + (c is the constant of integration)

Given that f’(x) = 8x3 – 6x and that f(2) = 9, find f(x)

f(x) = 8 6 =2 3 +

f(2) = 9 2×24 - 3×22 + c = 9

20 + c = 9
c = -11
f(x) = 2 3 11 www.mathsbox.org.uk
 AREA UNDER A GRAPH
The area under the graph of y = f(x) bounded by x = a, x = b and the x-axis is found by evaluating the
definite integral ( )

Calculate the area under the graph y = 4x – x3 between x = 0 and x = 2

4
2

= 2
0
4

= (8 4) (0 0)
= 4

For an area below the x-axis the integral will

have a negative value

14 VECTORS
A vector has two properties magnitude (size) and direction

NOTATION
Vectors can be written as
3
a=
4
j
a = 3i + 4j where i and j perpendicular vectors both with magnitude 1 i

Magnitude-direction form (5, 53.1 ) also known as polar form

The direction is the angle the vector makes with the positive x axis
Express the vector p = 3i – 6j in polar form

|p| = 3 + ( 6)

=3 5

p = ( 3 5, 63.4 )

The Magnitude of vector a is denoted by |a| and can be found using Pythagoras |a| = 3 + 4
A Unit Vector is a vector which has magnitude 1

A position vector is a vector that starts at the origin (it has a fixed position)

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 2
= 2 +4
4

ARITHMETIC WITH VECTORS

Multiplying by a scalar (number)
3
a = 3i + 2j
2
3 6
2a = 2 = 6i + 4j
2 4
a and 2a are parallel vectors
Multiplying by -1 reverses the direction of the vector

Addition of vectors Subtraction of vectors

2 3 2 3
a = b = a = b =
3 1 3 1

2 3 5 2 3 1
a+b = + = a-b = - =
3 1 4 3 1 2
resultant This is really a + -b

A and B have the coordinates (1,5) and (-2,4).

a) Write down the position vectors of A and B

1 2
= =
5 4

b) Write down the vector of the line segment joining A to B

= +
2 1 3
= =
4 5 1

15 LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS y = a-x y = ax

A function of the form y = ax is an exponential function

The graph of y = ax is positive for all values of x

and passes through (0,1)

A logarithm is the inverse of an exponential function

y = ax x = loga y

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Logarithms – rules to learn

loga a = 1 loga 1 = 0 loga ax = x =x

loga m + loga n = loga mn loga m - loga n = loga kloga m = loga mk

Write the following in the form alog 2 where a is an integer 3log 2 + 2log 4 – ½log16
×
Method 1 : log 8 + log 16 – log 4 = log = log 32 = 5log 2

Method 2 : 3log 2 + 4log 2 – 2log 2 = 5log 2

An equation of the form ax = b can be solved by taking logs of both sides

The exponential function y = ex

Exponential Growth y = ex Exponential Decay y = e-x

The inverse of y = ex is the natural logarithm denoted by ln x Solve 2ex-2 = 6 leaving your
answer in exact form
=3
ln( ) = ln 3
2 = ln 3
= ln 3 + 2

The rate of growth/decay to find the ‘rate of change’ you need to differentiate to find the gradient
LEARN THIS The number of bacteria P in a culture is modelled by
P = 600 + 5e0.2t where t is the time in hours from the start of the
= = experiment. Calculate the rate of growth after 5 hours
.
P = 600 + 15e0.2t = 3

. ×
t=5 = 3

= 8.2 bacteria per hour

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 MODELLING CURVES
Exponential relationships can be changed to a linear form y = mx + c allowing the constants m and c
to be ‘estimated’ from a graph of plotted data
Plot log y against log x. n is the
y = Axn log y = log (Axn) log y = n log x + log A gradient of the line and log A is
y = mx + c the y axis intercept

y = Abx log y = log (Abx) log y = x log b + log A Plot log y against x. log b is the
y = mx + c gradient of the line and log A is
the y axis intercept

V and x are connected by the equation V = axb

The equation is reduced to linear form by taking logs

Gradient = 2
log V = b log x + log a
Intercept = 3
(y = mx + c) (log V plotted against log x)

From the graph b = 2

log a = 3 a = 103

16 PROOF
Notation If x = 3 then x2 = 9
x = 3 x2 = 9
x = 3 is a condition for x2 = 9

x=3 x2 = 9 is not true as x could = - 3

x+1=3 x=2

Useful expressions 2n (an even number) 2n + 1 (an odd number)

Prove that the difference between the squares of Find a counter example for the statement
any consecutive even numbers is a multiple of 4 ‘2n + 4 is a multiple of 4’
Consecutive even numbers 2n, 2n + 2 n = 2 4 + 4 = 8 a multiple of 4
(2n + 2)2 – (2n)2 n = 3 6 + 4 = 10 NOT a multiple of 4
4n2 + 8n + 4 – 4n2
=8n + 4
=4(2n +1) a multiple of 4

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