Chapter 2: Structure of Atom – Detailed

Explanation
1. Introduction to Atomic Structure
 Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain chemical properties.
 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808) proposed that:
o Atoms are indivisible (later disproven).
o Atoms of the same element are identical (later disproven due to isotopes).
o Chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms.

EXTRA NEET POINTS:

✅ Modern atomic models replaced Dalton’s theory.

✅ Atoms contain subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons).

2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles

A. Discovery of Electron (J.J. Thomson’s Experiment - 1897)

 Cathode Ray Tube Experiment:

o A vacuum tube with metal plates at both ends was used.
o High voltage was applied → emitted cathode rays (negatively charged).
o Rays were deflected by electric & magnetic fields → proved electrons exist.
o Charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of electron = 1.76×1011C/kg1.76 \times 10^{11}
C/kg1.76×1011C/kg

B. Discovery of Proton (Goldstein - 1886)

 Canal rays (positive rays) were observed in a modified cathode ray tube.
 Protons were discovered and had a charge of +1.602×10−19C+1.602 \times 10^{-19}
C+1.602×10−19C.

C. Discovery of Neutron (James Chadwick - 1932)

 Bombarded beryllium with alpha particles → neutral particles were detected.

 Neutrons had a mass slightly higher than protons but no charge.
EXTRA NEET POINTS:

✅ Electron: Negative, mass 9.109×10−31kg9.109 \times 10^{-31} kg9.109×10−31kg.

✅ Proton: Positive, mass 1.672×10−27kg1.672 \times 10^{-27} kg1.672×10−27kg.
✅ Neutron: Neutral, mass 1.675×10−27kg1.675 \times 10^{-27} kg1.675×10−27kg.

3. Atomic Models
A. Thomson’s Model (Plum Pudding Model - 1898)

 Positive sphere with electrons embedded inside like "raisins in a pudding".

 Failed because it could not explain atomic stability.

B. Rutherford’s Model (Gold Foil Experiment - 1911)

 Alpha particles (He²⁺) were bombarded on a thin gold foil.

 Observations:
o Most particles passed through → atoms are mostly empty space.
o Some were deflected → a small, dense nucleus is present.
o Very few bounced back → nucleus is positively charged.
 Conclusions:
o Atom has a nucleus with protons & neutrons inside.
o Electrons revolve around nucleus like planets in a solar system.

🚨 Limitations: Could not explain electron stability or atomic spectra.

C. Bohr’s Model (1913) – Major Improvement

 Postulates:
o Electrons revolve in fixed orbits (energy levels).
o Energy is quantized (En=−13.6n2eVE_n = - \frac{13.6}{n^2} eVEn=−n213.6
eV).
o Energy absorbed/emitted during electron transition → explains atomic spectra.
o Angular momentum quantization: mvr=nh2πmvr = \frac{nh}{2\pi}mvr=2πnh.

🚨 Limitations: Failed for multi-electron atoms & could not explain Zeeman & Stark effect.

EXTRA NEET POINTS:

✅ Nucleus size = 10−15m10^{-15} m10−15m, Atom size = 10−10m10^{-10} m10−10m.

✅ Rutherford’s model explained nucleus but not electron stability.
4. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
A. Dual Nature of Matter (De Broglie’s Hypothesis - 1924)

 Matter behaves as both wave and particle.

 De Broglie wavelength: λ=hmv\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}λ=mvh

B. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927)

 Exact position & momentum of an electron cannot be known simultaneously.

 Formula: Δx⋅Δp≥h4π\Delta x \cdot \Delta p \geq \frac{h}{4\pi}Δx⋅Δp≥4πh

🚨 Implication: Electrons exist in probability clouds (orbitals), not fixed paths.

C. Schrödinger’s Wave Equation (1926)

 Developed quantum mechanics to describe electron behavior.

 Gave rise to the concept of orbitals.

5. Quantum Numbers & Orbitals

A. Quantum Numbers (4 Types)

1. Principal (n): Energy level

2. Azimuthal (l): Orbital shape (s,p,d,fs, p, d, fs,p,d,f)
3. Magnetic (ml_ll): Orbital orientation
4. Spin (ms_ss): Electron spin (±1/2\pm 1/2±1/2)

B. Shapes of Orbitals

✅ s-orbital: Spherical
✅ p-orbital: Dumbbell
✅ d-orbital: Complex
✅ f-orbital: Very complex

6. Electron Configuration & Rules

✅ Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals in increasing energy order.
✅ Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
✅ Hund’s Rule: In a degenerate orbital, electrons occupy singly before pairing.

👉 Example: Electronic Configuration of Oxygen (O, Z=8):

1s22s22p41s^2 2s^2 2p^41s22s22p4

7. Atomic Spectra & Hydrogen Spectrum

A. Emission Spectrum

 When electrons jump to lower levels, light of specific wavelengths is emitted.

 Lyman Series (UVUVUV), Balmer Series (VisibleVisibleVisible), Paschen, Brackett,
Pfund (IRIRIR).
 Rydberg Formula: 1λ=RH(1n12−1n22)\frac{1}{\lambda} = R_H \left( \frac{1}{n_1^2}
- \frac{1}{n_2^2} \right)λ1=RH(n121−n221)

8. NEET-Specific Extra Points

✅ Spectral lines explain quantization of energy.
✅ Bohr’s model does NOT work for He, Li, Be.
✅ For hydrogen, energy gap decreases as nnn increases.
✅ Orbitals differ from orbits (fixed energy vs probability region).
Certainly! Here are some important questions from Chapter 2: Structure of Atom that are
likely to be significant for your CBSE exams, especially under the Chandigarh board. These
questions cover various formats, including multiple-choice, short answer, and long answer types.

1. Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs):

a) Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford’s α-particle
scattering experiment?

i) Most of the space in the atom is empty.

ii) The radius of the nucleus is about 10−1510^{-15}10−15 m.

iii) Electrons move in circular paths around the nucleus.

iv) The nucleus is positively charged.

Answer: iii) Electrons move in circular paths around the nucleus.

Explanation: Rutherford's experiment did not provide information about the exact paths of
electrons.

extramarks.com

b) The e/m ratio of an electron was determined by:

i) J.J. Thomson

ii) Ernest Rutherford

iii) James Chadwick

iv) Niels Bohr

Answer: i) J.J. Thomson

Explanation: J.J. Thomson conducted experiments to determine the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of
the electron.
vedantu.com

2. Short Answer Questions:

a) Name the subatomic particles of an atom.

Answer: The subatomic particles of an atom are:

 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons

Explanation: Protons are positively charged, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negatively
charged particles within an atom.

vedantu.com

b) State Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity.

Answer:

 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all
four quantum numbers.
 Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity: Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly as
far as possible before pairing up.

Explanation: These principles govern the arrangement of electrons in orbitals, ensuring the most
stable electron configuration.

aplustopper.com

3. Long Answer Questions:

a) Discuss the dual nature of matter as proposed by de Broglie. Calculate the de Broglie
wavelength of an electron moving with a velocity of 1.6×106 ms−11.6 \times 10^6 \, \
text{ms}^{-1}1.6×106ms−1.

Answer:

 Dual Nature of Matter: Louis de Broglie proposed that particles like electrons exhibit
both particle and wave-like properties. This concept is fundamental in quantum
mechanics.
 Calculation:

The de Broglie wavelength (λ\lambdaλ) is given by:

 λ=hmv\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}λ=mvh

Where:

h=6.626×10−34 Jsh = 6.626 \times 10^{-34} \, \text{Js}h=6.626×10−34Js (Planck's

constant)

m=9.109×10−31 kgm = 9.109 \times 10^{-31} \, \text{kg}m=9.109×10−31kg (mass of

electron)

v=1.6×106 ms−1v = 1.6 \times 10^6 \, \text{ms}^{-1}v=1.6×106ms−1 (velocity)

Substituting the values:

λ=6.626×10−349.109×10−31×1.6×106≈4.55×10−10 m\lambda = \frac{6.626 \times

10^{-34}}{9.109 \times 10^{-31} \times 1.6 \times 10^6} \approx 4.55 \times 10^{-
10} \, \text{m}λ=9.109×10−31×1.6×1066.626×10−34≈4.55×10−10m

Explanation: This wavelength is comparable to the dimensions of atoms, highlighting the

significance of wave-like behavior in subatomic particles.

aplustopper.com

b) Explain the significance of quantum numbers in determining the arrangement of

electrons in an atom.

Answer:

Quantum numbers describe the unique quantum state of an electron in an atom. They are:

 Principal Quantum Number (n): Indicates the main energy level or shell. It determines
the size and energy of the orbital.
 Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Defines the shape of the orbital (s, p, d, f) and is
dependent on nnn.
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml_ll): Specifies the orientation of the orbital in space
relative to the other orbitals.
 Spin Quantum Number (ms_ss): Represents the spin of the electron, which can be
either +½ or -½.

Explanation: Together, these quantum numbers provide a complete description of an electron's

position and energy within an atom, ensuring that no two electrons have the same set of all four
quantum numbers (Pauli's Exclusion Principle).

learncbse.in

4. Numerical Problems:
a) Calculate the number of electrons that together weigh one gram.

Answer:

The mass of a single electron (mem_eme) is approximately 9.109×10−28 g9.109 \times 10^{-28}
\, \text{g}9.109×10−28g.

Number of electrons (NNN) weighing 1 gram:

N=1 g9.109×10−28 g/electron≈1.098×1027 electronsN = \frac{1 \, \text{g}}{9.109 \times 10^{-

28} \, \text{g/electron}} \approx 1.098 \times 10^{27} \,
\text{electrons}N=9.109×10−28g/electron1g≈1.098×1027electrons

Explanation: This calculation illustrates the extremely small mass of individual electrons.

learncbse.in

b) An electron in a hydrogen atom transitions from energy level n=3n=3n=3 to n=2n=2n=2.

Calculate the wavelength of the emitted photon.

Answer:

The energy difference (ΔE\Delta EΔE) between two levels in a hydrogen atom is given by:

ΔE=−13.6(1nf2−1ni2) eV\Delta E = -13.6 \left( \frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2} \right) \, \

text{eV}ΔE=−13.6(nf21−ni21)eV

Where:

ni=3n_i = 3ni=3 (initial energy level)

nf=2n_f = 2nf=2 (final energy level)

Substituting the values:

ΔE=−13.6(122−132)=−13.6(14−19)=−13.6(536)≈−1.89 eV\Delta E = -13.6 \left( \frac{1}{2^2} -

\frac{1}{3^2} \right) = -13.6 \left( \frac{1}{4} - \frac{1}{9} \right) = -13.6 \left( \frac{5}{36} \
right) \approx -1.89 \, \text{eV}ΔE=−13.6(221−321)=−13.6(41−91)=−13.6(365)≈−1.89eV

Converting energy to wavelength using E=hcλE = \frac{hc}{\lambda}E=λhc:

λ=hcΔE\lambda = \frac{hc}{\Delta E}λ=ΔEhc