College of Social Sciences and Humanities’

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Handout to Course: Introduction to Climate

Course Code: GeES2013

Academic Year: 2024/25

Program: For regular BA degree students

Year/Semester: Year II/ Semester I

Instructor (by): Itabezaw M. (MA)

January, 2024/25
Haramaya University, Ethiopia.

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 Chapter One
1. Basic Concepts in Weather and Climate

Contents
1.1. The Concepts of Weather, Climate, Meteorology and Climatology
1.2. Elements and measurement of weather and climate
1.3. Controls of weather and climate
1.4. Weather and climate data

1.1 Concepts of Weather & Climate, Meteorology Climatology

Weather
 Is a word used to denote the state of the atmosphere (temperature, sunshine, rainfall, wind, cloud,
pressure etc) at a particular place for a short period of time.
 Is constantly changing- hourly, daily, and seasonally
 Is the instantaneous, quantitative and qualitative condition of the various elements of the atmosphere
for a short period of time.
 Is the condition we experience in the atmosphere in terms of temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind
direction & strength, sunshine, clouds, rainfall and humidity etc. that varies from day to day in specific
area.

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Climate

 Is described as an aggregate of weather conditions of an area over a long period of time.

 Is an aggregate of all the environmental conditions- heat, moisture, pressure and motion
 It considers the trends, fluctuation and variation of these conditions in time and space.
 The minimum period of time required to calculate the average weather (climate) is over 35 years.
The distinction between weather and climate is one of scale. Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere
at a local level usually on a time scale of minutes to months; while Climate is concerned with the long term
behavior of the atmosphere in a specific area. In the study of climate and weather, the same elements -
temperature, moisture, pressure and wind are used
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather describes conditions in the atmosphere at any time or short period of time. Weather conditions
can change suddenly. Today may be warm and sunny, tomorrow may be cool and cloudy. Weather
conditions include rain, snow, sleet, hail, fog, mist, sunshine, wind, temperature and thunderstorms.
Climate describes surface and atmospheric conditions over a longer time or over a large geographical area.
The climate of an area is concerned with the AVERAGE weather conditions which are taken over a year or
more. Climate changes slowly, usually over decades, centuries and thousands of years.
Weather and climate are related but they differ in the time scales of changes and their predictability.
They can be defined as follows.
Weather is the instantaneous state of the atmosphere around us. It consists of short-term variations over
minutes to days of variables such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure, cloudiness,
radiation, wind, and visibility. Due to the non-linear, chaotic nature of its governing equations, weather
predictability is limited to days.
Climate is the statistics of weather over a longer period. It can be thought of as the average weather that
varies slowly over periods of months, or longer. It does, however, also include other statistics such as
probabilities or frequencies of extreme events. Climate is potentially predictable if the forcing is known
because Earth’s average temperature is controlled by energy conservation. For climate, not only the state of
the atmosphere is important but also that of the ocean, ice, land surface, and biosphere.
In short: ‘Climate is what you expect. Weather is what you get.’

Meteorology
Meteorology: -Is a branch of physics, which concerned with weather. It deals with the whole physical
process that works in the atmosphere.
The science of meteorology is concerned with the following three areas: -
 Observation and measurement of atmospheric conditions.
 Measurement of chemical substances affecting climate.
 Analysis and prediction of weather and climate.

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Climatology: -
Is a branch of geography that studies about climate. It describes and explains the nature of climate, why it
differs from place to place, how it is related to other elements of natural environment and to human
activity. It identifies the main laws and principles of atmospheric conditions. Both meteorology and
climatology are highly interrelated fields of studies that deal with the atmosphere. In the study of both
climate (climatology) and weather (the science of meteorology) the study of atmosphere is used.
1.2 Elements and measurement of weather and climate
Element indicates a component or a constituent of something. The main elements of weather and climate
includes: -
 Temperature, sunshine duration in a day;
 Precipitation, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, cloud type;
 Wind speed and direction;
 Air pressure;
 Visibility etc
Based on their measurability, elements can conveniently be divided into three types. Namely: -measured
elements, derived elements and proxy elements
I. Measured elements – these are elements that can be measured directly by instruments either through
contact measurement or through remote sensing measurement. In the case of contact measurement,
instruments come in contact directly with the elements to be measured. In remote sensing measurement,
however, instruments are posted on a satellite or radar platform. Measured elements include temperature,
rainfall, wind speed and direction, air pressure etc.
Radiosonde- is an instrument used by meteorologists to take soundings (measurements) of the upper air. It
consists of devices that measure temperature, relative humidity and air pressure, combined with a radio
transmitter. The measuring instruments (thermometer, barometer and hydrometer) and the transmitter are
enclosed in a small, lightweight box carried aloft by a balloon filled with helium or hydrogen. In Ethiopia
Radiosondes are released from Debre Zeit.
Weather Balloon
Preparing for a launch in Antarctica, scientists plan to gather weather information from a radiosonde
transmitter attached to an expandable balloon. The radiosonde will continuously measure temperature,
humidity, and pressure, as well as signal its location. The balloon is filled with a light gas such as helium.
As the balloon rises, the gas will expand. At some point, the balloon will burst and a parachute will bring
the weather instrument back down to earth.
Rawinsanda- is a more sophisticated one which additionally measures wind speed and direction. The
transmitter automatically sends signals that indicate the condition of the atmosphere at various layers and
the received information is converted in to data.
Satellite observation – is also used to gather information about the atmosphere especially beyond 500 Km.
Remote sensing instruments are used (no direct contact with the atmosphere).
II. Derived elements –these elements are obtained by certain kind of calculation from the measured
elements. Example- Evaporation- although it is possible to measure evaporation directly, it can also be

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 derived from other measured elements like rainfall, temperature, wind speed and radiation by using
mathematical formula.
III. Proxy elements – are usually indicators of atmospheric condition, commonly used to infer past
climatic conditions. They include archeology evidences, historical records, tree rings. Example- the width
of a tree rings depends on conditions during the growing season. Therefore, by using the tree- ring analysis,
the variation of past climate can be determined.

1.3 Controls of Weather and climate

Both weather and climate differ from place to place and from time to time due to the variation in the
amount, intensity and areal distribution of various climate elements. The factors that cause for such
variation are termed as controls of climate and weather.
Some of the controls of climate and weather are: -
Latitude (angle of the sun) determines the length of day, the intensity and possible duration of sunlight
receive, the distance traveled by the sun’s rays through the atmosphere.
Altitude - has definite impact on temperature, pressure and precipitation,
The distribution of land and water, distance from major water bodies
Ocean currents-exercise cooling or warming effects on the margins of the land masses.
The great semi-permant high- and low-pressure cells determine direction and speed of wind flow.
The presence of deep valleys and basins.
The influence of vegetation and soils
Winds control the temperature and rainfall pattern of an area
Temperature controls the pressure pattern of an area.
1.4 Weather and climate data

Forecast and Measurement

 Weather forecasts are made by collecting data that describe the current state of the atmosphere (particularly
the temperature, humidity and wind) and using physically-based mathematical models (global circulation
models) to determine how the atmosphere is expected to change in the future.
 However, due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere perfect forecasts are impossible, and less accurate as
the range of the forecast increases.
 A general period of 30 years is taken to forecast climate of an area
 The time frame point of view weather forecasts is usually easier and more accurate than forecasts about
climate change.

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 How can we record metrological data?
Observation of elements of weather
1. Surface based observation: carried out at the specific sites on land or sea surfaces (meteorological station)
2. Upper air observation: carried out above ground level at a height of 15 to 25 km. It uses instruments like
rockets and air crafts
3. Satellite observation: as you know the moon is the only satellite on earth. But there are hundreds of
artificial or man-made satellites that consistently move around the earth. Among the satellites that are
sent to space, weather satellites are important one to get meteorological data.
Remote sensing instruments on weather satellite are now used to measure elements of weather plus O3
layer.

Other measures of elements of weather

 Hygrometers are special thermometers that measure humidity by calculating the amount of water vapor in
the air.
Rain gauges are containers that collect and measure rainfall or any other form of precipitation. Levels of
rainfall are measured in millimeters (mm).
Barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure. They may be either mercury or aneroid (vacuum)
barometers. Often they are attached to a pen that charts movements in pressure on a piece of paper. Unit of
measurement is in mbs.

 Sunshine recorders are used to measure sunshine. The sun's rays are focused through a magnifying glass
into a chart. The chart helps to show for how many hours the sun shines.
 Maximum and minimum thermometers measure the highest and lowest temperature in degrees
Celsius.
 Wind vanes are used to show the direction of the wind.
 Anemometers are used to record the wind speed in km/h. An anemometer catches the wind in cups and
calculates the wind speed based on how fast it rotates.

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 Chapter Two
2. Basic Concepts of Atmosphere
Contents
2.1. Origin and Nature of the Atmosphere
2.2. Variation with Altitude, Latitude and Season
2.3. Composition and structure of the Atmosphere
2.4. Significance of the Atmosphere

2.1 The Origin, Evolution and Nature of the Atmosphere

2.1.1 Definition of the Atmosphere
An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a material body of sufficient mass that is held in place by
the gravity of the body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity is high and the
atmosphere's temperature is low.
• Atmosphere is a material that surrounds our planet earth.
• The thin envelope of gases surrounding the earth.
• Density decreases rapidly with height
• Air (atmosphere) is a mechanical mixture of gases and aerosols. That is, mixture of gases plus
suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosols)
• It affects all things found on earth in one way or another.
The earth's atmosphere, which contains oxygen used by most organisms for respiration and carbon dioxide
used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis, also protects living organisms from genetic
damage from solar ultraviolet radiation. Its current composition is the product of billions of years of
biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.
The term stellar atmosphere explains the outer region of a star, and typically includes the portion starting
from the opaque photosphere outwards. Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound
molecules in their outer atmosphere.
2.1.2 Evolution of Earth's atmosphere
Earliest atmosphere
The first atmosphere would have consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. In addition,
there would probably have been simple hydrides such as are now found in gas-giant planets like Jupiter
and Saturn, notably water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated these gases would
have escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.
Second atmosphere
The next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases, was produced by
outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth
by huge asteroids. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions were soon dissolved in water and built up
carbonate sediments.
Water-related sediments have been found dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion
years ago, nitrogen was the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to
be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, since hints of early life forms were to

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be found as early as 3.5 billion years ago. The fact that this is not perfectly in line with the 30% lower
solar radiance (compared to today) of the early Sun has been explained as the "faint young Sun paradox".
The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early
temperature record of the Earth with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago.
In the late Archean eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently from
photosynthesizing cyanobacteria which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago.
The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) is very much in line with what is found today,
suggesting that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle were established as early as 4 billion years
ago.
Third atmosphere
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the
atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did
not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its
appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations. Before this time, any oxygen produced
by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free
oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to
exceed the availability of reducing materials. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an
oxidizing atmosphere. O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the
end of the Precambrian. The following time span was the Phanerozoic eon, during which oxygen
breathing metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of
about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes
govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen.
Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence
reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon
dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in
the atmosphere is not known. Phases with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid
development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid
development of animals.
Currently, anthropogenic greenhouse gases are accumulating in the atmosphere, which is the main cause
of global warming.
The origin of our earth’s atmosphere is still subject to much speculation. The solar system is 4.6 billion
years old. As there are no human then, any explanations about the solar system are simply theories based
on the observation we make now. The more plausible explanations for the creation of atmosphere are
based on the studies of the solar system, the planets and their atmosphere. The theory which seems fairly
certain is the one that proposes that solar system originated 4.6 billion years ago formed from interstellar
clouds and solar nebula. Such clouds are common between the stars in our galaxy even today and
astronomers now identified them and think all stars, including the sun have formed from them. Evidence
from these clouds, especially cosmic gas suggests that first atmosphere probably consisted mainly of
Hydrogen (71%), helium (27%) as well as trace amounts of ammonia and methane. This is called
primordial atmosphere.

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However, the gaseous elements that comprised this original atmosphere of the earth under went much
evolution. In the early stage of planet formation from interstellar clouds, solar and gravitational effects
probably resulted in accretion of some gases and the subsequent escape of others. When the earth was
formed some 4.6 billion years ago, it was probably too hot to retain any of the atmospheres it had to begin
with. Hydrogen and helium escaped from the earth’s atmosphere. In addition, the lower gravitational force
of the earths is unable to retain light gases such as hydrogen and helium.
Continuous out gassing, a process that expelled gases and other materials from the earth’s interior, took
place 4.6 billion years ago by volcanism and plate tectonics.
Volcanoes particularly emitted water vapor and carbon dioxide with a little bit of nitrogen. It produced the
earth’s secondary atmosphere. The vast amounts of water vapor formed clouds, which in turn produced
rain. At this time, the surface temperature was cool enough for water vapor to condense in to water. Over
a period of thousands of years, the rain accumulated as rivers lakes, basins and oceans. These water
reservoirs acted as sinks for large amounts of carbon dioxide and through chemical process become locked
up in the sedimentary rocks such as limestone. The nitrogen, which is not chemically active continued to
accumulate in the atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is unique among the planets of the solar system
since 02 have been added in the atmosphere over time. Oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis. Early
plant life, for example, blue-green algae, 2 billion years ago began photosynthesis, converting water
molecules and carbon dioxide plus sunlight in to oxygen. Unlike other living organisms, these were
anaerobic that were able to respire without o2.How do we arrive at today’s atmosphere?
The gases of the present day atmosphere are not a direct residue of the earliest form of the planet; rather
they are the evolutionary product of
 Volcanic eruption
 Gravitational losses
 Contribution from biosphere, including human activities and industrial revolution
 Solar effects
 Chemical weathering (chemical breakdown of solid materials)
 Cooling down of the earth and condensation
These processes acting sequentially and simultaneously appear to have produced the delicate balance of
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and other trace gases we observe today. It is called oxidizing because of the
chemical reaction produced by oxygen. Evidences points to the stabilization of atmospheric composition
since Cambrain period, nearly 600 million years ago, till industrial revolution.
2.1.3 Nature of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspending solids or particulates (impurities) and liquids (water
vapor) that surrounds the earth like a blanket.
Atmosphere has the following characteristics: -
 Atmosphere has no color, odor or taste; it can’t be felt except when it is in motion; so, we cannot
see, smell or test air
 It is mobile and can be compressed or expanded
 It is transplant to short wave radiation but can absorb long wave (infrared) radiation
 It has weight and exerts pressure, since it can be compressed its decreases with altitude

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 2.2 Variation with Altitude, Latitude and Season
2.2.1 Variation of atmospheric Composition with Altitude
Which component parts of the atmosphere do you think show variation with altitude?
Some ingredients of the atmosphere like dust, water vapor and ozone vary with height. Most of the dust
particles and water vapor occur near the earth’s surface and, their amount decreases with increasing
altitude. Ozone is found in minute amounts near the surface of the earth. It is mainly concentrated between
15 and 50 km above the earth. The greatest concentrations of ozone are found between about 20 and 25
km, although this gas is usually formed at higher levels (30-60Km) and transported down wards. Water
vapor comprises up to 4 per cent of the atmosphere by volume near the surface, but only 3 to 6 ppmv
(parts per million by volume) above 10 to 12 km.
2.2.2 Variation of atmospheric composition with latitude and season: -
Water vapor and ozone are the atmospheric components which vary most with latitude and season.
Water Vapor: -the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is closely related to air temperature and
supply of water from the surface. Water vapor is therefore greatest in summer and in low latitudes with the
exception of tropical deserts.
Ozone: - in spring, ozone content of the atmosphere is low over the equator and high in sub polar
latitudes. This is due to the movement of ozone from its area of production at higher levels of the
atmosphere (30-40 Km) in low latitude towards low level (20-25 Km) in high latitude (sub polar region)
during winter months. At this time the ozone is stored during the long polar night giving rise under natural
conditions to an ozone- rich layer in early spring.
2.2.3 Variation of atmospheric composition with time
Due to the impact of biological and technological activities of people, the quantity of some gases, like
carbon dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons and Methane varies
through time.
Causes of variation
 Increasing industrialization and associated burning of fossil fuels: - the burning of coal, natural oil and
petroleum release carbon dioxide (CO2), add nitrogen or nitrogen oxide (NO2_) sulfur, carbon monoxide,
(CO) and methane (CH4) in to the atmosphere.
 Automobiles, air craft, use of chemical fertilizers can produce nitrous oxide (N20), Methane (CH4)
 Agricultural practices like land clearance, farming and cattle rearing can also contribute to modifying the
atmosphere composition.
Human induced changes in the concentration of atmosphere trace gases
Gas Concentration (1950) Concentration 1985)
Carbon dioxide 280ppmv 345ppmv
Methane 0.7 -1 ppmv 1.7ppmv
Nitrous oxide 280ppbv 305ppbv
CFC 11 0ppbv 0.24ppbv
CFC 12 0ppbv 0.4ppbv
Ozone ? 10 -50ppbv
Ppmv – Parts per millions by volume; Ppbv – Parts per billion by volume

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2.3 Composition of the atmosphere
2.3.1 Composition of Atmosphere
The components of atmosphere refer to the constituents of various gases, suspended solids and liquid
(water vapour). The components of the lower atmosphere can be classified as Permanent & Variable.
Permanent (constant) gases are relatively found in the same proportion but the variable ones are present in
different quantities at different time and place in the lower atmosphere
Gas Name Chemical Formula Percent Volume
Nitrogen N2 78.08%
Oxygen O2 20.95%
*Water H2O 0 to 4%
Argon Ar 0.93%
*Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0360%
Neon Ne 0.0018%
Helium He 0.0005%
*Methane CH4 0.00017%
Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
*Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003%
*Ozone O3 0.000004%
*Variable gases
Average Composition of the Atmosphere Up to an Altitude of 25 Km
% By
Gas volume Importance for weather & Climate Other function (Source)
Nitrogen 78.09 Needs for plant growth
Permanent Oxygen 20.95 Produced by photosynthesis,
reduced by deforestation.
Carbon dioxide 0.03 Absorbs long wave radiation from Used by plants for photo synthesis;
earth keeps temperature steady; Increased by burning fossil fuels
has greenhouse effect and by deforestation
Variable Water Vapor 0.2-4 Source of cloud formation& Can reach 4 %, can be stored as
Gases perception, reflects (absorbs) ice/snow
incoming radiation
Ozone 0.00006 Absorbs incoming UV- radiation Reduced / destroyed by
chlorofluorocarbon CFCs
Inert Gases Argon 0.93
(Inactive Helium, Neon, krypton Trace
gases)
Non Dust particles Trace Absorbs / reflects incoming Volcanic dust, meteoritic dust, soil
gaseous radiation, form condensation erosion by wind
nuclei necessary for cloud
formation
Pollutants Sulfur dioxide, Trace Affects radiation, causes acid rain From industry, power stations and
Nitrogen oxide, car exhausts
Methane, etc

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 2.3.2 Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided vertically into four major layers mainly on the basis of vertical temperature
variation as;
1. Troposphere 3. Mesosphere
2. Stratosphere 4. Thermosphere

1. Troposphere
The name is derived from the Greek word “tropos” meaning to turn or mix because it has a great deal of
vertical mixing due to solar heating at the surface (describes the layer’s convective and mixing
characteristics)
Major characteristics of the Troposphere: -
 The lowest layer which surrounds the earth like blanket
 Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude(6.4oc/1000m) or 1OCper 156m
 Contains 75% of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere (weather sphere)
 Most of the water vapour, cloud, and dust particles or aerosols are found in this layer.
 the layer is unstable
 All clouds and precipitation, as well as, violent storms, are formed in this layer.
 Its upper part is called the tropopause (there is no change of temperature with altitude-is constant)
 Its altitude varies from 16 km at the equator to 8 km at the poles.
 The transfer of heat (thermal convection) is greater near the equator than the poles due to the high receipt
of temperature from the sun and terrestrial radiation from the earth’s surface.

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 It is the thermal expansion of the atmosphere that causes the higher vertical extension of the troposphere
near the equator than the poles. At all latitudes the altitude of the troposphere is higher in summer than in
winter due to the atmospheric expansion of high temperature.
Why temperature decreases with increasing of altitude in the troposphere? The main reasons are:-
 The lower atmosphere in the troposphere is heated by terrestrial re-radiation that is heat rising from the
surface of the earth not directly from the sun. So, in the troposphere, the higher we go from the lower
atmosphere, the further we go from the source of(terrestrial) heat
 The density of the atmosphere (air) decreases with altitude.
2. Stratosphere
 The name is derived from the Latin ‘stratum’ meaning a layer – this describes its state of non -convective
nature.
 It extends upward from the tropopause to about 50km and accounts for about 10 per cent of the
atmospheric mass
 Temperature increases with altitude up to stratopause.
 Its upper part is called stratopause.
 Ozone gas is largely concentrated at about 30 km- called Ozonosphere
Can you suggest the reason why temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere? The reason for
the increased temperature in the stratosphere is that the atmosphere’s ozone is concentrated in this layer-
which absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun which is quite hazardous to life. Ozone serves as a heat
source through absorption of ultraviolet rays.
3. Mesosphere
 The name is derived from the Greek word ‘meso’ meaning ‘middle’.
 Extends upwards from a mean altitude of about 50 km to 80/85 km.
 Temperature falls rapidly with increasing altitude as there is no (or little) water vapour, dust or Ozone to
absorb the incoming radiation
 The top part (mesopause) has the lowest temperature close to-100 oc; this layer is the coldest zone of the
atmosphere.
 Has the strongest wind speed nearly 3000 km/hr.
 Pressure is very low due to the lower density of the atmospheric molecules.
 Is the darkest part of the atmosphere due to the scarcity of the air molecules to reflect or scatter radiation?
 Most meteorites which enter the mesosphere from space burn and disintegrate as they experience
increasing friction. Therefore, this layer has meteoritic dust particles.
4. Thermosphere- (Ionosphere & exosphere)
Extends upward from the mesopause and having no well-defined upper limit and temperature
continuously rise with increasing altitude throughout this layer. The increase of temperature in the
thermosphere is due to the reaction between ultra-violet radiation with atomic oxygen (O) and molecular
nitrogen (N2). These gases are abundant in the lower part of thermosphere (the ionosphere). Molecular
nitrogen (N2) and atomic oxygen (O) have the capacity to absorb the incoming very short ultra-violet
radiation (below 0.2 micro meters in wave length). When these gases absorb the rays of the sun, they lose
their electrons and the ionosphere becomes full of electrically charged particles. The loss of electrons from
an atom is called the ionization process. As these electrons move in the thermosphere, they cause an

13
 inversion of temperature. The electrons of the ionosphere are also used for communication because they
can reflect radio-waves back to the earth’s surface (known as ionospheric reflection of radio waves). In the
upper layer of the thermosphere (exosphere), negatively charged electrons increasingly separated from
neutron and proton atoms by high energy radiation from the sun. In the magnetosphere (the outer most
layer of the thermosphere) there are only electrons (negative) and protons (positive) derived from solar
wind-plasma of electrically conducting gas.
2.4 The Significance of atmosphere
Atmosphere acts as a great canopy /shelter/ to protect the earth’s surface from the strong sun radiation and
prevent excessive loss of heat by night.
 Atmosphere is also important to transmit sound from its source to our ears
 It protects the earth’s surface from the direct strike of meteors that reach in the thermosphere and
mesosphere burn from the heat generated by air friction.
 Without atmosphere: -
 Life would be impossible on earth and living things would be as helpless as fish without water
 We would not survive for more than a few minutes (oxygen)
 there could be no clouds, winds and rains
 The components of atmosphere (like ozone and atomic oxygen) filter (absorb) the harmful ultra violet
radiation of the sun.
Depletion of stratospheric Ozone (O3)
Ozone is a noxious or poisonous gas which is produced naturally by the combing of atomic oxygen (O)
with molecular oxygen (O2) by photochemical oxidants (the action of solar radiation on oxygen
molecules). That means in the upper atmosphere ozone involves photo-dissociation of normal oxygen. The
molecules are split in two pairs of separate single atoms by the impact of UV. These single atoms can
subsequently collide and combine with other normal oxygenO2 molecules to create ozone O3. It affects the
respiratory system of animals and humans and also reduces plant growth. One of the most important of
these reactions involves formation of single (atomic) oxygen by splitting either molecular oxygen (O 2) or
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This single oxygen then reacts with another molecule of oxygen (O 2) to make
ozone (O3). Most of the ozone is created (produced) over the equator and the tropics because this is where
solar radiation is strongest. However, winds within the stratosphere transport the ozone towards the Polar
Regions where it tends to concentrate.
O2+Uv O+O Photochemical dissociation
NO2+Uv NO+O
O2+O O3 Natural formation of Ozone.
Ozone in the upper atmosphere, however, is vital to life. This ozone forms by the action of ultraviolet light
from the Sun on molecules of ordinary oxygen. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation so that much
of it never reaches the ground. Certain industrial compounds cause ozone to break down, opening holes in
the ozone layer and exposing life on the ground to dangerous levels of ultraviolet radiation. A single atom
of chlorine, for example, floating about in the upper atmosphere, can destroy hundreds of thousands of
molecules of ozone because the chlorine acts as a catalyst and is not itself altered in the process
 As Ozone is created at the higher level of the atmosphere, it sinks down to the stratosphere. Stratospheric
Ozone provides a protective layer that serves a vital function. It absorbs the wave length of solar radiation
known as ultraviolet-B (Uv-B).Uv-B damages deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic molecule found
in every living cell; increasing the risk of such problem as cancer in humans. Without this shield,

14
organisms on the earth’s surface would be subjected to life threatening radiation burns and genetic
damage.

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 Chapter Three
3. Solar Radiation and Temperature

3.1 The nature and characteristics of Solar Radiation

3.2 Sources of earth’s energy and energy transfer processes
3.3 Reflection and scattering of solar radiation
3.4 Solar radiation/Isolation
3.4.1 The global and surface radiation budget
3.1 Solar
3.4.2 radiation:and
Variability Source and Methods
distribution of transfer
of isolation
3.4.3 Measures of sunshine and radiation
3.5 Temperature
3.5.1 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Temperature
3.5.2 Factors for variation of temperature
3.5.3 Measures of temperature
3.1 The3.5.4nature
Heating andCharacteristics
and cooling of Atmosphere, LandRadiation
of Solar mass, and Water body

The sun consists of mostly light gases-hydrogen & helium. The sun is a giant celestial furnace. Its core is
extremely hot, with a temperature estimated to be 15 million degree Celsius. The sun is generating its
heat through a process known as nuclear fusion by which two atoms of hydrogen fuse together to form
one atom of helium. This thermonuclear process (reaction) releases a tremendous amount of energy,
which is continually transmitted into space in a wave form called Electromagnetic waves- this is formed
due to the disturbance of the magnetic field of the earth. The earth receives less than 1/2,000,000,000 of
the total output of the solar energy. This small fraction amounts to about 6x10 27 calories per minute. It is
this radiant energy emitted from the sun, traveling at the speed of 300,000 kms/sec (speed of light) and
received by the earth what we call solar radiation/insolation- incoming solar radiation/. Heat energy is
commonly measured using a unit called calorie (cal). One calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of water by one degree-Celsius.
To better appreciate how the sun’s radiant energy interacts with the earth’s atmosphere and surface, we
must have a general understanding of the basic laws governing radiation or Principles of radiation.
 All objects emit radiation as long as their temperature is above absolute zero (zero Kelvin
or273oc)
 Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area than colder objects.
 When the temperature of the body increases, its emission potential also increases.
 Objects that are good absorbers (black objects) of radiation are good emitters as well.
 As substances get hotter; the wave length at which radiation is emitted will become shorter.
 (As the temperature of the body increase, the wave length decrease; the length of waves emitted
by a certain body is inversely related to the temperature of the body- the higher the temperature
of the body the shorter the wave length of the radiation emitted and vice versa).
This is called Wien’s displacement law which can be represented as:-

Km= a/T

16
 Km= is the wave length at which the peak radiation occurs in the spectrum.
T= absolute temperature of the body in kelvin.
a= a constant with a value of 2898 if Km is expressed in micrometers (1µm =0.000001m or10-6m).
E.g. Temperature of sun = 6000oK
a 2898
= =0 . 48≈ 0 . 5 μm ( micrometer
T 6000
Km= )
o o
Earth = 15 c+273= 288 k
a 2898
= =10 μm( 20 timeslongerthnathe max imumsizeorradiation
T 288

Km=
a 2898
= =12
T 250 μm
Atmosphere 250ok
The whole range of possible wave length from the smallest to the largest is known as electromagnetic
spectrum that includes.
 Cosmic rays = very strong ( wave length less than gamma)
μm
 Gamma rays = up to 0.0001
μm
 X-rays = 0.0001 –slightly grater than 0.01
μm
 UV-rays= 0.01 to >0.1
¿ μm
 Visible light = 0.4 – 0.7
μm
 Infrared radiation= 0.7 to slightly greater than 100
μm
 Micro wave= 100 -100 mm
 Short radio wave =100mm-100m
 Standard Radio broad casts= 100 m-1000m
 Long radio wave = 1000 m-10,000m.
The visible radiation has seven different colors from the smallest violent (0.4) to largest red (0.7)
asVIBGYOR= Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, yellow, Orange, Red
3.2 Sources of Earth’s Energy and Energy Transfer Processes
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred by three processes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the
transfer of heat along a solid object; it is this process that makes the handle of a poker hot, even if only
the tip is in the fireplace. Convection transfers heat through the exchange of hot and cold molecules; this
is the process through which water in a kettle becomes uniformly hot even though only the bottom of the
kettle contacts the flame. Radiation is the transfer of heat via electromagnetic (usually infrared)
radiation; this is the principal mechanism through which a fireplace warms a room. Radiation and
convection are important to the movement of energy through the Sun.

17
 Heat can be transferred either by radiation, conduction or convection.
1) Radiation
 The only mechanism in which heat can travel through the relative emptiness of space in a wave
form-without the aid of an intervening medium.
 The vast majority of energy coming to and leaving the earth is in this form.
 It plays an important role in transferring heat from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere and vice
versa.
2) Conduction
 is the transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity. The energy of molecules is
transferred through collisions from one molecule to another, with the heat flowing from the
higher temperature to the lower temperature. The principle is that when two molecules of unequal
temperature are in contact with one another, heat passes from the warmer to the cooler until they
attain the same temperature.
 heat transmission through a medium by contact of the minute particles of which the medium is
composed.
 is more common in objects of solid state.
 It is only important between the earth’s surface and the air directly in contact with the surface.
 As a means of heat transfer for the atmosphere as a whole, it is the least significant.
3. Convection
 It is the transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or substance from one place to another (heat
transmission by the actual motion of the heated body or the transfer of heat by the mass
movement of a fluid like water and air).
 It can only take place in liquids and gases (because they can move freely).
 Convection motions in the atmosphere are responsible for the redistribution of heat from
equatorial regions to the poles and from the surface upwards.
 Advection- horizontal motions such as winds, ocean currents.
 Convection - vertical motion in the atmosphere.
One crude, but commonly used analogy summaries the mechanisms of heat transfer. Consider that an
object is given to the first person in the line:-.
 The first person may simply throw the object to the last person, with no one involved that would be
radiation.
 The first person may pass it along from one person to the next which would be conduction, or
 The person may himself walk over and hand it to the last person, which would be convection.

18
3.3 Reflection and scattering of solar radiation
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy the Earth receives from the Sun. The Earth also emits radiation
back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation
is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.
3.3.1 Scattering
When light passes through our atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does
not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look
directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on
an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all
been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue)
wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are
seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the
Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been
scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
3.3.2 Absorption
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all
wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm.
When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. We can think of this as
heating the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low opacity,
allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm
(ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at
roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio

19
windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio
window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven-meter waves.
3.3.3 Emission
Emission is the opposite of absorption; it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts
and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body" emission curves, consequently hotter
objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with
longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F), its radiation
peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. The Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so
its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans. Because of its
temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights the Earth's surface
cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters
of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the
atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum.
Common examples of these are CO2 and H2O.
3.3.4 Refractive index
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index
can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some
circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is
refracted in the same direction as the curvature of the Earth's surface. The refractive index of air depends
on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of
such effects is the mirage.
3.4. Solar radiation/Isolation
3.4.1. The Global and Surface radiation budget
Much of the incoming radiation does not reach on the earth’s surface. It is absorbed, reflected or
scattered as it passes through the atmosphere:-
Absorption - Absorption of insolation is manly by ozone, water vapour, carbon dioxide, particles of ice
and dust.
Reflection – clouds and to a lesser extent, the earth’s surfaces reflect considerable amounts of radiation
back in to space. The ratio between incoming radiation and the amount reflected, expressed as a
percentage, is known as the albedo (reflected radiation/incoming radiation x 100).
Scattering- occurs when the incoming radiation is diverted by molecules of gas. It takes place in all
direction and some will reach the earth’s surface as diffuse radiation.
The solar energy cascade
Source- Geography an integrated approach (P.169)

20
Global modification of incoming solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes
So far, we have described the distribution of solar radiation as if it were all available at the earth’s
surface. This is, of course, unrealistic because of the effect of the atmosphere on energy transfer,
atmosphere, cloud cover, latitude, land and sea, elevation and aspects and variation of free-air
temperature with height.
Effect of the atmosphere
Solar radiation is virtually all in the short-wavelength range, less than 4 μm (see Figure 3.1). About 18
per cent of the incoming energy is absorbed directly by ozone and water vapour. Ozone absorption is
concentrated in three solar spectral bands (0.20–0.31, 0.31–0.35 and 0.45–0.85 μm), while water vapour
absorbs to a lesser degree in several bands between 0.9 and 2.1 μm. Solar wavelengths shorter than 0.285
μm scarcely penetrate below 20 km altitude, whereas those >0.295 μm reach the surface. Thus the 3 mm
(equivalent) column of stratospheric ozone attenuates ultraviolet radiation almost entirely, except for a
partial window around 0.20 μm, where radiation reaches the lower stratosphere. About 30 per cent of
incoming solar radiation is immediately reflected back into space from the atmosphere, clouds and the
earth’s surface, leaving approximately 70 per cent to heat the earth and its atmosphere. The surface
absorbs almost half of the incoming energy available at the top of the atmosphere and re-radiates it
outward as long (infra-red) waves of greater than 3 μm (see Figure 3.1). Much of this reradiated long-
wave energy is then absorbed by the water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone in the atmosphere, the rest
escaping through atmospheric windows back into outer space, principally between 8 and 13 μm. This
retention of energy by the atmosphere is vital to most life forms, since otherwise the average temperature
of the earth’s surface would fall by some 40°C!
Effect of elevation and aspect
When we come down to the local scale, differences in the elevation of the land and its aspect (that is, the
direction that the surface faces) strongly control the amount of solar radiation received. High elevations
that have a much smaller mass of air above them receive considerably more direct solar radiation under
clear skies than do locations near sea-level due to the concentration of water vapour in the lower

21
troposphere. On average in middle latitudes the intensity of incident solar radiation increases by 5 to 15
per cent for each 1000 m increase in elevation in the lower troposphere. The difference between sites at
200 and 3000 m in the Alps, for instance, can amount to 70 W m–2 on cloudless summer days. However,
there is also a correspondingly greater net loss of terrestrial radiation at higher elevations because the low
density of the overlying air results in a smaller fraction of the outgoing radiation being absorbed. The
overall effect is invariably complicated by the greater cloudiness associated with most mountain ranges,
and it is therefore impossible to generalize from the limited data available. The effect of aspect and slope
angle on theoretical maximum solar radiation receipts at two locations in the northern hemisphere. The
general effect of latitude on insolation amounts is clearly shown, but it is also apparent that increasing
latitude causes a relatively greater radiation loss for north-facing slopes, as distinct from south-facing
ones.
The radiation intensity on a sloping surface (Is) is
Is = Io cos i
where i = the angle between the solar beam and a beam normal to the sloping surface.
Relief may also affect the quantity of insolation and the duration of direct sunlight when a mountain
barrier screens the sun from valley floors and sides at certain times of day. In many Alpine valleys,
settlement and cultivation are noticeably concentrated on southward-facing slopes (the adret or sunny
side), whereas northward slopes (ubac or shaded side) remain forested.
3.4.2. Variability and Distribution of Isolation
The sun is the earth’s prime source of energy. The earth receives energy as incoming short –wave solar
radiation (also referred to as insolation). It is this energy which controls our planet’s climate and weather
and which, when converted by photosynthesis in green plants, supports all forms of life.
The amount of incoming radiation received by the earth is determined by four astronomical factors
(assuming there is no atmosphere-because thicknesses of cloud covers, water vapour content, amount of
dust etc also affect the amount of incoming radiation) as:-
 The solar constant (solar output)
 Distance from the sun (the sun-earth distance)
 The altitude of the sun in the sky
 The length of night time & day time
1. The solar constant: -
The energy released from the sun varies from 1.95 Ca/Cm 2/minute to Ca/Cm2/minute due to sunspot
activity (dark region in the outer part of the sun- they are dark only in contrast to the photosphere
surrounding), but it is relatively constant; affects long term climate rather than short term weather.
The photosphere of the Sun appears here in false colors. Sunspots and other solar activity appear yellow,
although they would normally appear as dark spots. Sunspots are often larger than 32,000 km (20,000
mi) and appear in cycles of 11 years. Solar activity, including the appearance of sunspots, is associated
with changing magnetic fields on the Sun.
2. Distance from the sun: -The annually changing distance of the earth from the sun produces seasonal
variations in solar energy received by the earth. Owing to the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit around

22
 the sun, the receipt of solar energy on a surface normal to the beam is 7 per cent more on3 January at
the perihelion than on 4 July at the aphelion. In theory (that is, discounting the interposition of the
atmosphere and the difference in degree of conductivity between large land and sea masses), this
difference should produce an increase in the effective January world surface temperatures of about
4°C over those of July. It should also make northern winters warmer than those in the southern
hemisphere, and southern summers warmer than those in the northern hemisphere. In practice,
atmospheric heat circulation and the effects of continentality mask this global tendency, and the
actual seasonal contrast between the hemispheres is reversed. Moreover, the northern summer half-
year (21 March to 22 September) is five days longer than the austral summer (22 September to 21
March).
The intensity on a horizontal surface (Ih) is determined from:
Ih = I0 sin d
where I0 = the solar constant and d = the angle betweenthe surface and the solar beam.

3. Altitude of the sun in the sky: -

The altitude of the sun (i.e. the angle between its rays and a tangent to the earth’s surface at the point
of observation) also affects the amount of solar radiation received at the surface of the earth. The
greater the sun’s altitude, the more concentrated is the radiation intensity per unit area at the earth’s
surface and the shorter is the path length of the beam through the atmosphere, which decreases the
atmospheric absorption. There are, in addition, important variations with solar altitude of the
proportion of radiation reflected by the surface, particularly in the case of a water surface. The
principal factors that determine the sun’s
altitude is, of course, the latitude of the site, the time of day and the season. At the June solstice, the
sun’s altitude is a constant 231⁄2° throughout the day at the North Pole and the sun is directly
overhead at noon at the Tropic of Cancer (231⁄2°N). each bundle has twice the area to heat up at
60oN than on Equator, therefore temperatures are lower. Also, fewer atmospheres to pass through at
Equator, therefore less heat absorbed (reflected).

23
24
4. Length of day and night:-
The length of daylight also affects the amount of radiation that is received. Obviously, the longer the
time the sun shines the greater is the quantity of radiation that a given portion of the earth will
receive. At the equator, for example, the day length is close to 12 hours in all months, whereas at the
poles it varies between 0 and 24 hours from winter (polar night). To summer due to earth being tilted
at 23 ½0 ,pole ward of 66 ½ 0 N&S, there are several months with no insolation. Between 23 ½ 0 and
66 ½ 0N&S there is one radiation maximum and one minimum. Between 23 ½ 0 N and S there are
two radiation maxima (March 21stand September 23rd) and two minima (June 21st and December
22nd).

Example 1.Length of day time (Northern Hemisphere)

Latitude 00 100 200 400 600 900
Jan.15 12 11.35 11.02 9.37 6.38 0
June 15 12 12.42 13.20 15 18.49 >24

In the Northern Hemisphere, days become longer than nights starting from March 22 nd up to September
22nd; and nights are longer than days starting from September 24 th to March 20th.In the Southern
hemisphere, days become longer starting from September 24 th to March 20th; and nights are longer than
days starting from March 22nd to September 22nd.The North Pole and South Pole have six months of
sunshine and six months of darkness.
 North pole-sunshine-March 22nd- September 22nd
 South pole-sunshine-September 24th –March 20th.

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3.5. Air Temperature
3.5.1. Spatial and Temporal Variation of Temperature
Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is commonly measured in Celsius or
Fahrenheit. Temperature is a very important factor in determining the weather, because it influences
other elements of the weather
Incoming solar radiation is converted in to heat energy when it reaches the earth’s surface. As the
ground warms, it radiates energy back into the atmosphere where 94 percent is absorbed (only 6% is lost
to space) mainly by water vapour and carbon dioxide ( the green house effect).This out going
(terrestrial) radiation is long-wave or infra-red radiation.
Air temperature is referring to the motion of air molecules. The ultimate source of energy that sets the
air molecules into motion is the energy we get from the sun-the radiant energy. Most of the direct heat
that warms the atmosphere, especially the lowest layer of the atmosphere, comes not from the sun but
from the earth’s surface.
There is a positive heat balance with in the tropics (between 35 oS and 40oN) and a negative heat balance
both at high latitudes and high altitudes, so two major transfers of take place to prevent the tropical areas
from overheating and polar areas from over cooling.
1. Horizontal heat transfers: - to prevent the equator from becoming increasingly hot and the poles
becoming colder, heat transferred away from the tropics. Winds (air movements including Jet streams,
hurricanes and depressions) are responsible for 80 percent of this heat transfer, and ocean currents for 20
percent.
2. Vertical heat transfers:-heat is transferred vertically through radiation, conduction, convection and
the transfer of latent heat, so that the earth’s surface does not get hotter and the atmosphere colder.
3.5.2. Factors for variation of temperature
Variations in the radiation (air temperature) balance occur due to a number of long term & short-term
factors.
 Temperature may be affected by:  Aspect
 Sunshine  Sea Proximity and Temperature
 Latitude  Ocean Currents
 Altitude
A. Long term factors: -
The effect of the atmosphere- while passing through the atmosphere a solar beam gets depleted
because of reflection, absorption and scattering
Sunshine
The amount of sunshine at a certain place can influence its temperature. The amount of sunshine can be
measured in sunshine hours. That is worked out by the number of hours of daylight and how many of
these are cloud free. Sunshine is variable due to daylight hours as during the night there is no sunshine

26
as the Earth is pointing away from the sun at the given spot. Also due to the Earth's tilt some times of the
year have more sunshine (summer) and some less (winter).
Height above sea level (Altitude) – Altitude is the height you are above sea level.
The atmosphere is not warmed directly by the sun but by heat radiated from the earth’s surface and
distributed by conduction and convention. The denser atmosphere at lower altitudes absorbs the heat as
it is released from the ground. At higher altitudes the air is thinner, so there is a rapid transfer of heat
through the air. The rate at which the temperature decreases with altitude is fairly constant at 6.5 oc per
1000 meters, or 1oc per 156 meters. This is known as the environmental lapse rate which refers to
temperature conditions existing in a stationary column of air at a given place.
There are three essential causes for the decrease in air temperature with increase in elevation:-
 The major source of heat for the air, especially the lowest layer of the atmosphere, is the earth.
With increasing distance from the source of heat, the air temperature decrease.
 The density of water vapour, the most important component of the atmosphere that absorbs much
of the terrestrial radiation decreases with elevation so that less heat can be held at higher
elevations.
 Temperature decreases result from expansion of air rising from the earth’s surface.
Latitude (Altitude of the sun and albedo)
Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator. The hottest temperatures on Earth are found near
the equator. This is because the sun shines directly on it for more hours during the year than anywhere
else. As you move further away from the equator towards the poles, less sun is received during the year
and the temperature becomes colder.
As the angle of the sun in the sky decreases:-
 The land area to be heated by a given ray and the depth of atmosphere through which that ray has
to pass increases.
 The amount of insolations loss through absorption, scattering and reflection is increased.
Places in lower latitudes, therefore, have higher temperatures than those in higher latitudes. Where the
beam meets the surface at right angles, the light is concentrated but where is meets the surface at an
oblique angle then the light is diffused.
In addition, the albedo is higher in Polar Regions because snow and ice are very reflective and low angle
sunlight is easily reflected from water surfaces.
Land and sea (Distance from the sea)
Land and sea differ in their ability to absorb, transfer and radiate heat energy. The sea (water) is capable
of absorbing heat down to a depth of 10 m as it is more transparent than land, and can then transfer this
heat to greater depths through the movement of waves and currents. During summer, the sea heats up
more slowly than the land. On cooling in winter, the reverse takes place and land surfaces lose heat
energy more rapidly than water. So, temperature variations are considerably greater overland than over

27
water. The oceans act as efficient ‘thermal reservoirs’. Coastal environments have a lower annual range
of temperature than location at the centre of continents.
Water does not heat as rapidly as a land surface because:-
 The water surface reflects a lot of light
 Land surfaces are opaque, so heat is absorbed only at the surface. Water, being more transparent,
allows heat to penetrate to a depth of many meters- so that a large volume is heated.
 The water is mobile with circulating currents which help to disperse the heat.
 Evaporation (a cooling process) from the water bodies is greater than that from land surfaces.
 The specific heat of water is greater than the specific heat of land surfaces. Therefore, it takes
more heat to warm it up. (The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 gram of the substance through 1Oc- expressed in kilo joules per kg per Oc)
Eg- specific heat capacity of
Water = 4.2 KJ/Kg 1OC (1 kilo calories), Soil = 2.1 KJ/Kg 1OC (0.5 kilo calories),
Sand = 0.84 KJ/Kg /1OC (0.2 kilo calories)
Prevailing Winds
The temperature of a wind is determined by the area where it originates and by characteristics of the
surface over which it subsequently blows. A wind blowing from the sea tends to be warmer in winter but
cooler in summer than the corresponding wind blowing from the land, winds blowing from polar areas
towards low latitudes have a cooling effect.
Ocean Currents
Currents are driven by the prevailing winds passing over the surface of the sea. Consequently, winds
blowing from tropical areas bring warm currents and vice versa. These are a major component in the
process of horizontal transfer of heat energy. Warm currents carry water pole wards and raise the air
temperature of maritime environments to where they flow. Cold currents carry water towards the
equator and so lower the temperature of coastal areas
B. Short term factors
Seasonal changes- at the spring and autumn equinoxes (21st March and 22nd September) when the sun is
directly over the equator, insolation is distributed equally between both hemispheres. At the summer and
winter solstices ( 21st June and 22nd December) when the sun is overhead at the tropics, the hemisphere
experiencing ‘summer’ will receive maximum insolation.
Length of day and night-insolation is only received during daylight hours and reaches its peak at noon.
A difference in the length of day light time causes a variation in the amount of temperature.
C. Local influences on insolation .
Aspect- Hillsides alter the angle at which the sun’s rays hit the ground. North-facing slopes, being in
shadow for most or all of the year, are cooler in the Northern hemisphere than those facing South. North

28
and South facing slopes are referred to as the ad ret and ubac respectively. The steeper the South facing
slope, the higher the angle of the sun’s rays and the higher the temperature in the Northern hemisphere.
Cloud cover- the presence of cloud reduces both incoming and outgoing radiation. The thicker the
cloud, the greater the amount of absorption, reflection and scattering of insolation and of terrestrial
radiation. Clouds may reduce day time temperatures, but they also act as an insulating blanket to retain
heat at night.
Nature of land surface-different land surfaces absorbs varying amounts of incoming solar energy,
which in turn cause variations in the temperature of the air above it.
These include soil types, vegetation cover etc.
Temperature Inversions:- As the study of the lapse rates has shown, the temperature normally
decreases with height, but there are certain conditions when this doesn't occur and the temperature rises
with height. This is called a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur when warm air
overlies colder air.
Major Temperature Inversions:- temperatures increase with height in two levels of the atmosphere , the
stratosphere and the thermosphere.
 The stratosphere contains the majority of the ozone in the atmosphere. As ozone absorbs
ultraviolet light from the solar radiation it becomes warm and so the temperatures in this level
rise with height.
 The rise in temperature in the thermosphere is due to the absorption of solar radiation by
molecular oxygen.
 Minor Temperature Inversions: temperature inversions can also occur in the troposphere, near
the ground and at high levels.
 High level inversions are found in depressions where the warm air is forced up over the cold air
as the warm front is undercut by the cold front.
 Low level/ ground inversions are normally found in anticyclonic conditions when there is a rapid
heat loss at night due to radiation or when warm air passes over a cold surface. These conditions
often lead to fog and frost may form in valley and hollows.
3.5.2 Air Temperature: Measurement and Recording
The temperature of the air may be recorded using a maximum and minimum thermometer. Mean (daily,
monthly & annual) temperature calculated based on the daily maximum & daily minimum temperature.
Mean daily temperature is the average of the maximum and minimum temperature for one day. Mean
monthly temperature is the average of the mean daily temperatures for all the days in a month. Daily
range of air temperature is the difference between the daily maximum and daily minimum temperature.
Annual range of air temperature is the difference between the highest and lowest mean monthly
temperatures. Large daily range is a typical feature of an arid region far from the influence of water
bodies. But it is small in coastal stations & polar areas because there is a moderating effect of winds

29
blowing from the adjacent ocean towards the coasts. As for polar areas the temperature is uniformly low
with minor fluctuations throughout the day. In the arid environments the day time high temperature and
the night time low temperature conditions result in the occurrence of high daily range.
3.5.3. Measures of temperature
Air Temperature Scales: -The common systems of scales or units in measuring air temperature are:-
 Fahrenheit (after Gabzel Fahrenheit),
 Celsius (after Andres Celsius) and o
C o
K o
F
 Kelvin Boiling point 100 373 212
O O 5 O O O O
C= ( F-32) /9 F= 9/5 ( C+32) K= C+273 Freezing point 0 273 32
O O O
= K-273 = 9/5 ( K-273) +32= 5/9 ( F-32) +273
3.5.4. Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere, Land mass, and Water Body
Temperature distribution is shown on a map by using isotherms, which are lines that connect places of
equal temperature. Since temperature do not fluctuate as much over water as over land, the North –South
migration of isotherms is greater over the continents than over the oceans.
In addition, it is clear that the isotherms in the southern hemisphere, where there is little land and the
oceans predominate, are much more regular than in the Northern hemisphere. Isotherms also reveal the
presence of ocean currents-warm currents cause isotherms to be deflected toward the pole, where as cold
currents cause an equator ward bending.
Causes of isotherm irregularity: -
 Contrast in heating between land and ocean at the same latitude.
 Ocean currents with contrasting temperature.
Another important control on the effect of incoming solar radiation stems from the different ways in
which land and sea are able to profit from it. Whereas water has a tendency to store the heat it receives,
land, in contrast, quickly returns it to the atmosphere. There are several reasons for this. A large
proportion of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere without heating the
earth’s surface. The proportion depends upon the type of surface. A sea surface reflects very little unless
the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays is large. The albedo for a calm water surface is only 2 to 3 per
cent for a solar elevation angle exceeding 60°, but is more than 50 per cent when the angle is 15°. For
land surfaces, the albedo is generally between 8 and 40 per cent of the incoming radiation. The figure for
forests is about 9 to18 per cent according to the type of tree and density of foliage, for grass
approximately 25 per cent, for cities 14 to 18 per cent, and for desert sand 30 per cent. Fresh snow may
reflect as much as 90 per cent of solar radiation, but snow cover on vegetated, especially forested,
surfaces is much less reflective (30 to 50 per cent). The long duration of snow cover on the northern
continents causes much of the incoming radiation in winter to spring to be reflected. However, the
global distribution of annual average surface albedo shows mainly the influence of the snow-covered
Arctic sea ice and Antarctic ice sheet

30
The global solar radiation absorbed at the surface is determined from measurements of radiation incident
on the surface and its albedo (a). It may be expressed as S(100 – a) where the albedo is a
percentage. A snow cover will absorb only about 15 per cent of the incident radiation, whereas for the
sea the figure generally exceeds 90 percent. The ability of the sea to absorb the heat received also
depends upon its transparency. As much as 20 per cent of the radiation penetrates as far down as 9 m (30
ft). However, the heat absorbed by the sea is carried down to considerable depths by the turbulent
mixing of water masses by the action of waves and currents.
The different heating qualities of land and water are also accounted for partly by their different specific
heats. The specific heat (c) of a substance can be represented by the number of thermal units required to
raise a unit mass of it through 1°C (4184 J kg–1 K–1). The specific heat of water is much greater than
for most other common substances, and water must absorb five times as much heat energy to raise its
temperature by the same amount as a comparable mass of dry soil. Thus for dry sand, c = 840 J kg–1
K1.
If unit volumes of water and soil are considered, the heat capacity, _c, of the water, where _ = density
(_c =4.18 _ 106 J m–3 K–1), exceeds that of the sand approximately threefold (_c = 1.3 _ 1.6 J m–3 K–
1) if the sand is dry and twofold if it is wet. When this water is cooled the situation is reversed, for then
a large quantity of heat is released. A metre-thick layer of sea water being cooled by as little as 0.1°C
will release enough heat to raise the temperature of an approximately 30 m thick air layer by 10°C. In
this way, the oceans act as a very effective reservoir for much of the world’s heat. Similarly, evaporation
of sea water causes large heat expenditure because a great amount of energy is needed to evaporate even
a small quantity of water.
The thermal role of the ocean is an important and complex one. The ocean comprises three thermal
layers:
1. A seasonal boundary, or upper mixed layer, lying above the thermocline. This is less than 100 m
deep in the tropics but is hundreds of meters deep in the subpolar seas. It is subject to annual
thermal mixing from the surface .
2. A warm water sphere or lower mixed layer. This underlies layer 1 and slowly exchanges heat
with it down to many hundreds of meters.
3. The deep ocean. This contains some 80 per cent of the total oceanic water volume and
exchanges heat with layer 1 in the polar seas.
These differences between land and sea help to produce what is termed continentality. Continentality
implies, first, that a land surface heats and cools much more quickly than that of an ocean. Over the
land, the lag between maximum (minimum) periods of radiation and the maximum (minimum) surface
temperature is only one month, but over the ocean and at coastal stations the lag is up to two months.
Second, the annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are greater in continental than in coastal locations.
The third effect of continentality results from the global distribution of the landmasses. The smaller
ocean area of the northern hemisphere causes the boreal summer to be warmer but its are winters colder
on average than the austral equivalents of the southern hemisphere (summer, 22.4°C versus 17.1°C;

31
winter, 8.1°C versus 9.7°C). Heat storage in the oceans causes them to be warmer in winter and cooler
in summer than land in the same latitude, although ocean currents give rise to some local departures
from this rule. The distribution of temperature anomalies for the latitude in January and July the
significance of continentality and the influence of the warm currents in the North Atlantic and the North
Pacific in winter.
Chapter Four
4. Atmospheric Circulations

4.1.1 The concept of air pressure

Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means
(with sea circulation) by which heat is distributed around the Earth. The large-scale structure of the
atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant as it
is determined by the Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator
and poles.

Air pressure in short can be defined as force of air per unit area (the force exerted by the weight of
the air per unit area as a result of gravity) or it is the force exerted by the gas molecules on a certain
area. For the atmosphere, the force is produced by the action of gravity on the mass of a column of
air above a unit area. At sea level, this force has weight of about 1 kg above each square centimeter
of surface (1 kg / cm2). In other words, the weight of air in a vertical column extending from the
upper limit of the atmosphere to the earth’s surface, although it varies in time and space, exerts a
pressure of about 1Kg/cm2. Pressure is measured in units known as millibars (mb) and the pressure
at sea level is 1013 mb or 760 mm (76 cm) or 29.9 inch. Pressure is proportional to density (altitude)
and temperature of air.

4.1.2 Vertical and Horizontal variation of air pressure

Pressure - altitude –Relationship (vertical)
Since air pressure is compressible and due to the action of gravity, gases are denser near the surface.
The lower layers of the atmosphere are the densest because the weight of the layers above rests on
top of them.
Air is compressible. The weight of overlaying air compresses the air beneath and increases the
pressure closer to the surface. Therefore, pressure decreases with height and the surface pressure
depends on the density and mass of the air above.

Alititude(m) Pressure(mb) Alititude(m) Pressure(mb)

32
 0 1013.2 5000 540.4
1000 898.8 8000 356.5
2000 795 10 000 265
3000 701.2 50 000 0.78
4000 616.6 100 000 0.0003
Horizontal pressure distribution

Let’s imagine a non-rotating Earth. In this case, the air at the poles would be cold and the air at the
equator would be hot. Since colder air is denser than warm air the pressure at the north pole would
be larger than at the equator. The air at the equator would rise and the air at the poles would sink. At
the surface, the air would f low from high to low pressure, thus from the poles to the equator. At
high altitudes the air would move from the equator to the poles. However, Earth does rotate, which
creates the Coriolis effect. Earth’s rotation causes a def lection of air and water masses towards the
right (left) in the northern (southern) hemisphere. The Coriolis force is a consequence of angular
momentum conservation.There is a temporal /seasonal and spatial / geographical variation of air
pressure due to the following factors.

 Differential heating that produces density contrasts (temperature)

 Redistribution of mass by the atmospheric circulation

 Differences in water vapour content in the atmosphere

 Differences in the force of gravity from latitude to latitude ( force of gravity is maximum at the

poles and minimum at the equator)

 Solar radiation and the gravitational pull of the sun & moon induce atmospheric tides and

regular variations of pressure with time

Origins for pressure

Thermal origins: - Pressure differences due to temperature contrasts. Areas of high air temperature
are regions of low atmospheric pressure and vice versa.

Dynamic origins: - Caused by gravity (result of rising and descending of air)

Generalization Warm/cold surface conditions often produce low/high pressure at the surface
respectively (thermal) Rising /descending air often produces low/high pressure at the surface

(dynamic 4.1.3 Global pressure belts

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The unequal heating of the earth and its atmosphere by the sun, because of revolution of the earth on
its tilted axis causes difference in pressure. There are three low pressure belts with alternate belts of
high pressure.

(a) Equatorial low pressure Due to the vertical rays of the sun the temperature here is high. The
heated air is light and hence rises forming an area of low pressure.

At 60 °N and 60 °S latitudes there is a sub-polar low-pressure belt due to the descending of air from
the polar region and the air from 30° North and South high-pressure belts blows towards it, forming
sub polar low- pressure belt above.

(b) High pressure belts (i) At 30 °N latitude and 30 °S latitude (ii) At the poles.

The rotation of the earth causes the air at the equator to swing towards the poles, part of the air on
the way cools and settles at 30°N and 30°S forming an area of sub-tropical pressure belts.

The poles are intensely cold; hence they are the areas of permanent high pressure. Winds from this
high-pressure belt blows towards 60 °N and 60 °S.

Winds always blow from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. From these major high pressure
belts winds blow towards the low-pressure belts giving rise to permanent (prevailing) winds, - trade
winds, Westerlies and polar winds.

Pressure system of the world

i. Sub-tropical high (300 N and S) –horse latitude
Cause – dynamic
Semi- permanent
ii. Asiatic high and low
Cause - thermal
Seasonal
iii. Temperate low or sub polar low (600Nand S)
Semi- permanent
Cause – dynamic
iv. Polar high (900N and S)
Cause - thermal
Permanent
v. Equatorial low (duldrum)
Cause - thermal
Permanent

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Atmospheric distribution is represented by isobars – lines connecting places having the same
atmospheric pressure at a given elevation. Where the isobars curve round to totally enclose an area
of low pressure, this is called a low or depression or cyclone. An elongated low without total
enclosure of the isobars is called a trough. Where the isobars enclose an area of high pressure it is
termed high or anticyclone. An elongated area of high pressure without total enclosure of isobars is
termed as a ridge or wedge.
However, Earth does rotate, which creates the Coriolis effect. Earth’s rotation causes a def lection of
air and water masses towards the right (left) in the northern (southern) hemisphere. The Coriolis
force is a consequence of angular momentum conservation. Assume an air parcel at rest at the
equator. (An analogy would be a spinning ice dancer with extended arms.) Its angular momentum is
M = R×U, where U = 40,000 km/day = 500 m/s is approximately the velocity of the Earth at the
equator. Now move the air northward. (The ice dancer pulls his/her arms in.) This will decrease R.
In order to conserve angular momentum U has to increase. If the air moved to about 60°N its
distance from the axis of rotation would have decreased by about one half. Therefore, U must have
doubled. Thus, the air parcel would have a velocity of 500 m/s relative to the Earth’s surface. Such
high speeds never occur on Earth because of friction and turbulence but this simple example still
explains qualitatively the high eastward wind velocities of around 40 m/s observed in the mid-
latitude jet streams.

35
Rising of warm moist air at the equator causes water vapor condensation due to cooling of the air
during the ascent. Clouds form and precipitation occurs. Some of the deepest cumulonimbus clouds
on Earth form in the tropics. They can reach the top of the troposphere or higher. The cool relatively
dry air then moves poleward. Now the Coriolis effect kicks in, deflects the air towards the right (left)
in the northern (southern) hemisphere, which creates the jet stream. The air cools by emitting
longwave radiation to space. This increases the density and the air descends back to the surface in
the subtropics (~30°N/S). During the descend the air warms and its relative humidity decreases. This
leads to dry conditions in the subtropics indicated by the major deserts at those latitudes.
Subsequently the dry air moves back towards the equator. The Coriolis force deflects it towards the
right (left) in the northern (southern) hemisphere, creating the easterly trade winds in the tropics.
During this movement along the sea surface the air picks up water vapor from evaporation. Once the
air returns to the equator it is saturated with water vapor (close to 100% relative humidity). The
resulting meridional overturning cells in the tropical atmosphere are called Hadley cells, or Hadley
circulation. Two cells, one in each hemisphere, exist only during the fall and spring, whereas during
summer/winter there is only one major cell with rising air just slightly off the equator in the summer
hemisphere, where the heating is largest.
The belt of rising air close to the equator is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), due to
the convergence of air along the surface. The ITCZ is further north in the northern hemisphere
summer and further south in the southern hemisphere summer, although on average it is slightly
north of the equator because the northern hemisphere is slightly warmer than the southern
hemisphere due to ocean heat transport from the southern to the northern hemisphere (Frierson et al.,
2013).

4.1.4 Measures of Air pressure

Air pressure is measured by an instrument called barometer. There are three types of barometers,
namely: Mercury barometer, Aneroid barometer and Barograph

Mercury barometer

It was developed by Evangelist Torricelli in 1643 (he was a student of the famous Italian scientist
Galileo). It comprises a column of mercury in a glass tube calibrated in to units. The air above the
tube exerts pressure on this mercury and its level varies accordingly. It is highly accurate and widely
used throughout the world.

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Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in) up a calibrated
or divided in to units’ glass tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is
less dense there, and the thinner air exerts less pressure on the mercury
Aneroid barometer
Is a small, compact instrument consisting of a metal box from which the air has been partly
removed. The box has a thin corrugated to which is flexible so that as the pressure rises or falls the
surface moves in or out. The movement and change in the surface of this box is recorded by means
of hand rotating against a celebrated dial. Aneroid barometer (without liquid) consists of partially
evacuated metal chambers that have a spring inside, keeping them from collapsing. The metal
chambers, being very sensitive to air pressure variations, change shape, compressing as the pressure
increases and expanding as the pressure decreases.

37
Aneroid barometer: In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum expands or contracts
in response to changes in air pressure. A series of levers and springs translates the up and down
movement of the drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometer's
face.
Barograph
It is related to the aneroid barometer connected to an arm and inked pen which records changes in
pressure continuously on a revolving drum. It is an automatic (continuous) recorder of air pressure.

4.2 Wind

4.2.1Causes of Air motion (wind

Wind is defined as air motion with respect to the earth’s surface. Wind movement is dominantly
horizontal and more or less parallel to the surface. Vertical movement ( air motion) is called current (
up drafts when the movement is upwards and down drafts when it is down wards). Wind is the result
of horizontal differences in air pressure. Air flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure. Since unequal heating of the earth’s surface generates pressure differences, solar radiation
is the ultimate driving force of wind. Wind as elements of weather and climate is important for the
transfer of heat and transport of moisture.

4.2.1 Forces Affecting Winds

If the earth did not rotate and of there were no friction, air would flow directly from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure. But since both of these factors exist, the direction and speed of
wind is controlled by the following combination of forces: -

 The pressure gradient force-caused by unequal heating

 Coriolis effect (force)- caused by rotation of the earth

 Frictional force- due to barriers

 Centripetal force-caused by circular pattern of isobars

Pressure gradient force.

The pressure-gradient force has vertical and horizontal components but, as already noted, the vertical
com- ponent is more or less in balance with the force of gravity. Horizontal differences in pressure

38
arise from thermal heating contrasts or mechanical causes such as mountain barriers and these
differences control the horizontal movement of an airmass. The horizontal pressure gradient serves
as the motivating force that causes air to move from areas of high pressure towards areas where it is
lower, although other forces prevent air from moving directly across the isobars (lines of equal
pressure).

The development of a horizontal pressure gradient is the primary driving force for all air motion.
This force results from a variation in pressure. Pressure gradient is defined as the rate of change in
atmospheric pressure between two points at the same elevation. Air always moves down along the
pressure gradient from higher to lower pressure ( or from high density to low density). Hence,
pressure gradient force is the force exerted on air by the difference in pressure between two points.
The magnitude of pressure gradient force and hence the speed of wind, is inversely proportional to
the distance between the isobars. This means that when isobars are spaced closely, they produce a
steep pressure gradient thus high-pressure gradient force and high-speed wind results. When isobars
are wide apart, they produce little gradient and slow-moving air. The pressure gradient is the driving
force of wind and it has both magnitude (is determined from the spacing of isobars) and direction
(from areas of higher to lower pressure) and at right angles to the isobars (but modified by Coriolis
effect).

Coriolis force (the Earth’s rotational Deflective force)

The Coriolis force (and other forces) are forces that alter either the direction or speed of wind.
Coriolis force is apparent force. Any object moving in the atmosphere, including wind (except over
the equator) travels along a curved path as observed from the rotating earth due to the rotation of the
earth. The associated force is therefore termed Coriolis force (named after Gaspard de Coriolis, a
French mathematician who first formalized the concept). Coriolis force is, therefore, defined as a
force experienced by any object moving over the surface of a rotating body like the Earth. Thus,
because of the Coriolis force, all wind flowing in the Northern hemisphere are accompanied by
deflection to the right from their path of motions and to the left in the Southern hemisphere. Coriolis
force is maximum at the poles and deceases as one moves towards the equator and eventually
becomes zero at the equator.

The pressure gradient force initiates the motion and immediately the Coriolis force commences its
defecting action. The two forces then come rapidly in to equilibrium and there will be a balanced

39
flow due to the two equal forces that act imposingly. The resulting balanced flow will be parallel to
the isobars. This flow is termed as geostrophic wind (flow). The geostrophic wind is the name given
to the resulting straight wind obtained by assuming that no frictional effects occur in the free
atmosphere ( i.e. above the level effected by surface friction at about 500-1000 meters ) .They travel
at higher speed than surface winds due to the lack of friction.

Ferrel’s law: the law that states that a body moving in any direction over the earth’s surface
tends to be deflected, due to the earth’s rotation, to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere; so, a wind that would blow from N to S, if the earth were
stationary becomes in the northern hemisphere NE.

Frictional / deceleration / force

Friction as a factor affecting wind is only important within the first few kilometers of the earth’s
surface. Most high wind speeds are most often observed over the oceans. This is because air moving
over land is subjected to a greater frictional drag, particularly if the surface is rough and irregular.
The layer of frictional influence is known as the planetary boundary layer (PBL). Atmospheric
profilers (lidar and radar) can routinely measure the temporal variability of PLB structure. Its depth
varies over land from a few hundred meters at night, when the air is stable as a result of nocturnal
surface cooling, to 1 to 2 km during afternoon convective conditions.
Exceptionally, over hot dry surfaces, convective mixing may extend to 4 to 5 km. Over the oceans, it
is more consistently near 1 km deep and in the tropics especially is often capped by an inversion due
to sinking air. The boundary layer is typically either stable or unstable.
Convergence or divergence may also occur as a result of frictional effects. Onshore winds undergo
convergence at low levels when the air slows down on crossing the coastline owing to the greater
friction over- land, whereas offshore winds accelerate and become divergent. Frictional differences
may also set up coastal convergence (or divergence) if the geostrophic wind is parallel to the
coastline with, for the northern hemi- sphere, land to the right (or left) of the air current viewed
downwind.
 Frictional force
 decelerate/ decreases / wind speed
 Alter wind direction

40
  Reduce the magnitude of Coriolis force

Figure Cross-section of the patterns of vertical motion associated with (mass) divergence and
convergence in the troposphere, illustrating mass continuity.
Centripetal force
Centripetal force affects wind flow particularly when the isobars are curved in their arrangement.
The term cyclone is used to refer an area of low pressure with inspiring (inward moving of wind) air.
In the northern hemisphere the in spiral will be counter clockwise, since the Coriolis deflection is to
the right, but the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere.
The term anti-cyclone, on other hand, is used to refer to the out spiral (out ward movement) of air
from high pressure centers. In the northern hemisphere the out spiral will be clock wise while in the
southern it will be counter clock wise. In a cyclone, winds converge spiraling inward and upward; in
anticyclone, winds diverge spiraling downward and out ward. When air flows around the center of
high or low pressure system, centripetal force comes into effect. In other words, for a body to follow
in a curved path there must be an inward acceleration towards the center of rotation.

Figure. Circulation patterns of high- and low-pressure systems in the North and South Hemisphere
The magnitude of centripetal force is generally small, but it becomes important where high velocity
winds are moving in a much-curved path. The effect of a centripetal acceleration is highly pronounced

41
near the equator. Wind system that is resulting from centripetal force is called cyclostrophic wind.
Example- Hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons.
Gradient wind – is formed as result of the combined effect of pressure gradient force, Coriolis
force, and centripetal force.

4.3 Types of winds

Winds can be classified either by their scale, the kinds of forces which cause them (according to the
atmospheric equations of motion), or the geographic regions in which they exist. There are global
winds, such as the wind belts which exist between the atmospheric circulation cells. There are
upper-level winds, such as the jet streams. There are synoptic-scale winds that results from
pressure differences in surface air masses in the middle latitudes, and there are winds that come
about as a consequence of geographic features such as the sea breeze. Mesoscale winds are those
which act on a local scale, such as gust fronts. At the smallest scale are the microscale winds which
blow on a scale of only tens to hundreds of meters and are essentially unpredictable, such as dust
devils and microbursts.

A. Prevailing Winds (planetary winds)

Prevailing winds are winds which come about as a consequence of global circulation patterns. These
include the trade winds, the Easterlies, and the jet streams. The uneven-heating of the Earth causes
the wind to blow.

1. Trade winds (North and South easterly winds)

 Are major wind systems of the tropics (between 250 N and S latitude)
 Are predominantly easterly- generally flow toward the west.
 Are consistent in both direction and speed
 The zone where air from both hemispheres meets is called the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone(ITCZ)
2. The Westerly’s
 found at the mid-latitudes beneath the Ferrell circulation cell
 flow from west to east between 300 and 600 both in North and South hemisphere
 polar front jet stream and sub tropical jet stream are high speed winds at high altitude in the
westerly’s
3. The polar Easterlies

42
  result from the out flow of the polar high, a permanent body of descending cold air which makes
up the pole ward end of the polar circulation cell.
 Are mostly cold and dry
 Occupies most of the area between the polar highs and 600 of latitude

Figure. Simplified global three-cell surface and upper air circulation patterns
B. Monson or Seasonal Winds
 The word monsoon is derived from Arabic “mawsim’ meaning season.
 Indicate the seasonal reversal of winds (sea to land during summer and land to sea during winter)
 Caused by unequal heating of continents and oceans
 More common in Southern and Eastern Asia(major system) and Australia and West Africa (minor
System)

C. Local winds that are tied to specific temperature distribution.

Some local winds blow only under certain circumstances, i.e. they require a certain temperature
distribution.
Synoptic Winds are winds associated with large-scale events such as warm and cold fronts, and are
part of what makes up everyday weather. These include the geotropic wind, the gradient wind, and
the cyclostrophic wind.

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1. Land and sea breezes
Differential heating is the motive force behind land breezes and sea breezes. Land is a rapid
absorber/radiator of heat, whereas water absorbs heat more slowly but also releases it over a greater
period of time. The result is that, in locations where sea and land meet, heat absorbed over the day
will be radiated more quickly by the land at night, cooling the air. Over the sea, heat is still being
released into the air at night, which rises. This convective motion draws the cool land air in to
replace the rising air, resulting in a land breeze in the late night and early morning. During the day,
the roles are reversed. Warm air over the land rises, pulling cool air in form the sea to replace it,
giving a sea breeze during the afternoon and evening.
The vertical expansion of the air column that occurs during daytime heating over the more rapidly
heated land tilts the isobaric surfaces downward at the coast, causing onshore winds at the surface
and a compensating offshore movement aloft. At night, the air over the sea is warmer and the
situation is reversed, although this reversal is also the effect of down-slope winds blowing off the
land.

Daytime development of sea breeze Night time development of land breeze

44
Figure. Diurnal land and sea breezes. (A) and (B) Sea breeze circu- lation and pressure distribution
in the early afternoon during anticyclonic weather. (C) and (D) Land breeze circulation and
pressure distribution at night during anticyclonic weather.
Source: (A) and (C) after Oke (1978).
2. Mountain breezes and valley breezes
Mountain breezes and valley breezes are due to a combination of differential heating and
geometry. When the sun rises, it is tops of the mountain peaks which receive first light, and as the
day progresses, the mountain slopes take on a greater heat load than the valleys. This result in a
temperature inequity between the two, and as warm air rises off the slopes, cool air moves up out of
the valleys to replace it. This upslope wind is called a valley breeze. The opposite effect takes place
in the afternoon, as the valley radiates heat. The peaks, along since cooled, transport air into the
valley in a process that is partly gravitational and partly convective and is called a mountain breeze.
At night, there is a reverse process as denser cold air at higher elevations drains into depressions and
valleys; this is known as a katabatic wind. If the air drains down- slope into an open valley, a
‘mountain wind’ develops more or less simultaneously along the axis of the valley. Because
katabatic refers specifically to the upward/vertical motion of the wind, this group also includes
winds which form on the lee side of mountains, and heat as a consequence of compression. The
opposite of a katabatic wind is an anabatic wind, or downward-moving wind. The above described
valley breeze is an anabatic wind.

45
Figure. Valley winds in an ideal V-shaped valley. (A) Section across the valley. The valley wind and anti-
valley wind are directed at right angles to the plane of the paper. The arrows show the slope and ridge wind
in the plane of the paper, the latter diverging (div.) into the anti-valley wind system. (B) Section running
along the centre of the valley and out on to the adjacent plain, illustrating the valley wind (below) and the
anti-valley wind (above).
Source: After Buettner and Thyer (1965).

Daytime development of valley breeze Night time development of mountain breeze

4.3 Air Masses & Fronts

4.3.1 Air Mass: - an air mass can be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties
especially temperature, moisture content and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for
hundreds of kilometers at a given altitude. The prime characteristics of air masses (i.e., the thermal
and moisture content) depend up on their source region. The source region that determines the

46
thermal behavior of an air mass is its latitudinal position. Hence based on the latitudinal position the
air mass can be generally divided in to tropical and polar air masses. The moisture content of an air
mass is determined by its underlying surface either by ocean or landmass. Thus based on the
underlying surfaces air masses are categorized either as maritime or continental respectively.

Air masses based on latitudinal positions (locations)

Air mass Symbol Source region Thermal behaviour

Arctic A Arctic ocean fringing lands Very cold
Antarctic AA Antarctic continent Very cold
Polar P Continents (50-600N),oceans (50-600N&S) Cold
Tropical T Continents and oceans (20-300N&S) Warm
Equatoril E Oceans close to equator Warm
N.B The arctic and Antarctic air masses are sometimes regarded as the extreme case of polar air
masses; while Equatorial air masses are the extreme case of tropical air masses.
Air masses based on underlying surfaces
Air mass Symbol Underlying surface Moisture content
Maritime M Ocean Moist
continenta C Land mass (continent) Dry
l
Additional: - In winter extremely cold & extremely dry air masses prevail over Arctic and
Antarctica (cA and cAA respectively). Air masses that develop over the oceans near the equator are
designate as maritime Equatorial (mE)
Classification: - using temperature (latitudinal position) and moisture content (underlying surface)
in combination, air masses of the world can be classified as: -

Characteristics
Symbol Air mass Source Region Temperature Moistur
0
Description C e
O
Arctic region > 70 N Very cold& -460C 0.1
cA Continental Arctic
dry(winter)
cAA Continental Antarctic Continent very cold & dry -460C 0.1
0
cP Continental
Antarctic Polar Northern Continental Interiors Cold,
dry(winter) dry -11 C 1.4

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 ( winter)
0
mP maritime Polar Mid latitude oceans (50-60 N Cold,moist 4 4.4
Continental &S) tropical desert (20-350 N & warm,
Sub Winterdry 24 11.0
cT
Tropical S)
Warm oceans in the tropics(20- warm, moist 24 17.0
mT maritime Tropical
350 N & S)
maritime Warm oceans in the Equatorial warm,Very moist 27 19.0
mE
Equatorial Zone( 100-N- 100 S)
Air mass modification
Air masses can be modified from either change deriving from the surface or at height
 Surface – evaporation /precipitation changes, moisture content and temperature by sequestration /
release of latent heat. Surface temperature can also affect an air mass through conduction
 Height- dynamical change from turbulence induced by vertical shear in the wind. Stability changes
can occur from surface modification

4.3.2 Fronts
A front is the transition zone between two air masses of different densities; fronts usually separate
air masses with contrasting temperatures and sometimes with different humidity’s. Depending upon
the behaviour of the advancing air mass, four different kinds of fronts are: -

Cold front: -forms when a cold air mass invades a region of warm air mass. The cold air forces the
warm air to rise over it along the steep gradient- that causes for the formation of cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds producing rain showers and thunderstorms

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Warm front: Forms when warm air is moving into a regain of colder air and rides up over the cold
air. Commonly represents stable atmospheric conditions

Occluded front: Results when two cool air

masses merge, forcing the warmer air between them to rise. High clouds and heavy precipitation
usually are associated with a type of front.

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Stationary front: Results when either a warm front or a cold front stop moving forward. Weather
associated with a stationary front includes sluggish winds and Precipitation across the entire
frontal region.
Summary
Air motion is described by its horizontal and vertical components; the latter are much smaller than
the horizontal velocities. Horizontal motions compensate for vertical imbalances between
gravitational acceleration and the vertical pressure gradient.
The horizontal pressure gradient, the earth’s rotational effect (Coriolis force), and the curvature of
the isobars (centripetal acceleration) determine horizontal wind velocity. All three factors are
accounted for in the gradient wind equation, but this can be approximated in large-scale flow by the
geostrophic wind relationship. Below 1500 m, the wind speed and direction are affected by surface
friction.
Air ascends (descends) in association with surface convergence (divergence) of air. Air motion is
also subject to relative vertical vorticity as a result of curvature of the streamlines and/or lateral
shear; this, together with the earth’s rotational effect, makes up the absolute vertical vorticity.
Local winds occur as a result of diurnally varying thermal differences setting up local pressure
gradients (mountain–valley winds and land–sea breezes) or due to the effect of a topographic
barrier on airflow crossing it.
Air Mass: - an air mass can be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties especially
temperature, moisture content and lapse rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for hundreds of
kilometers at a given altitude. The source region that determines the thermal behavior of an air
mass is its latitudinal position.

Chapter Five
Atmospheric Moisture/Hydrological Cycle
5.1 Evaporation process

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Evaporation is the means through which moisture enters into the atmosphere.
Change from To Process Energy
Ice(solid) Water vapor(gas) Sublimation Heat absorbed(680cal/gm)
Water vapor Ice(solid) Deposition Heat released (680 cal/gm)
Ice(solid) Water(liquid) Melting Heat absorbed(80cal/gm
Water(liquid) Ice(solid) Freezing Heat released(80cal/gm
Water(liquid) Water vapor Evaporation Heat absorbed(600 ca/gm)
Water vapor Water(liquid) Condensation Heat released(600 ca/gm)
Evaporation process is of three types (sources of evaporation)
Evaporation from free water surface – from ocean, sea, lakes, rivers, ponds...
Evaporation from land surface – soil, ice
Evaporation from vegetation cover.
84% of the total evaporation is taking place from oceans, while the remaining 16% (including
transpiration) is from the land. The rate of evapotranspiration at any instant from the Earth's surface is
controlled by four factors:
 The availability of heat energy to vaporize the water: the more energy available the greater the rate
of evapotranspiration.
 The existence of vapor pressure difference between the evaporation surface and the surrounding
air (vertical moisture gradient difference): the rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the
atmosphere both become higher in drier air.
 The wind speed immediately above the surface: wind increases the potential for
evapotranspiration. The process of evapotranspiration moves water vapor from ground or water
surfaces to an adjacent shallow layer that is only a few centimeters thick. When this layer becomes
saturated evapotranspiration stops. However, wind can remove this layer replacing it with drier air
which increases the potential for evapotranspiration.
 Water availability: evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.
Evaporation and Transpiration

Water is removed from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere by two distinct mechanisms:
evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is

51
transformed into a gaseous state. Evaporation can only occur when water is available. Transpiration is the
process of water loss from plants through stomata. Stomata are small openings found on the underside
of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues. It is often difficult to distinguish between
evaporation and transpiration. So, we use a composite term evapotranspiration. On a global scale, most
of the evapotranspiration of water on the Earth's surface occurs in the subtropical oceans. In these areas,
high quantities of solar radiation provide the energy required to convert liquid water into a gas.
Evapotranspiration generally exceeds precipitation on middle and high latitude landmass areas during
the summer season. Once again, the greater availability of solar radiation during this time enhances the
evapotranspiration process.

Hydrological Cycle

Factors Affecting Evaporation from free water surface

1. Meteorological factors;

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  Temperature: - it is the major source of heat energy for natural evaporation. When the
temperature of the evaporating surface increases, the vapor pressure of the water molecules
increases, resulting in high rate of evaporation.
 Humidity - the amount of water vapor in the air affects the rate of evaporation. When the air
above the evaporating surface is saturated with vapor, the rate of
evaporation will be lowered. Saturation is the state where the air is full of vapor and has no
more space to hold additional vapor molecules.
 Wind: - incoming fresh wind removes the vapor molecules above the evaporating surface and
makes space free for other vapor molecules. If the incoming fresh air is warm, blowing over
heated ground, it provides extra heat to increase the process of evaporation. If the incoming
fresh air is cold, it reduces evaporation.
 Atmospheric pressure: – When the density of the overlying air decreases, more water
molecules can escape from the water surface very easily.
2. Physical Factors
 Soluble materials – when so much dissolved substance is accumulated in water bodies it
reduces the vapor pressure of the water- this process obviously reduces the rate of evaporation.
Since the rate of evaporation is proportional to the vapor pressure difference between the water
surface and the overlying air, lowering that of the water will reduce evaporation. Evaporation
decreases by about 1% for every 1% increase in salinity.
 Nature of evaporating surface -the amount of evaporation from any surface is determined by
the quantity of the water available to saturate the surface.
 Shape of evaporating surface-here shape has to do with the volume and depth of water which
significantly affects evaporation.
 Soil capillary characteristic- evaporation is greater in coarse textured soils like sand than in
fine textured soils
 Soil color – dark soils absorb more heat than lighter soils and affects evaporation rate.
 Vegetation cover – the presence of vegetation reduces the soil evaporation by shading the
surface from the direct rays of the sun
Measurement of Evaporation from a free water surface
Evaporation is measured by a special type of instrument known as evaporimeter. The most common
& widely used one is the evaporation pan. Evaporation pans are dishes filled with water designed so

53
that a loss from such pans is taken as a direct measurement of evaporation from a free water surface.
5.2 Atmospheric Humidity
Humidity describes the amount of water vapor or moisture of the air, excluding water droplets like
cloud and rain. Even though the volume of atmospheric moisture is very small (0-4%) and variable,
water vapor has a number of advantages: -
 It plays a key role in the process of weather forecasting.
 It gives a clue of cloud formation and hence precipitation
 It maintains life on earth
 Water in the atmosphere absorbs, reflects and scatters insolation to keep our planet at a
habitable temperature (it helps warm the Earth's atmosphere through the greenhouse effect).
 Atmospheric moisture is of vital significance as a means of transferring surplus energy from
tropical areas either horizontally to polar latitudes or vertically into the atmosphere to balance
the heat budget (It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through heat energy exchange).
Methods of expressing Atmospheric Humidity
Even though the amount of water vapor (humidity) in the air can be expressed in absolute
humidity, specific humidity and mixing ratio, relative humidity is the most popular and commonly
used method.
Relative Humidity
- Is the ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air compared to the maximum capacity
of that air at a particular temperature (is the ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the air
to the potential of the air to hold moisture).

Actualamountofwatervapour( gram )
x 100
Relative humidity in % = Capacityoftheairtoholdmoisture(gram )
* RH = 100% the air is saturated
= 80-90% the air is moist and the weather is humid or clammy
= <50% the air is dry.

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- The potential of the air to hold moisture always changes with the change in air temperature. An
increase in temperature means an increase in the potential to hold moisture and vice versa.
- Is highly affected by addition of moisture through evaporation and a change in temperature.
- A decrease in air temperature will result in an increase in relative humidity, and an increase in
temperature will cause a decrease in the relative humidity. Because with increasing temperature, the
carrying capacity also increases (when the water vapour content or specific humidity remains constant)
Temperature 20o 10oC 0oC
Water Vapor
3.5 gr 3.5 gr 3.5 gr
content (gr/kg)

capacity 14gr 7 gr 3.5 gr

3. 5
x 100=25 %
relative humidity 14 50% 100%
Measurement of relative humidity
Humidity values can be obtained indirectly by using instruments such as hygrometer, hygrograph and
psychrometer. Specific humidity is difficult to measure directly. Nevertheless, it may be readily computed by
consulting an appropriate table or graph if the air temperature and relative humidity are known. Psychrometer is
an instrument consisting of two types of thermometers- the wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers.
The wet bulb thermometer is wrapped (covered) with a fine and thin cloth (Muslin) dipping into a small bath
containing distilled water. If the air is dry, the water evaporates from the wet muslin and cools the bulb causing
its mercury to contract. As a result, it always shows a lower reading than the dry bulb. The dry bulb
thermometer, on the other hand, has no muslin and reads the temperature of the air. The difference between
these values is used to calculate the relative humidity of the air by using a set of tables.
Set of humidity table
Dry bulb Wet bulb
20oC 22oC 24oC 26oC 28oC 30oC 32oC
20oC 100% - - - - - -
25oC 65% 80% 95% - - - -
30oC 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 100% -
35oC 24% 30% 35% 45% 57% 70% 82%

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Large difference shows low humidity and a small difference indicates high humidity; when there is no
difference between the dry and wet bulb thermometers’ temperature it means the air is saturated (full of
vapor) with a relative humidity of 100%. The amount of cooling that takes place is directly proportional to
the dryness of the air, the drier the air, the more the cooling. Therefore, the larger the difference between
the thermometers, the lower the relative humidity; and the smaller the difference, the higher the relative
humidity. If the air is saturated, no evaporation will occur and the two thermometers will have identical
readings. To determine the precise relative humidity from the thermometer readings, a standard table is
used.
5.3 Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water is changed from a vapor state to liquid or solid state through
the release of heat energy. It takes place both in the air and at the ground level. The vaporized water exists
at a gaseous state as long as it maintains (holds) the latent heat that vaporized it. However, when this latent
heat is released, due to atmospheric cooling, the water in the vapor state condenses and changes into liquid
state. This released heat from the water vapor is called latent heat of condensation. Condensation is the
process by which water vapor in the atmosphere is changed into a liquid or if the temperature is below
0oC, a solid. It usually results from air being cooled until it is saturated. Such cooling may be achieved in
four ways: -
Radiation (contact) cooling: - This typically occurs on calm, clear evenings. The ground loses heat
rapidly through terrestrial radiation and the air in contact with the ground is then cooled by conduction. If
the air is moist, some vapor condenses forming radiation fog, dew, or if the temperature is below freezing
point, hoar frost
Advection cooling: - These results from warm, moist air move over a cooler land or sea surface. Since
both radiation and advection involve horizontal rather than vertical movements of air, the amount of
condensation created is limited.
Orographic and frontal uplift: - Warm, moist air is forced to rise either as it crosses a mountain barrier
(orographic or ascent) or when it meets a colder, denser mass of air at a front.
Convective or adiabatic cooling: - This is when air is warmed during the day time and rises. As the air
expands, it uses energy and so loses heat and the temperature drops. Because air is cooled by the reduction
of pressure with height rather than by a loss of heat to the surrounding air, it is said to be adiabatically
cooled. As orographic, frontal and adiabatic cooling involves vertical movements of air they are more
effective mechanisms of condensation.

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Conditions for the formation of condensation
Condensation occurs from either of the following two conditions: -
 Fall in the temperature of the air below dew point (atmospheric cooling)
 Increase in sufficient amount of moisture in to the air until it reaches to saturation
There must be a surface on which the water vapor may condense (tiny bits of particulate matter known as
condensation nuclei which serves as a surface for water condensation. These particles are termed as
hygroscopic nuclei or “water socking”. Hydroscopic nuclei are very important for condensation process
which includes:
o Volcanic dust (heavy rain always accompanies volcanic eruption)
o Dust from windblown soil
o Smoke and sulphuric acid originating from urban and industrial areas.
o Salt from sea spray.
Cloud
A cloud may be defined as a dense concentration of very fine (microscopic invisible water drops or ice-
crystals) and it is formed when moist air rises and cools through convection, Orographic lifting and frontal
activity. Clouds have been named on the basis of their appearance and structure in the atmosphere as:-
Strato
- a prefix used to indicate clouds with a sheet like or layer structure.
- are sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky
- while there may be minor breaks, there are no distinct individual cloud units
Cumulo
- a pile or heap like structure
- consists of globular individual cloud masses
- exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes towers
- are frequently described as having a cauliflower like structure
Cirro
- a curl appearance
- are high, white and thin
- are separated or detached, and form delicate veil like patches or extended wispy fibers that often have
a feathery appearance.

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 Nimbus
- rain bearing clouds
Cloud Types and Characteristics
Cloud family Cloud type Characteristics
and height
High clouds- Cirrus Thin, delicate, fibrous ice-crystal clouds. Sometimes appear as hooked
above 6000m filaments called “mare’s tails”.
Cirrocumulus Thin, white ice-crystal clouds, in the form of ripples, waves, or
globular masses all in a row, may produce a “mackerel sky”.
Cirrostratus Thin sheet of white ice-crystal clouds that may give the sky a milky
look. Sometimes produce halos around the sun or moon.
Middle clouds Altocumulus White to gray clouds often composed of separate globules; “sheep
2000-6000m back” clouds.
Altostratus Stratified veil of clouds that are generally thin and may produce very
light precipitation. When thin the sun or moon may be visible as a
“bright spot” but no halos are produced.
Low clouds Stratocumulus Soft, gray clouds in globular patches or rolls. Rolls may join together to
Below 2000m make a continuous cloud.
Stratus Low uniform layer resembling fog but not resting on the ground. May
produce drizzle.
Nimbostratus Amorphous layer of dark gray clouds. One of the chief precipitation-
producing clouds.
Clouds of Cumulus Dense, billowy clouds often characterized by flat bases. May occur as
vertical isolated clouds or closely packed
development Cumulonimbus Towering cloud sometimes spreading out on top to form an “anvil
500-1800m head”. Associated with heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning, hail and
tornadoes.
Source: Tarbuck and Lutgens (1976: 314)

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Adiabatic lapse rate, air stability and air instability
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 is the change in temperature due to expansion or compression as a parcel of air rises or falls.
 Adiabatic cooling occurs as a result of the rising of air, where there is no heat exchange between the
babbles of air and the surrounding atmosphere.
 Types of adiabatic lapse rate
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) (9.8OC/1000m)
 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) (4 OC - 9OC/1000m). A loss in temperature of
saturated air with height is partly compensated by the release of latent heat (saturated air cools
at a slower rate than unsaturated air).

Adiabatic refers to the change in temperature of a mass of parcel of air that is undergoing
expansion (cooling) or compression (heating) without actual loss or gain of heat from outside.
Air stability and Instability
Stability of Air
The stability of air in the atmosphere depends on the temperature of rising air relative to the temperature
of the stationary surrounding air that it passes through. Air stability determines whether clouds form when
air is uplifted, and the type of cloud. When a packet of air near the Earth’s surface is heated it rises, being
lighter than the surrounding air. Whether or not this air packet continues to rise will depend upon how the
temperature in the surrounding air changes with altitude. The rising packet of air will lose heat because it
expands as atmospheric pressure falls, and its temperature drops.
If the temperature of the surrounding air does not fall as quickly with increasing altitude, the air packet
will quickly become colder than the surrounding air, lose its buoyancy, and sink back to its original
position. In this case the atmosphere is said to be stable.
If the temperature of the surrounding air falls more quickly with increasing altitude, the packet of air will
continue to rise. The atmosphere in this circumstance is said to be unstable. As uplifted air cools, it
condenses excess vapour out as cloud.
The more unstable the atmosphere, the more prolonged the uplift will be. Small cumulus clouds are evidence
of a fairly stable atmosphere while large cumulonimbus clouds are evidence of a highly unstable atmosphere,
conducive to the formation of thunderstorms. Low-pressure systems are usually associated with an abundance

59
of cloud and precipitation. In high-pressure systems or anticyclones, air may be descending, compressing and
gaining energy, such that temperature at altitude rises, thereby increasing atmospheric stability. Anticyclones
are often associated with cloudless skies.
Stable atmospheric conditions prevail when the environmental lapse rate is less than the saturated adiabatic
rate; that means the temperature of rising parcel of air is less than the temperature of the surrounding air.
Stability occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR. This means that the air parcel cools more rapidly than
the surrounding air.
Air is unstable when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. Under these
conditions, a rising parcel of air is warmer and less dense than the air surrounding it at any given elevation.
This means that the parcel cools down more slowly with height from the ground than the surrounding air. This
means that as the air parcel rises it becomes warmer (and lighter) than its surrounding air, encouraging it to
rise further still. Conditional instability occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR but more than the SALR.
The rising air is stable in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The weather found with this sort of stability is
usually fine and sunny in low lying areas (i.e. those below the condensation level) but showery and cloudy in
higher areas.

Summary

Air stability depends upon the temperature/density balance between the rising parcel and the surrounding air (the balance is
the relationship between the environmental lapse rate with that of the dry and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates).

 Stability is formed when a rising parcel of unsaturated air cools more rapidly than the air surrounding it.
 Instability is formed when parcel of rising unsaturated air cools less rapidly than the surrounding air.
 Layered clouds are formed when stable air is lifted, while cumulus or cumulo-nimbus types of clouds,
thunder storms are results of instable air.

5.4 Precipitation
Precipitation is defined as any form of water particle (liquid or solid) that falls from the atmosphere and
reaches the ground. It is mechanism through which water is transported from the atmosphere to the earth. Its
occurrence is always preceded by the condensation process and a decrease in the temperature of the rising air.
Forms of precipitation
The common forms of precipitation are rain, snow, drizzle, hail and sleet which vary in size.
o Rain - is the commonest and widest spread form of precipitation.
- is the result of condensation in the rising air above the freezing point.

60
 - consists of liquid water drops that an average diameter of 1-2 mm
o Drizzle - consists of fine, closely spaced liquid water drops, with a diameter less than 0.5 mm
o Snow – the most common from of solid precipitation
- is formed within a cloud during relatively calm conditions at a temperature below
Freezing point (b/n -4oC and 0oC)
o Hailstone – a form of solid precipitation with a diameter of 5 to 50 mm. It is formed in localized thunder
storms.
o Dew: Condensation droplets on the ground surface or grass, deposited when the surface temperature is
below the air’s dew-point temperature.
o Hoar-frost is the frozen form, when ice crystals are deposited on a surface.
o Sleet – is part of frozen water droplets
- is half frozen – snow or half-frozen rain.
* Sleet appears as a half frozen snow when falling snow starts melting before it reaches the ground, or when
a falling rain starts freezing before reaching the ground.
Types of precipitation Types of precipitation are classified on the basis of the mode of the uplifting of air
as convectional orographic (Relief) and cyclonic (frontal).
Convectional Precipitation
 Is associated with the rapid uplift of moist air from the ground.
 As the moist air rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses. Further uplifting
increases cooling and forms convectional precipitation.
 Is very common in tropical and equatorial regions.
Orograhic precipitation (relief)
 Occurs where air rises and cools because of the topography of an area.
 As the air crosses the highlands it is forced up, causing condensation and cloud
formation on the upper slopes.
Cyclonic (frontal) Precipitation
 Is associated with the movement of two air masses with different temperatures.
 The warm air is forced to rise when it is undercut by cold air.
 Common type of rainfall in temperate latitudes

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The world pattern of precipitation
It is highly affected by spatial distribution of air masses, water availability through evaporation, and uplifting
mechanisms of moist air. Globally, 79 per cent of total precipitation falls on the oceans and 21 per cent on
land. A glance at the maps of precipitation amount indicates that the distributions are considerably more
complex than those, for example, of mean temperature. The zonal pattern has several significant features:
1. The ‘equatorial’ maximum, which is displaced into the northern hemisphere. This is related primarily to
the converging trade wind systems and monsoon regimes of the summer hemisphere, particularly in South
Asia and West Africa. Annual totals over large areas are of the order of 2000 to 2500 mm or more.
2. The west coast maxima of mid-latitudes associated with the storm tracks in the Westerly’s. The
precipitation in these areas has a high degree of reliability.
3. The dry areas of the subtropical high-pressure cells, which include not only many of the world’s major
deserts but also vast oceanic expanses.
In the northern hemisphere, the remoteness of the continental interiors extends these dry conditions into mid-
latitudes. In addition to very low average annual totals (less than 150 mm), these regions have considerable
year-to-year variability.
4. Low precipitations in high latitudes and in winter over the continental interiors of the northern
hemisphere. This reflects the low vapor content of the extremely cold air. Most of this precipitation occurs in
solid form.
In short, Equatorial areas have high annual rainfall totals due to the continuous uplift of air resulting from the
convergence of the trade winds and strong convectional currents. Temperate latitude receives large amounts
of rainfall, spread evenly throughout the year, due to cyclonic condition. Rainfall is generally very low in the
polar areas and sub-tropical latitude (areas of high pressure).
Rainfall variability is the deviation of rainfall amount from the average amount, which is computed from
observation made from about 35 years or more. Variability increases as the amount of precipitation decreases
and vice-versa. Dependability or reliability of precipitation refers the degree of seasonal variability of rainfall
that is defined in terms of precipitation amount, duration of rainy season and the time that rainy season
commences and stops. When rainfall variability is high, dependability or reliability would be low and vice-
versa. Rainfall intensity is the amount of rainfall per unit of time.

END!!!!!!
THANK YOU FOR 62
YOUR ATTENTION!!!!!
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