Introduction to Structural

Steel Design
CESTLD30 (Principles of Steel Design)

Jerome Z. Tadiosa, CE, MSc

Assistant Professor 2, Civil Engineering
College of Engineering
National University – Manila
Intended Learning Outcomes
• Describe the structural design process and considerations.
• Explain the description, development, and classification of
structural steel.
• Enumerate and describe the design philosophies in structural
steel design, and the relevant codes and standards used.
• Enumerate and describe the materials used in structural steel
construction.

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Reading Guide
• Read the following book chapters and other references for better
understanding of lecture:
• Chapters 1-2, Salmon et.al. (2009)
• Chapters 1-2, Segui (2018)
• Sections 2-1 to 2-4, Wight (2016)

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Lecture Outline
1. Introduction to structural design process
2. Introduction to structural steel
3. Materials in structural steel construction

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Introduction to Structural Design

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Structural Design
• “May be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the
experienced engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behavior of
structures, with a sound knowledge of basic engineering
principles, to produce a safe, economical structure that will serve
its intended purpose.” (Salmon et.al., 2009)
• A properly-designed structure should satisfy four criteria:
• Appropriateness: functionality and aesthetics
• Economy: optimal benefit-cost ratio, preferably minimum cost
• Structural adequacy: strength and serviceability requirements
• Maintainability: minimum maintenance cost and time

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Structural Design
• Typical characteristics of an optimal structural design are:
• minimum cost
• minimum weight
• minimum construction time
• minimum labor
• minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s products
• maximum efficiency to owner

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General Design Process
• Major phases of general design process include the following:
• Definition of client’s needs and priorities: function, aesthetic preferences,
budget
• Development of project concept: schematics, preliminary framework,
materials
• Design of individual systems: structural analysis and design, utilities
and other systems
• Structural design is sequential and iterative in nature.
• It follows a series of steps without skipping.
• It involves decisions that may result to a series of repeats of previous
steps.

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Structural Design Process
1. Planning: setting and finalizing project details
2. Preliminary structural configuration: initial arrangement of
structural members
3. Establishment of loads: applying loads on structure model
depending on material, function, and site conditions
4. Preliminary member selection: initial sizing of structural
members
5. Structural analysis: modeling and analyzing structure to
determine forces and deformations

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Structural Design Process
6. Evaluation: checking individual members against strength and
serviceability requirements, as well as client specifications
7. Redesign: repetition of previous steps depending on the results
of the evaluation
8. Final decision: determining whether the latest iteration of design
is optimum

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Introduction to Structural Steel
Design

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Structural Steel Members
• Basically defined as structural members that are made by hot-
rolling steel into standard shapes or forms
• Cold-formed steel structural members are those that are formed
by folding thin sheets of steel at ambient room temperature.
• This course will mainly focus on hot-rolled structural steel
members.

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Historical Background of Steel
• Cast iron was the first metal used as a structural material (used
on a 30-meter arch span in England, 1777-1779).
• Wrought iron replaced cast iron after 1840 due to the brittleness
of the latter.
• Rolling various shapes of metals received widespread usage, with
bars (1780), rails (1820), and I-shapes (1870’s).
• The development of the Bessemer process started the use of steel
as a building material, replacing wrought iron.

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Limit States
• Limit states are the conditions of a structure or a structural
member when it becomes unfit for its intended use.
• Limit states are classified into three basic groups:
• Strength limit states: involve structural failure or collapse of a part or
most of a structure (e.g. loss of equilibrium, failure, progressive collapse,
formation of plastic mechanism, instability, fatigue)
• Serviceability limit states: involve disruption of functional use of a
structure; does not necessarily be followed by collapse (e.g. excessive
deformations, excessive cracking, undesirable vibrations)
• Special limit states: involve damage or failure due to abnormal conditions
(e.g. extreme calamities, fire, corrosion effects)

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Limit States
• Limit states design involves the following:
• Identification of all possible failure modes or limit states
• Determination of acceptable levels of safety for each limit state
• Structural design considering significant limit states
• For structural steel, limit states design may be done by performing
either allowable stress design (ASD) or load and resistance factor
design (LRFD).
• In some cases, plastic design may still be used for structural
steel.

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Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
• The basic criterion for strength requirement in structural design is
that the capacity (or resistance) of a member should be greater
than or equal to the demand (or load effects) placed on the said
member, i.e. capacity ≥ demand.
• For structural steel design using LRFD:

𝜙𝑅𝑛 ≥ 𝑄𝑢 = ෍ 𝛾𝑖 𝑄𝑖

• Φ: strength reduction factor

• Rn: nominal member strength
• Qu: total factored load
• γi, Qi: load factor γi for ith type of load Qi
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LRFD Load
Combinations
(Art. 203.3, Section 203, Chapter
2, 2015 NSCP Vol. 1)

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Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• This is the older design philosophy for structural steel, which is
based on the concept of allowable stress, i.e. the actual stress in
a structural member must not exceed its maximum allowable
stress.
• For structural steel design using ASD:
𝑅𝑛
≥ 𝑄𝑎 = ෍ 𝑄𝑖
Ω
• Ω: safety factor
• Rn: nominal member strength
• Qu: total service load
• Qi: value of ith type of load
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ASD Load
Combinations
(Art. 203.4, Section 203, Chapter
2, 2015 NSCP Vol. 1)

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Structural Safety
• Reasons for setting load factors and strength reduction factors:
• Variability in strength: differences in material properties and section
dimensions; simplified design assumptions
• Variability in loadings: differences in material densities and actual load
intensities while the structure is in use
• Consequences of failure: taking account some limit states that may
cause higher potential losses in life and property, depending on how they
happen in structural members
1.5
• Relationship between Ω and ϕ: Ω =
𝜙

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Plastic Design
• It is a design philosophy that considers the structure at failure
conditions under highly amplified loads.
• Failure in this case may mean either total collapse or extremely
large deformations, which may lead to the formation of a collapse
mechanism.
• This approach also assumes that the material used for the
structure is beyond its elastic range, hence the term “plastic”.
• Members designed under this philosophy will fail under factored
loads but will be fine under service loads.

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Codes and Standards for Structural Steel
• Some of the codes and standards used in structural concrete
design include:
• 2015 National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) Vol. 1
• Chapter 2: Minimum Design Loads
• Chapter 5: Structural Steel
• AISC Steel Handbook 2004 (Part I: Dimensions and Properties)
• AISC Steel Construction Manual (14th ed.)
• ANSI/AISC 360-10 (Specification for Structural Steel Buildings)
• AISC 303-10 (Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges)

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Materials for Structural Steel
Construction

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Steel
• Steel is an alloy that is made of iron, a small amount of carbon,
and trace amounts of other alloying elements.
• Steel is produced from iron ore, and its carbon content ranges between
0.2% and 1.5% by weight.
• Apart from construction, steel is also widely used in machinery
and manufacturing processes.

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Advantages and Limitations of Steel
Advantages Limitations
• High strength-to-weight ratio • Properties degrade at elevated
• High stiffness temperatures
• Termite- and rot-proof • Susceptible to corrosion
• Similar tension and compression • Brittle at low temperatures
properties • Buckling failure happens in slender
• Excellent quality control members
• No need for formworks
• Recyclable
• Easy to repair, dismantled and
reassembled
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Steel-Making Process

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Steel-Making Process

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Classification of Structural Steel
• Plain carbon steels: mostly Fe and C, with <1% C
• Example: ASTM A36 (0.26% C, 0.04% P, 0.05% S)
• Low-alloy steels: Fe, C plus other components (usually <5%);
increases strength but reduces ductility
• High-alloy or specialty steels: Similar with low-alloy steels but
with higher percentage of trace components; has significantly
higher strength and other improved properties

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Classification of Structural Steel
• Common steels used in structures are ASTM A36, A572 Gr. 50, and
A992.
Property ASTM A36 ASTM A572 Gr. 50 ASTM A992

36 ksi 50 ksi
Yield Point, min. 50 ksi (~345 MPa)
(~248 MPa) (~345 MPa)
58-80 ksi 65 ksi
Tensile Strength, min. 65 ksi (~448 MPa)
(~400-550 MPa) (~448 MPa)

Yield to Tensile Ratio, max. - - 0.85

Elongation in 8 in., max 20% 18% 18%

• See Table 2-4 of AISC Steel Construction Manual (15th ed.) for material
properties. 29
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Structural Steel Shapes
• There are many shapes used for selecting the best section for
structural steel members.
• W-shape (wide-flange shape): most common I-shape used in structures;
has wide and thick flanges
• S-shape (American standard): I-shape with shorter flanges compared to
W-shapes
• Angles (L-shapes): may be equal-leg or unequal-leg; commonly used as
diagonal members for trusses, braces, and purlin support
• C-shape (American standard channel): commonly used as roof purlins
• Structural Tee (split-tee): T-shaped sections derived from “parent” I-
shapes; commonly used as truss chords

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Structural Steel Shapes
• Hollow structural steel (HSS): used for structures with required aesthetic
requirements; may be rectangular or circular in shape
• Other sections include pipes, bars, plates, combination shapes, and
built-up shapes

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 • Dimensions and properties of each shape may
be looked up in some steel design handbooks
Structural Steel and aids.
Shapes • ASEP Steel Handbook 2004 (in SI units)
• Part 1 (Dimensions and Properties), AISC Steel
Construction Manual (15th ed.) (in USC/English units)
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Material Properties
of Structural Steel
• Stress-Strain Relationship
• Modulus of Elasticity:
200000 MPa (29000 ksi)
• Strain hardening happens at
strains greater than 15-20
times the maximum elastic
strain
• Strain-Hardening Modulus:
6200 MPa (900 ksi) at 0.014
in/in strain (ASTM A36)
• Poisson’s Ratio: 0.3-0.5
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Material Properties
of Structural Steel
• Notch Toughness
• Measure of resistance of a
metal to the start and
propagation of a crack (at
the base of a standard
notch)
• Steel may exhibit ductility or
brittleness at different
temperatures, which affect
toughness
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Material Properties of Structural Steel
• High-Temperature Behavior
• Stress-strain curves become nonlinear at temperatures exceeding 200°F
(93°C).
• Elastic modulus, yield strength, and tensile strength reduce as
temperature increases.
• In some cases, steels with high carbon content exhibit “strain aging”.
• Creep becomes a more significant concern for steels at high
temperatures
• Other effects include improved notch toughness, increased brittleness,
and increased corrosion resistance.
• Most steels are used at applications below 1000 °F; some heat-treated
steels are kept below 800°F.
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Material Properties of Structural Steel
• Fatigue
• Failure of a material under cyclic loading (repeated cycles of loading and
unloading)
• Fatigue strength is dependent on number of loading cycles, range of
service load stress, and initial flaw size.
• Some studies show that the fatigue life of steel bridges may be increased
through repeated stressing in steel sections under certain conditions
(coaxing).

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Material Properties of Structural Steel
• Corrosion Resistance
• Carbon steels are very vulnerable to corrosion, and painting is usually
done to slow down its effects.
• Corrosion resistance may be improved by adding copper, but this may
increase cost of steel.
• Many other types of steel are developed with high corrosion resistance
(weathering steels); stainless steel is also slowly adopted for structural
use.

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Other Materials
• Fastener Steels (Bolts)
• ASTM A307 (Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs)
• Commonly called machine bolts; used for temporary installation; Grade A bolts
have minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (415 MPa) while Grade B bolts have
maximum tensile strength of 100 ksi (700 MPa)
• ASTM A325 (High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints)
• Maximum 0.3% C; ultimate tensile strength ranges between 105 ksi (724 MPa) and
120 ksi (827 MPa); yield strength ranges between 81 ksi (558 MPa) and 92 ksi (634
MPa)
• ASTM A449 (Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs)
• Has same strength properties as A325 but is available at larger diameters (up to 3”);
only used if the required fastener diameters is at least 1-1/2”

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Other Materials
• Fastener Steels (Bolts)
• ASTM A490 (Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts)
• Minimum tensile strength of 150 ksi (1035 MPa); may have C content of up to 0.53%;
minimum yield strength between 115 ksi (793 MPa) and 130 ksi (896 MPa)
• Galvanized ASTM A325 High-Strength Bolts
• High-strength bolts with galvanizing for better corrosion protection
• Weld Electrodes and Filler Material
• Strength properties vary across different electrodes
• Specific weld electrodes are used for each type of welding process

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References
• American Institute of Steel Construction. (2011). Steel Construction
Manual (14th ed.). USA: American Institute of Steel Construction
• Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. (2016). National
Structural Code of the Philippines 2015 Volume 1: Buildings, Towers,
and Other Vertical Structures (7th ed.). Quezon City, Philippines:
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
• Salmon, C. et.al. (2009). Steel Structures Design and Behavior:
Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design (5th ed.). USA:
Pearson Prentice Hall
• Segui, W. (2018). Steel Design (6th ed.). Connecticut, USA: Cengage
Learning

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References
• Sivakugan, N. et.al. (2018). Civil Engineering Materials. USA:
Cengage Learning
• Wight, J. K. (2016). Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design
(7th ed.). USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Photo Credits
• https://www.steel.org/steel-technology/steel-production/

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