Network Layer

1. Network Layer Services

The Network Layer is responsible for delivering packets from the source to the des na on
across mul ple networks.

1. Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses to devices in a network.

2. Rou ng: Determines the op mal path for data transmission between networks.

3. Packet Forwarding: Moves packets from one network to another using routers.

4. Error Handling: Detects and corrects transmission errors to ensure data integrity.

5. Conges on Control: Manages network traffic to prevent bo lenecks and delays.

6. Security and QoS: Ensures data is transmi ed securely and priori zes important
packets.

Example: A router forwards data packets based on IP addresses to the correct des na on.

2. Packet Switching

Packet switching is the method of transferring data by breaking it into packets that travel
independently.

1. Datagram Approach: Each packet is routed independently without a predefined path

2. Virtual Circuit Approach: A path is established before data transfer (used in ATM
networks).

3. Reduced Network Conges on: Efficient use of network resources as packets take
different routes.

4. Error Recovery: Lost or damaged packets can be retransmi ed.

5. Scalability: Easily accommodates network expansion and increased traffic.

6. Lower Latency: Packets can be transmi ed simultaneously, reducing delays.

Example: An email sent over the Internet is broken into packets and reassembled at the
des na on.

3. Network Layer Performance

Network performance measures efficiency in transmi ng data.

2. Latency: The me taken for data to travel from sender to receiver.

3. Ji er: Varia on in packet arrival mes, affec ng real- me applica ons.

4. Packet Loss: Percentage of lost packets during transmission, affec ng reliability.

5. Bandwidth U liza on: Measures the efficiency of available network resources.

6. Quality of Service (QoS): Priori zes important traffic like video calls and VoIP.

Example: A video call experiences lag due to high latency and ji er.

4. IPv4 Addressing

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses to iden fy devices on a network.

a) Classful Addressing

1. Class A (1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255): Large networks, up to 16 million hosts.

2. Class B (128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255): Medium-sized networks, up to 65,536 hosts.

3. Class C (192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255): Small networks, up to 256 hosts.

4. Class D (224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255): Reserved for mul cast applica ons.

5. Class E (240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255): Experimental and research use.

b) Classless Addressing (CIDR)

1. Uses subnet masks to allocate addresses more efficiently.

2. Prevents wastage of IP addresses compared to classful addressing.

3. Example: 192.168.1.0/24 means 256 addresses.

Example: A company using CIDR 192.168.0.0/22 can have 1024 devices.

5. Subne ng & Superne ng

a) Subne ng

1. Divides a large network into smaller sub-networks.

2. Reduces conges on and improves security.

3. Uses subnet masks to define network and host por ons.

4. Example: 192.168.1.0/26 creates four subnets of 64 addresses each.

b) Superne ng

1. Combines mul ple small networks into a larger one.

2. Reduces the number of rou ng table entries.

3. Used by ISPs to manage large networks efficiently.

4. Example: 192.168.0.0/22 combines four Class C networks.

5. Reduces overhead and improves rou ng efficiency.

Example: A university subne ng its network into different departments for be er

6. IPv4 Protocol & DHCP

a) IPv4 Protocol

1. Uses a 32-bit address system.

2. Supports connec onless communica on.

3. Uses headers with source/des na on addresses and control informa on.

4. Works with various transport protocols like TCP and UDP.

5. Example: 192.168.1.1 is a typical IPv4 address.

b) DHCP (Dynamic Host Configura on Protocol)

1. Automa cally assigns IP addresses to devices.

2. Reduces manual IP configura on effort.

3. Supports dynamic alloca on, automa c alloca on, and manual alloca on.

4. Uses UDP on port 67 (server) and 68 (client).

5. Prevents IP conflicts in large networks.

Example: A home Wi-Fi router assigns IP addresses dynamically using DHCP.

7. Network Address Transla on (NAT)

NAT allows mul ple devices to share a single public IP address.

1. Sta c NAT: One-to-one mapping of private and public IP addresses.

3. PAT (Port Address Transla on): Mul ple private IPs share a single public IP.

4. Enhances Security: Hides internal network structure from the Internet.

5. Reduces IPv4 Address Exhaus on: Conserves public IPs.

6. Example: A home router uses NAT to translate local IPs to a single public IP for
Internet access.

8. Rou ng Algorithms

a) Distance Vector Rou ng

1. Each router maintains a rou ng table with distance to neighbors.

2. Uses Bellman-Ford algorithm.

3. Updates tables periodically by exchanging informa on with neighbors.

4. Uses hop count as a metric.

5. Example: Rou ng Informa on Protocol (RIP).

b) Link State Rou ng

1. Uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path.

2. Each router maintains a network map.

3. Updates occur only when topology changes.

4. Faster convergence than Distance Vector.

5. Example: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

c) Path Vector Rou ng

1. Used for inter-domain rou ng (between ISPs).

2. Stores paths instead of distance.

3. Prevents loops with path history.

4. Example: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

9. Next-Genera on IP: IPv6

a) IPv6 Addressing
 1. Uses 128-bit addressing (compared to 32-bit in IPv4).

2. Provides 3.4 × 10^38 unique addresses.

3. Example: 2001:db8::ff00:42:8329.

b) IPv6 Protocol

1. Simplified header structure.

2. Supports auto-configura on and end-to-end encryp on.

3. No need for NAT (every device gets a unique IP).

4. Example: Modern mobile networks use IPv6.

c) Transi on from IPv4 to IPv6

1. Dual Stack: Devices run both IPv4 and IPv6.

2. Tunneling: Encapsulates IPv6 packets inside IPv4 packets.

3. Transla on: Converts IPv4 to IPv6 and vice versa.

4. Example: Google and Facebook support both IPv4 & IPv6.