SHRESTHACOMPUTER INSTITUTE

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Computer Fundamental
What is Computer : Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The
term computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate or programmable
machine. Computer can not do anything without a Program. It represents the decimal numbers through a string
of binary digits. The Word 'Computer' usually refers to the Center Processor Unit plus Internal memory.
Full form of COMPUTER :
C = COMMON
O = OPERATING
M = MACHINE
P = PROCESS/ PROCESSING
U = USEFULL
T = TECHNOLOGY
E = EDUCATION
R = RESEARCH
Charles Babbage is called the " Father" of the computer. The First mechanical computer designed by Charles Babbage
was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-only memory in the form of punch cards.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data under the
control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can
process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

Digital Computer Definition

The basic components of a modern digital computer are: Input Device, Output Device, Central Processor Unit (CPU),
mass storage device and memory. A Typical modern computer uses LSI Chips. Four Functions about computer are:

accepts data Input

processes data Processing
produces output Output
stores results Storage
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of letters, numbers, images
etc.
It has take 5 Volt Direct Current. Input device namelist are given bellow:
1. Input Devices:
a) Graphics Tablets
b) Cameras
c) Video Capture Hardware
d) Trackballs
e) Barcode reader
f) Digital camera
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g) Gamepad
h) Joystick
i) Keyboard
j) Microphone
k) MIDI keyboard
l) Mouse (pointing device)
m) Scanner
n) Webcam
o) Touchpads
p) Pen Input
q) Microphone
r) Electronic Whiteboard
s) OMR
t) OCR
u) Punch card reader
v)MICR (Magnetic Ink character reader)
w) Magnetic Tape Drive
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the computer system.
Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as Result. We can save these
results in the storage devices for the future use. It has 12VDC. Name list are given below:
OUTPUT DEVICES:
1. Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc)
2. Printers (all types)
3. Plotters
4. Projector
5. LCD Projection Panels
6. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
7. Speaker(s)
8. Head Phone
9. Visual Display Unit
10. Film Recorder
11. Microfiche
Block Diagram of Computer and Explain its Various Components
A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated problems quickly and
accurately. A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five major computer operations or functions irrespective of
their size and make. These are
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
2) 2) it stores data,
3) 3) it can process data as required by the user,
4) 4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) 5) it controls all operations inside a computer.
We discuss below each of these Computer operation
 SHRESTHACOMPUTER INSTITUTE
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1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that
computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some
processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized
manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the
system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the
storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is
designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
1. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of
calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
2. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output
produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given
to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
3. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all
operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing
of all operations inside the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various
functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is
transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for
further processing or getting stored.

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Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper
fashion. Control Unit is responsible for co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control unit determines
the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the
main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It
also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the
activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the
brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.
Classification of Computers | Type of Computer
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling
and functionality.
According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose.General purpose computers are
designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency.
Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is
built into the machine.
According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers work on the principle of
measuring, in which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually employ
electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such
computers do not deal directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are
those that operate with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process data
into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hybrid
computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital computer. For
computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories are used.
According to functionality, Type of computers are classified as :
Analog Computer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena
such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in thebinary
number system
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid
computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.
On the basis of Size: Type of Computer
Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires
a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into
executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently.
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Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the
hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for
example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some
ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the
distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small
minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from
4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
Micro Computer or Personal Computer
• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size
than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the
screen serves both as an input and output device.
Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client
machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
Characteristic of a Computer
Basic characteristics about computer are:
1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours
to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and
even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond
(10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same
accuracy. The accuracy level is 7. determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due
to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with
the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to
prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.

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 5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount ofinformation or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely
upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It performs
the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what
sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get tired
even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store
data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to
other computers.
History of computer | Generation of Computer
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the
way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable
devices.
The various generations of computers an listed below :
(i) First Generation (1946-1954) : In 1946there was no 'best' way of storing instructions and data in a
computer memory. There were four competing technologies for providing computer memory:
electrostatic storage tubes, acoustic delay lines (mercury or nickel), magnetic drums (and disks?),
andmagnetic core storage.
The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are known as first generation computers. the first
'computer' to use electronic valves (ie. vacuum tubes). The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main
memory. They stored information in the form of propagating sound waves.
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. The Vacuum tube was developed by Lee DeForest in 1908. These computers
were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4. Their computing capabilities were limited.
5. They were not so accurate and reliable.
6. They used machine level language for programming.
7. They were very expensive.
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc
(ii) Second Generation (1955-1964) : The second-generation computer used transistors for CPU components & ferrite
cores for main memory & magnetic disks for secondary memory. They used high-level languages such as FORTRAN
(1956), ALGOL (1960) & COBOL (1960 - 1961). I/O processor was included to control I/O operations.
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky Vacuum tubes in the first generation computer. Transistors are
smaller than Vacuum tubes and have higher operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating.
Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and
input and output units were developed. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during
this period. Some of the computers of the Second Generation were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
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3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
Features:
1. Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
2. Processing speed is faster than First Generation Computers (Micro Second)
3. Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.
Example: IBM 1400 and 7000 Series, Control Data 3600 etc.
(i) Third Generation (1964-1977) : By the development of a small chip consisting of the capacity of the300
transistors. These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and
capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious that the size of the computer got
further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-
370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) was developed during this period. Computers of this generation were small in size,
low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high. Very soon ICs Were replaced by LSI (Large
Scale Integration), which consisted about 100 components. An IC containing about 100 components is
called LSI.
Features:
1. They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semi conductor memory devices were used.
3. The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were more accurate and reliable.
4. Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) were also developed.
5. The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.
Fourth Generation : An IC containing about 100 components is called LSI (Large Scale Integration) and the one, which
has more than 1000 such components, is called as VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). It useslarge scale Integrated
Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is
possible to place computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers.
Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs. Thus the computer which was occupying a very large
room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth
Generation Computer Main memory used fast semiconductors chips up to 4 M bits size. Hard disks were used as
secondary memory.
(i) Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were developed. OS-such as MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple’s
Macintosh were available. Object oriented language, C++ etc were developed.
Features:
1. They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main switching element.
2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3. Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4. They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable, diligent and versatile.
5. They have very large storage capacity.
Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.
(ii) Fifth Generation (1991- continued) : 5th generation computers use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale
Integration) chips. Millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips. 64 bit microprocessors
have been developed during this period. Data flow & EPIC architecture of these processors have been
developed. RISC &CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors. Memory chips and flash
memory up to 1 GB, hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB have been developed. fifth
generation digital computer will be

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What is CPU | CPU Definition | CPU Meaning
What is CPU: It's meaning is Central Processing Unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central
processor or Nerve Centre or heart, but more commonly calledprocessor, the CPU is where most
calculations take place. The CPU is the brains of the computer.

CPU Definition
Central processing unit (CPU) is the central component of the Computer System. Sometimes it is called
as microprocessoror processor. It is the brain that runs the show inside the Computer. All functions and processes that is
done on a computer is performed directly or indirectly by the processor. Obviously, computer processor is one of the most
important element of the Computer system. CPU is consist of transistors,that receives inputs and produces
output.Transistors perform logical operations which is called processing. It is also, scientifically, not only one of the most
amazing parts of the PC, but one of the most amazing devices in the world of technology.

In terms of computing power, the computer processor is the most important element of a computer system. It add and
compare its data in cpu chip. A CPU of all computers, whether micro, mini or mainframe must have three parts.
Parts of CPU
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It is the part of computer processor (CPU) can be used to perform arithmetic and logic
operations. An
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) is further divided into two parts, (AU) arithmetic unit and a (LU) logic unit.
Control Unit (CU): Decodes the program instruction. CPU chip used in a computer is partially made out of Silica. on
other words silicon chip used for data processing are called Micro Processor.
Registers: It is temporary storage areas of the computer processor. It is managed by control unit(CU).Registers holding
data,instruction and address that are needed by program while running.
The processor plays a significant role in the following important aspects of your computer system;
Performance: The processor is probably the most important single determinant of system performance in the Pc. While
other components also playa key role in determining performance, the processor's capabilities dictate the maximum
performance of a system. The other devices only allow the processor to reach its full potential.
Software Support: Newer, faster processors enable the use of the latest software. In addition, new processors such as the
Pentium with MMX Technology, enable the use of specialized software not usable on earlier machines.
Reliability and Stability: The quality of the processor is one factor that determines how reliably your system will run.
While most processors are very dependable, some are not. This also depends to some extent on the age of the processor
and how much energy it consumes.
Energy Consumption and Cooling: Originally processors consumed relatively little power compared to other system
devices. Newer processors can consume a great deal of power. Power consumption has an impact on everything from
cooling method selection to overall system reliability.
Motherboard Support: The processor that decides to use in your system will be a major determining factor in what sort
of chipset we must use, and hence what motherboard you buy. The motherboard in turn dictates many facets of. The
system's capabilities and performance.
What is BIOS (basic input/output system)?
A BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) Short for ROM is boot firmware program that acomputer uses to successfully
start operating. The BIOS is located on a chip inside of the computer and is designed in a way that protects it from disk
failure.
When you turn on a PC, the BIOS first conduct a basic hardware check, called a Power-On Self Test (POST), to
determine whether all of the attachments are present and working. Then it loads the operating system into your computer's
random access memory, or RAM. The BIOS also manages data flow between the computer's operating system and
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attached devices such as the hard disk, video card, keyboard, mouse, and printer. The BIOS stores the date, the time, and
your system configuration information in a battery-powered, non-volatile memory chip, called a CMOS (Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor) after its manufacturing process. The main functions of the BIOS are:

Functions of BIOS
(i) BIOS Power on Self Test (POST): It is a built-in diagnostic program. This self test ensures that the computer has all
of the necessary parts and functionality needed to successfully start itself, such as use of memory, a keyboard and other
parts. Then additional tests are done during booting. If errors are detected during the test, the BIOS instruct the computer
to give a code that reveals the problem. Error codes are typically a series of beeps heard shortly after startup.
The BIOS also works to give the computer basic information about how to interact with some critical components, such as
drives and memory that it will need to load the operating system. Once the basic instructions have been loaded and the
self-test has been passed, the computer can proceed with loading the operating system from one of the attached drives.
Computer users can often make certain adjustments to the BIOS through a configuration screen on the computer. The
setup screen is typically accessed with a special key
sequence during the first moments of startup. This setup screen often allows users to change the order in which drives are
accessed during startup and control the functionality of a number of critical devices. Features vary among individual
BIOS versions.
We can also use flash-memory cards to hold BIOS information. This allows users to update the BIOS version on
computers after a vendor releases an update. This system was designed to solve problems with the original BIOS or to add
new functionality. Users can periodically check for updated BIOS versions, as some vendors release a dozen or more
updates over the course of a product's lifetime. Mother board (System) BIOS, Video adapter firmware (BIOS), Drive
controller firmware (BIOS), Modem Card firmware (BIOS), Network adapter board BIOS, SCSI adapter BIOS. The
mother board BIOS provides routines to support motherboard features. BIOS ROM chips for major sub systems of
computer such as video and drive control must also be included.
Actually BIOS can be placed in between the computer and external devices as its name tells it is used for reading the
keystroke, displaying values on screen, Reading and writing to and from floppy and hard disks etc.
The keyboard is assigned the port number 60, which is known to BIOS. BIOS read this port and data from keyboard goes
to computer.
(ii) Bootstrap Loader: To boot the operating system. The BIOS contains a program known as bootstrap loader whose
responsibility is to search and start the operating system boot program. Then the boot program of operating system
controls the computer system and boots the operating system.
(iii) BIOS Setup Utility Program: A non volatile memory (NVRAM) is used to store information about the computer
system. During installation of a system, the user run BIOS setup program and enter the correct parameters. The settings of
memory, disk types and other settings are stored in NVRAM and not in BIOS chip itself. To construct NVRAM, the
material required is CMOS (Complementary metal oxide semiconductor). These CMOS chips are very efficient storage
devices as they store and maintain data on very low values of current. The system's configurations therefore are also
termed as CMOS settings, which we can set using BIOS set up program. The BIOS reads the parameters from CMOS
RAM as and when required.

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CMOS settings can be maintained by battery backup either by using capacitor or by a battery built into NVRAM chip.
This chip also has system clock. If there is no battery, the setting remains for short period of time and we need to reset the
system. With it there is loss of BIOS password which protects BIOS set up program.
To clear the CMOS RAM contents, two methods used are
(i) By using clear CMOS jumper.
(ii) By holding down enter key during booting of the system.
For Pentium III motherboards, different set ups are there in AMI BIOS. These are:
• Standard CMOS Setup:It is used to set time date, hard disk type, type of floppy drive, type of monitor and keyboard.
Advanced CMOS Setup:It is used to set typematic rate and delay, above 1 MB memory test, memory test tick sound, Hil
< Del> message display, system boot up sequence etc.
• Advanced Chipset Setup:It is used to set features of chipset.
• Power Management Setup:It is used to control power conservation options.
• PCI/Plug and Play Setup:It is used to set options of PCI bus and that of plug and play devices.
• Peripherals Setup:It is used to control options related to I/O controllers.
• CPU Configuration Setup:This setup is used to select the types of CPU installed in the motherboard. In AMI BIOS, the
settings are auto as it automatically finds out the type of CPU in the computer system.
(iv) System Service Routines: The BIOS provides various software routines (subprograms) that can be called by higher-
level software such, as DOS, Windows, or their applications, to perform different tasks. Virtually every task that involves
accessing the system hardware has traditionally been controlled using one or more of the BIOS programs (although many
newer operating systems now bypass the BIOS for improved performance). This includes actions like reading and writing
from the hard disk, processing information received from devices, etc.
BIOS services are accessed using software interrupts, which are similar to the hardware interrupts except that they are
generated inside the processor by programs instead of being generated outside the processor by hardware devices. One
thing that this use of
interrupts does is to allow access to the BIOS without knowing where in memory each routine is located.
Normally, to call a software routine you need to know its address. With interrupts, a table called an interrupt vector
table is used that bypasses this problem. When the system is started up, the BIOS puts addresses into this table that
represent where its routines are located for each interrupt it responds to. Then, when DOS or an application wants to use a
BIOS routine, it generates a software interrupt. The system processes the interrupt, looks up the value in the table, and
jumps to the BIOS routine automatically. DOS itself and application programs can also use this interrupt vector table.
Personal Computer - What is personal computer (PC)?
Personal Computer Definition: The first general-purpose, cost-effective personalcomputer created by IBM was called
the IBM PC or means "personal computer" . It is a microprocessor technology that has been any small, relatively
inexpensive computer designed to be used by one person, at home or in an office. It is often simply called aPersonal
Computer (PC). The example of Personal Computer or PC are microcomputer, desktop computer, laptop computer,
tablet. In all these computer manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.
What is personal computer?
A personal computer is a computer small and low cost, which is intended for personal use (or for use by a small group
of individuals). The term "personal computer" is used to describe desktop computers(desktops). It is often shortened to the
acronym PC or microcomputer, whose meaning in English is "personal computer". It is a very common type of machines.
Personal Computer (acronym PC) consists of a central processing unit (CPU) contains the arithmetic, logic, and control
circuitry on an single (IC) integrated circuit; two types of memory, main memory, such as RAM, and ROM, magnetic
hard disks (HDD) and compact discs and various input/output devices, including a display screen, keyboard and mouse,
modem, and printer.

History of Personal Computer

Prior to the Personal Computer (acronym PC), computers were designed for large organization who attached thin
terminals for multiple users to a single large computer whose resources were shared among all users. The advent of the
personal computer (PC), they break up the tradition of terminals computing. By the late 1980s, technology advances made
it feasible to build a small computer that an individual could own and use.
The personal computer began to be wide spread in the 1980s. The first was expensive, work late and had little capacity
seen with today's eyes. History shows that they had their antecedents in particular as calculating machines. It was the
development of an effective operating system and a user friendly interface which gave impetus to the development and let
them be word processors.
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According to the Computer History, the first "personal computer" was the Kenbak-1, launched in 1971. had 256 bytes of
memory and was advertised in Scientific American for $750, however, did not have CPU and was, like other systems of
this era, designed for educational use.
Uses of Personal Computers
Personal computer (PC) is used for Work with word processing, Internet communications, and sound compositions and
also for DTP. The PC is a most valued piece of technology around the world. The data processing capabilities of PC have
added to their usage.
Laptop
A Laptop computer (also called portable computerornotebook computerin English) (Other terms, such
as ultrabook or netbook, refer to specific types of laptop) is designed with portability in mind. It was developed in the late
1980s. It is briefcase style with a foldout screen with a clamshell form factor, suitable for mobile use and with a miniature
keyboard. It is small enough to use in your lap. The laptop is battery or AC-powered personal computer that should be
charged via a plug and socket, and when it runs out of power, it must be recharged regularly.
Laptop computer originally monochrome CRT-based, The components of a laptop are built-in monitor;
keyboard, touchpad(which replaces the mouse), USB, graphics card and sound cards as well as high-capacity batteries
that are made to keep the laptop power for a long period of time.
The laptops are more expensivebecause the technologyto be morecompact and they are more difficult to design and
manufacture. If youhave a limited space, it is worth consideringa"portable" computer.They giveyou exactly thesame
comfort andperformance of adesktop computer,but theytake up less space.

Laptop Different from a Desktop

There are some important differences between laptop and desktop is its mobility as well as its compact size. The laptops
computer work with the same equipment using a desktop computer thanks to its numerous I/O ports. This basically turns
your laptop computer into a desktop, with one main difference: You can easily disconnect the equipment and take the
laptop with you wherever you go. However, some laptop computer, such as netbooks, sacrifices some functionality in
order to be even more portable. There are many different styles and brands of laptop and they all come with different
software and programs. Laptop computer can also be used to access the Internet using a USB wireless. They can also be
connected to a microphone, webcam and digital camera. The screen sizes of these computers are 12 inches to 16 inches.
You getall multimediaqualities ofyourlaptop withoutresponse timethanks toa RAMmemory of 2GBon average anda
graphics card thatis just aspowerfulasa desktop. Thus you caneasilyenjoy yourfavorite DVDs, playing video gamesor
edityour pictures.Yourlaptopcan handleit all.
Boot:
To boot or boot up means to start your computer system, usually by turning on the power and/or pushing the "on" button.
It's called "booting" because the computer is going inside itself and turning itself on (doing a lot of preliminary checking
and adjusting before it's ready to run your programs). Hence the machine is considered to be "pulling itself up by its own
bootstraps."
When the computer is first turned on or restarted, it reads the startup instructions found in the ROM BIOS chips. These
instructions tell the computer to check the system over (a series of tests called the POST). Certain information (such as the
amount of memory and the number and type of disk drives) about the PC is stored in a special chip called CMOS, and that
information is also verified during boot. The last thing that happens during boot is the loading of the operating system,
which is found on the hard disk drive or on a floppy diskin drive A. The computer cannot do anything without first
loading an operating system into memory, because it's the operating system that manages all of the computer's basic
functions.

Information in the operating system files continues the booting process. During a PC boot, the CONFIG.SYS file is
located, and its instructions are executed. The CONFIG.SYS is a special file that fine-tunes the PC, customizing it so it
can access optional peripherals (such as the mouse or the modem) and unused areas in memory. Next, the AUTO
EXECBAT file is located, and its instructions are executed. The AUTOEXEC BAT file contains commands (such as

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those to start a particular program or change the prompt) that the user wants run at boot. Once the startup files have been
found and executed, the computer is fully booted and ready to go.

How Does it Work

DOS is made up of three parts: IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, and COMMAND.COM. IO.SYS works with ROM BIOS to
control the computer's input/output functions; MSDOS.SYS(sometimes called the kernel) manages files, runs programs,
and performs basic system functions; COMMAND. COM performs all the DOS commands. In addition,

COMMAND.COM functions as the overall "manager" for the computer. During the boot process, the three parts
of the operating system are loaded into memory one at a time. After IO.SYS is loaded, it checks to see if all the
system components are responding properly. MSDOS.SYS is loaded next so it can perform the commands in the
CONFIG.SYS (a special configuration file). COMMAND.COM is loaded last and is kept in memory so that DOS
commands (such as COPY) can be executed when needed. COMMAND.COM then executes the commands in
AUTOEXEC.BAT, which completes the boot process.
What is Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)? - Definition and meaning
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): A subunit within a computer's central processing unit. ALUalu full form is Arithmetic
Logic Unit , takes the data from Memory registers; ALUcontains the logical circuit to perform mathematical operations
like subtraction, addition, multiplication, division, logical operations and logical shifts on the values held in the processors
registers or its accumulator.
It is the size of the word that the ALU can handle which, more than any other measure, determines the word-size of a
processor: that is, a 32-bit processor is one with a 32-bit ALU.
After processing the instructions the result will store in Accumulator. Control unit generates control signals to ALU to
perform specific operations. The accumulator is used as by default register for storing data. It is 16-bit register.
The simplest sort of ALU performs only addition, Boolean logic (including the NOT or complement operation) and shifts
a word one bit to the right or left, all other arithmetic operations being synthesized from sequences of these primitive
operations. For example, subtraction is performed as complement-add multiplication by a power of two by shifting,
division by repeated subtraction. However, there is an increasing tendency in modern processors to implement extra
arithmetic functions in hardware, such as dedicated multiplier or divider units.
The ALU might once have been considered the very core of the computer in the sense that it alone actually performed
calculations. However, in modern SUPERSCALAR processor architectures this is
no longer true, as there are typically several different ALUs in each of several separate integer and floating-point units. An
ALU may be required to perform not only those calculations required by a user program but also many internal
calculations required by the processor itself, for example to derive addresses for instructions that employ different
ADDRESSING MODES, say by adding an offset to a base address. Once again, however, in modern architectures there is
a tendency to distribute this work into a separate load/store unit.
The three fundamental attributes of an ALU are its operands and results, functional organization, and algorithms.
The operands and results of the ALU are machine words of two kinds: arithmetic words, which represent numerical
values in digital form, and logic words, which represent arbitrary sets of digitally encoded symbols. Arithmetic words
consist of digit vectors (strings of digits).
Operator: Operator is arithmetic or logical operation that is performed on the operand given in instructions.
Flag: ALU uses many types of the flag during processing instructions. All these bits are stored in status or flag registers.
Functional Organization of an ALU
A typical ALU consists of three types of functional parts: storage registers, operations logic, and sequencing logic.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Architecture
ALU is formed through the combinational circuit. The combinational circuit used logical gates like AND, OR,
NOT, XOR for their construction. The combinational circuit does not have any memory element to store a previous data
bit. Adders are the main part of the arithmetic logic unit to perform addition, subtraction by 2’s complement.
Control unit generates the selection signals for selecting the function performed by ALU.
Registers : Registers are a very important component in ALU to store instruction, intermediate data, output, and input.
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Logic Gates
Logic gates are building a block of ALU. Logic gates are constructed from diode, resistors or transistors. These gates are
used in Integrated circuit represent binary input as ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ state. Binary number 0 is represented by ‘OFF’ and
Binary Number ’1’ is represented by ‘ON’ state in an integrated circuit.
OR gate : OR gate can take two or more inputs. The output of OR gate is always 1 if any of the inputs is 1 and 0 if all the
inputs are false. OR gate performs an addition operation on all operand given in instructions. It can be expressed as
X=A+B or X=A+B+C.

AND gate : AND gate takes two or more inputs. The output of AND gate is 1 if all inputs are 1. AND gate gives 0 results
if any one of input in given data is 0. AND gate performs multiplication option on all inputs operands. It is represented by
‘.’ symbol. We can write it as- X=A.B or X=A.B.C.

NOT gate : Not gate is used to reverse the result of gates or reverse Boolean state from 0 to 1 and 1
to 0.Not gate is also used with ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ gate. While using with AND or ‘OR’ gate, NOT gate is
representing an as small circle in front of both gates. After using NOT gate, AND gates convert into
NAND or ‘OR’ gate convert into NOR.

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Registers: Registers provide fast memory access as a comparison to cache, RAM, hard disk. They are built on CPU.
Register are small in size. Processing Intermediate data stored in registers.A number of registers used for specific purpose.
ALU used four general purpose register. All these four registers are 16-bit register is divided into registers. 16-bit register
implies that register can store maximum 16 bit of data.
Accumulator : Accumulator is 16 bit by default and general purpose register. By default means that any operand in
instruction does not specify a particular register for holding the operand. That time operand will automatically store in
AC. AC is used as two separate registers of 7 bit AL and AH. AC located inside the ALU. Intermediate data and result
after execution will store in AC.AC used MBR to deal with memory.
Program Counter: PC stands for program counter. It is 16-bit register. It counts the number of instruction left for
execution. It acts as a pointer for instructions and also known as Instruction pointer register. PC holds the address of next
instruction to be executed. When an instruction is fetched from the register. Register get automatically incremented by one
and point to the address of next instruction.
Flag register : it is also known as a Status register or Program Status register. Flag register holds the Boolean value of
status word used by the process.
Auxiliary Flag : if two numbers are to be added such that if in the beginning of higher bit there is a carry. This is known
as auxiliary bit.
Carry bit : Carry bit is indicate the most significant borrow or carry bit by subtracting a greater number than a smaller
number or adding two numbers.
Sign Bit : Sign bit is a most significant bit in 2’s complement to show that result is negative or positive. It is also known
as negative bit. If the final carry over here after the sum of last most significant bit is 1, it is dropped and the result is
positive.
If there is no carry over here then 2’s complement will negative and negative bit set as 1.
Overflow bit : Overflow bit used to indicate that stack is overflow or not after processing the instruction. It is set to be 1
means that stack is overflow if it is 0 then its reverse to happen.
Parity Bit : Parity bit represent odd or even set of ’1’ bits in given string. It is used as error detecting code. Parity bit has
two types: Even parity bit and an Odd parity bit.
In Even parity bit, we count the occurrence of I’s in the string. If a number of 1 bit is odd in counting than we will add
even parity bit to make it even or if the number of 1 bit are even then even parity bit is 0.
Data Number of 1 bits even parity bit Data including Even Parity bit
1010111 5 1 11010111
Memory Address Register: Address register holds the address of memory where data is residing. CPU fetches the
address from the register and access the location to acquire data. In the same way, MAR is used to write the data into
memory.
Data Register: Data registers also Known as Memory Data Register. It holds the content or instruction fetched from
memory location for reading and writing purpose. It is 16-bit register means that can store 2 16bytes of data. From Data,
register instruction moves in Instruction register and data content moves to AC for manipulation.
Instruction register: Instruction holds the instruction to be executed .control unit of CPU fetch the instruction, decode it
and execute the instruction by accessing appropriate content.IR is 16-bit register. It has two fields – Opcode and operand.
PC holds the address of the instruction to be executed. Once the address is fetched it gets incremented by 1.PC hold the
address of next instructions. In this situation, IR holds the address of the current instruction.
Input /output register: Input register holds the input from input devices and output register hold the output that has to
give to output devices.
Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in
the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided
into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to
memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
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 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those
parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred
from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories
are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided
into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are
used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed
via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the
CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

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Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
Random Access Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result. It is a
read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as
other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical
size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost
when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,
making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory
on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several
hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
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 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Computer - Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores
such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only
used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use,
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It connects the CPU,
memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It
can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

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Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −
 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for
memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and
optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion
cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and
network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-
out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital cameras, etc.
Computer - Memory Units
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is expressed in terms of
Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a component in
an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed numb er of bits processed as a unit,
4
which varies from computer to computer ut is fixed for each computer.
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8
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bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.
The following table lists some higher storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

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