STATISTICS AND

PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. illustrate random sampling;

2. distinguish between parameter and
statistic; and
3. Identify sampling distribution of sample
means.
RANDOM
SAMPLING
Relationship between population and sample
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling (Random Sampling)
The sampling method in which all the members of the
population has a pre-specified and an equal chance to
be a part of the sample.

Non-probability Sampling (Non-random Sampling)

When all the individuals of the population are not
given an equal opportunity of becoming a part of the
sample, the method is said to be Non-probability
sampling.
Formula in finding the sample size 𝒏
Cochran’s Formula
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

A sampling technique in which every element of
the population has the same probability of being
selected for inclusion in the sample.
Types of Probability Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
A sampling technique in which a list of elements of
the population is used as a sampling frame and
every k th element of the population is selected
until the desired number of elements in the sample
is obtained.
Procedure: Systematic Random Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population size by the sample

size and round the result down to the
nearest whole number, 𝑚.

Step 2: Use a random-number table or a similar

device to obtain a number, 𝑘, between 1
and 𝑚.

Step 3: Select for the sample those members of the

population that are numbered
𝑘, 𝑘 + 𝑚, 𝑘 + 2𝑚, …
3. Stratified Random Sampling
A random sampling technique in which the
population is first divided into groups (strata)
and then samples are randomly selected
separately from each stratum.
Procedure: Stratified Random Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population into subpopulations

(strata).

Step 2: From each stratum, obtain a simple random

sample of size proportional to the size of the
stratum; that is, the sample size for a stratum
equals the total sample size times the stratum
size divided by the population size.

Step 3: Use all the members obtained in Step 2 as the

sample.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
A random sampling technique in which the
population is first divided into groups (strata)
and then samples are randomly selected
separately from each stratum.
Example
You want to interview students in your school from
the 5 sections of Grade 11 STEM to determine their
opinion on the Online Learning Modality. How are
you going to choose your sample by using stratified
sampling if there are 44 students in Fibonacci; 43
students in Heisenberg, 43 in Leeuwenhoek; 46 in
Newton; and 49 in Pythagoras.
4. Cluster Sampling
A sampling technique in which population is
divided into groups called clusters by some means
such as geographic area or schools in a large
school district, etc. Then the researcher randomly
selects some of these clusters and uses all members
of the selected clusters as the subjects of the
samples.
Procedure: Cluster Sampling

Step 1: Divide the population into groups (clusters).

Step 2: Obtain a simple random sample of the

clusters.

Step 3: Use all the members of the clusters

obtained in Step 2 as the sample.
Summary of Random Sampling
Simple Random Subjects are selected by random numbers.
Systematic Subjects are selected by using every 𝑘 th
number after the first subject is randomly
selected from 1 through 𝑘.

Stratified Subjects are selected by dividing up the

population into groups (strata), and subjects
are randomly selected within groups.

Cluster Subjects are selected by using an intact group

that is representative of the population.
Illustration 1
A. Classify each sample as simple random, systematic,
stratified, or cluster.

1. In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings

are interviewed to determine whether they believe the
students have less homework to do now than in
previous years.

2. Every seventh customer entering a shopping mall is

asked to select her or his favorite store.
3. Nursing supervisors are selected using random
numbers to determine annual salaries.

4. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to

determine its fat content.

5. Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups

according to gender (male or female) and according
to whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10
are selected from each group and interviewed to
determine whether they have been bitten by a dog in
the last year.
Illustration 2

You want to interview students in your school to

determine their opinion on the new school uniform.
How are you going to choose your sample by using
stratified sampling if there are 1,200 students in
Grade 7; 1,100 in Grade 8; 940 in Grade 9; 940 in
Grade 10; 900 in Grade 11; and 810 in Grade 12.
PARAMETERS AND
STATISTICS
Definition
Parameter
a characteristic or measure
obtained by using all the
data values from a specific
population.

Statistic
a characteristic or measure
obtained by using the data
values from a sample.
Comparison
STATISTIC PARAMETER

Statistic is a measure which Parameter refers to a

Meaning describes a fraction of measure which describes
population. population.
Numerical
Variable and Known Fixed and Unknown
value
𝜇 = Population Mean
𝑥ҧ = Sample Mean
𝜎 = Population Standard
Statistical 𝑠 = Sample Standard Deviation
Deviation
Notation 𝑝Ƹ = Sample Proportion
𝑃 = Population Proportion
𝑛 = sample size
𝑁 = Population size
Identify the parameter and statistic used in the
following situations:
1. A researcher wants to estimate the average death
age of Filipino women in the last decade and from a
sample of 100 deaths, he obtained a sample mean
age of 73.

Parameter:
-the average death age of Filipino women in the last
decade
Statistics:
- a sample of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 deaths
- a sample mean age of 𝟕𝟑
2. A researcher wants to know the average weight of
females aged 22 years or older in Butuan City. The
researcher obtains the average weight of 54 kg, from a
random sample of 40 females.

Parameter:
-the average weight of females aged 22 years or older in
Butuan City
Statistics:
- the average weight of 54 kg
- a random sample of 40 females.
3. A researcher wants to estimate the average amount
of water consumed by male teenagers in a day. From
a simple random sample of 55 male teens the
researcher obtains an average of 1.5 L of water.

Parameter:
-the average amount of water consumed by male
teenagers in a day
Statistics:
- simple random sample of 55 male teens
- an average of 1.5 L of water
The population mean is defined as
1 𝑁
𝜇 = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑁

The population variance is defined as

1 𝑁
𝜎 = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2
2
𝑁

The population standard deviation is defined as

1 𝑁
𝜎= 𝜎2 = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2
𝑁
The sample mean is defined as
1 𝑛
𝑥ҧ = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑛

The sample variance is defined as

2 1 𝑛
𝑠 = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑛−1

The sample standard deviation is defined as

1 𝑛
𝑠= 𝑠2 = σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑛−1
Exercises
1. The following are the heights to the nearest centimeters of 5
Statistics teachers in Agusan National High School
162 164 163 154 156
Compute the population (a) mean, (b) variance, and (c) standard
deviation
Exercises
2. The following are the scores in Statistics of the sampled 6 Grade
11 students:
60 70 82 85 86 90
Compute the sample (a) mean, (b) variance, and (c) standard
deviation
BY PAIR ½ CW Copy & Answer
The following are the scores in RWS of the sampled 10 Grade 11
students:
85 59 87 85 96 90
Compute the sample (a) mean, (b) variance, and (c) standard
deviation
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. Identify sampling distribution of sample

means.
2. Finds the mean and variance of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean;
 SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTIONS OF
SAMPLE MEANS
In addition to knowing how individual data values
vary about the mean for a population, statisticians
are interested in knowing how the means of samples
of the same size taken from the same population
vary about the population mean.
Illustration:
Suppose fifty students got the following scores
90 − item midterm exam. Assume that these students
constitute the population.
If the teacher is interested in knowing how the sample
means of size 5 vary from the population mean.

Select 5 scores at random and solve for their mean score.

a. How many samples will there be?
b. What are the sample means?
c. How do the sample means differ from the
population mean?

𝜇 = 66.26
Note:
The sample means now from the illustration constitute
a sampling distribution of sample means.
Definition
A sampling distribution of sample means 𝒙
ഥ is a
distribution using the means computed from all
possible random samples of a specific size taken
from a population.

Sampling error is the difference between the

sample measure and the corresponding
population measure due to the fact that the
sample is not perfect representation of the
population.
How to construct a Sampling Distribution of Sample Means
from a given population:
1. Determine the number of samples of size 𝑛 from the
population of size 𝑁
For sampling with replacement: 𝑁𝑛
For sampling without replacement:
𝑁 𝑛!
= 𝑛𝐶𝑟 =
𝑛 𝑟! 𝑛 − 𝑟 !

2. List all the possible samples and compute the mean of

each sample.
3. Construct the probability distribution for the sample
means 𝑥.ҧ
The Mean, Variance and Standard
Deviation of Sample Means
For a sampling distribution of the sample mean 𝑥:ҧ

Mean : ഥ𝑷𝒙ഥ
𝝁𝒙ഥ = σ𝒙

Variance : 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝒙ഥ ഥ
= σ𝒙 𝑷𝒙ഥ − 𝝁𝒙ഥ

Standard Deviation : 𝝈𝒙ഥ = 𝟐

𝝈𝒙ഥ
Example 1:

Suppose a professor gave an 8-point quiz to a small

class of four students. The results of the quiz were
2, 6, 4, and 8. For the sake of discussion, assume that
the four students constitute the population.
Questions:

a. What is the population mean 𝝁?

b. What is the population standard deviation 𝝈?

c. If all samples of size 2 are taken with replacement,
find the mean of each sample.
d. Construct the probability distribution for the
sample means 𝒙
ഥ?

ഥ
𝒙

𝑷𝒙ഥ
d. Solve for the mean, variance and standard
deviation of the sample means.
ഥ
𝒙 𝑷𝒙ഥ ഥ𝑷𝒙ഥ
𝒙 ഥ𝟐
𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙
𝒙
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏𝟔
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏𝟔
𝟒 𝟑
𝟏𝟔
𝟓 𝟒
𝟏𝟔
𝟔 𝟑
𝟏𝟔
𝟕 𝟐
𝟏𝟔
𝟖 𝟏
𝟏𝟔

ഥ𝑷𝒙ഥ =
෍𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙
e. Solve for the mean of the sample means.

f. Compare 𝝁 and 𝝁𝒙ഥ .

e. Compare 𝝁 and 𝝁𝒙ഥ .

f. Compare 𝝈 and 𝝈𝒙ഥ .

g. Divide the population standard deviation by the
square root of the sample size.

h. Compare the result in g to the standard deviation

of the sample means.
Properties of the Mean and Variance of Sampling
Distributions of Sample Means (with replacement)

1. The mean of the sample means will be the same as

the population mean. That is, 𝝁𝒙ഥ = 𝝁.

2. The standard deviation of the sample means will be

smaller than the standard deviation of the population.

3. The standard error of the sample mean is equal to the

population standard deviation 𝜎 divided by the
𝝈
square root of the sample size, thus, 𝝈𝒙ഥ = .
𝒏
Activity:

Suppose the sampling in Example 1 is done without

replacement, calculate the mean, variance and
standard deviation of the sampling distribution of 𝒙
ഥ.

a. Construct a sampling distribution of the sample

means for this population when 𝑛 = 2.

b. Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of

the sampling distribution.
Population: 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖

Samples ഥ
𝒙
ഥ
𝒙
(𝒏 = 𝟐)

𝑷ഥ𝒙
ഥ
𝒙 𝑷𝒙ഥ ഥ𝑷𝒙ഥ
𝒙 ഥ𝟐
𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷𝒙ഥ
𝒙
1
3
6
1
4
6
2
5
6
1
6
6
1
7
6
ഥ𝑷𝒙ഥ =
෍𝒙 ഥ𝟐 𝑷ഥ𝒙 =
෍𝒙
STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be
able to:

1. Illustrate the 𝑡 distribution; and

2. Identifies percentiles using 𝑡 table.
The 𝒕 Distribution
Characteristics of the 𝒕 Distribution
The 𝑡 distribution is similar to the standard normal
distribution in these ways:

1. It is bell-shaped.
2. It is symmetric about the mean.
3. The mean, median, and mode are equal to 0
and are located at the center of the distribution.
4. The curve never touches the x axis.
Degrees of Freedom and
𝒕 Distribution as Family of Curves
The degrees of freedom are the number of values that are
free to vary after a sample statistic has been computed,
and they tell the researcher which specific curve to use
when a distribution consists of a family of curves.
Degrees of Freedom and
𝒕 Distribution as Family of Curves
Note that the symbol 𝑑. 𝑓. Will be used for degrees
of freedom. It is found by subtracting the sample
size 𝑛 by 1. That is 𝑑. 𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1.
The 𝒕 Distribution Table
The bold italic t Distribution Table
Example 1:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the right of the mean when
𝑛 = 22 and 𝛼 = 0.01.
Example 2:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the left of the mean when 𝑛 =
26 and 𝛼 = 0.05.
Example 3:
Find the value of 𝑡 to the left and to the right of the
mean when 𝑛 = 26 and 𝛼 = 0.20.
 When a 𝑑. 𝑓. falls in between 2 values, for
example, if it falls between 65 and 70 . Many
textbooks say to use the closest value, for
example, 68 is closer to 70 than 65; however, in the
reference book that we use, a conservative
approach is used. In this case, always round down
to the nearest table value. In this case, 68 rounds
down to 65.
Percentiles
Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal groups. Percentile
rank indicates the position of a certain value of a random
variable with respect to the other values.

For example, if a student get a raw score of 72 out of 100 items

and this corresponds to the 64𝑡ℎ percentile, this means that she
did better compared to the 64% of the students in her class.
Example 4:
Find the 90𝑡ℎ percentile using the 𝑡 distribution when
𝑛 = 20.
Example 5:
What is the area to the right of 𝑡 = 1.323 under the 𝑡
distribution with a 𝑑. 𝑓. = 21?
Example 6:
What is the area to the left of 𝑡 = −1.711 under the 𝑡
distribution with a 𝑑. 𝑓. = 24?