2.1_Understanding requirements.

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2.2_ Requirements modelling.pdf

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1.2_Process models.pdf
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1.3_Agile development.pdf
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1.1_SE introduction.pdf
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explain about the scrum model

Scrum Model Overview

Scrum is an agile software development framework that focuses on iterative progress, collaboration,
and flexibility. It was originally proposed by Schwaber and Beedle in the early 1990s and is particularly
effective for projects with tight deadlines, changing requirements, and business-critical needs​.

Key Components of Scrum

1. Scrum Framework Activities

Development progresses through sprints, which are time-boxed periods (typically 2–4 weeks).
Each sprint results in a working software increment that can be reviewed by stakeholders.

2. Scrum Team Structure

The Scrum team is self-organizing and interdisciplinary, consisting of:

Product Owner – Defines project priorities and manages the Product Backlog.
Scrum Master – Facilitates the Scrum process, removes obstacles, and ensures best practices.
Development Team – A small team (3–6 people) responsible for delivering software increments.

3. Scrum Artifacts

Product Backlog – A prioritized list of product features and requirements.

Sprint Backlog – A subset of the product backlog selected for the current sprint.
Increment – The sum of all completed product backlog items.

Scrum Process Flow

1. Sprint Planning Meeting – The team selects high-priority backlog items to complete in the sprint.
2. Daily Scrum Meeting – A 15-minute stand-up meeting where team members answer:
What did you do since the last meeting?
What obstacles are you facing?
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 What will you accomplish next?
3. Sprint Execution – The team develops the selected backlog items.
4. Sprint Review Meeting – A demonstration of completed work to stakeholders for feedback.
5. Sprint Retrospective – The team reviews what went well and what needs improvement​.

Advantages of Scrum

Quick adaptability to changing requirements.

Continuous feedback from stakeholders.
Frequent delivery of working software.
Encourages collaboration and team empowerment.

Would you like additional details on Scrum implementation or a comparison with other agile
methodologies?

Agile model
Scrum
Unified process model
Application domains
Legacy software

Here’s a detailed explanation of each topic you requested:

1. Agile Model
The Agile Model is an iterative and incremental approach to software development that emphasizes
flexibility, customer collaboration, and rapid delivery. Agile development is designed to handle
changing requirements and encourage continuous feedback.

Key Features of Agile:

Iterative Development – Software is built in small increments rather than a single large release.
Customer Collaboration – Frequent feedback from customers ensures the product meets their
needs.
Adaptability – Changes in requirements are welcomed, even late in development.
Rapid Delivery – Working software is delivered at regular intervals, typically every 2–4 weeks.

Popular Agile Frameworks:

Scrum (Most widely used)

Extreme Programming (XP)
Kanban
Feature-Driven Development (FDD)

Advantages of Agile:
✅ Faster delivery of software

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✅ Encourages team collaboration and innovation
✅ Improved customer satisfaction
Challenges:
❌ Requires experienced teams
❌ Can be difficult to estimate costs and timelines
2. Scrum Model
Scrum is a popular Agile framework that organizes work into sprints (short time-boxed iterations). It
was proposed by Schwaber and Beedle in the early 1990s​.

Scrum Process:

1. Sprint Planning – The team selects tasks from the Product Backlog.
2. Daily Scrum – A short, 15-minute meeting where team members discuss progress and blockers.
3. Sprint Execution – The development team builds the software increment.
4. Sprint Review – Stakeholders review the completed work and provide feedback.
5. Sprint Retrospective – The team discusses improvements for the next sprint.

Scrum Roles:

Product Owner – Manages the Product Backlog and sets priorities.

Scrum Master – Ensures the team follows Scrum best practices.
Development Team – Builds the product increment.

Advantages:
✅ Well-structured approach to Agile
✅ Faster feedback and delivery cycles
✅ High team collaboration
Challenges:
❌ Requires disciplined team coordination
❌ Can be difficult to scale for large projects
3. Unified Process Model
The Unified Process (UP) is an object-oriented software development process that follows a
structured and iterative approach. It was proposed by Ivar Jacobson, Grady Booch, and James
Rumbaugh.

Phases of Unified Process:

1. Inception – Define project scope and requirements.

2. Elaboration – Identify key risks and refine system architecture.
3. Construction – Develop the software incrementally.
4. Transition – Deploy the final product to users.

Key Characteristics:

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 Use-case driven – Based on use-case diagrams (UML).
Iterative & incremental – Development happens in repeated cycles.
Architecture-centric – Focuses on system structure.

Advantages:
✅ Strong modeling and documentation practices
✅ Suitable for large and complex systems
Challenges:
❌ Requires experienced developers
❌ Heavy documentation can slow progress
4. Application Domains
Application domains refer to different areas where software is used. Some common domains include:

1. System Software – Operating systems, compilers, file management utilities.

2. Application Software – Word processors, accounting software, media players.
3. Embedded Software – Found in devices like microwaves, ATMs, and medical devices.
4. Web Applications – Social media platforms, e-commerce websites, cloud-based applications.
5. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Software – Robotics, expert systems, machine learning applications.
6. Real-time Software – Used in traffic control systems, flight simulators, etc.

5. Legacy Software
Legacy software refers to old or outdated software systems that are still in use but require updates or
replacement​.

Why Legacy Software Must Change:

1. Technology Advancement – Old software may not be compatible with modern hardware.
2. Business Needs – Companies evolve, requiring new features.
3. Security Risks – Older systems may have vulnerabilities.
4. Performance Issues – Legacy systems may run slower due to outdated code.

Strategies for Managing Legacy Software:

Refactoring – Improving the existing code structure without changing functionality.

Rewriting – Developing a new system from scratch.
Migrating – Moving from on-premises to cloud-based platforms.

Challenges:
❌ Expensive to maintain and upgrade
❌ High risk of system failure during migration

Would you like further details on any of these topics or comparisons between them? 😊

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 Requirements engineering
Class based modelling
Behavioural modelling
Requirement analysis
Scenario based modelling

Here's a detailed explanation of each topic you requested:

1. Requirements Engineering
Requirements engineering is the process of defining, documenting, and maintaining software
requirements. It helps ensure that the final product meets user expectations and business needs​.

Key Activities in Requirements Engineering:

1. Inception – Identify stakeholders and define project scope.

2. Elicitation – Gather requirements from users through surveys, interviews, and observations.
3. Elaboration – Refine and analyze requirements to ensure completeness.
4. Negotiation – Resolve conflicts between stakeholders.
5. Specification – Document requirements formally using Software Requirement Specification (SRS).
6. Validation – Ensure requirements are consistent, clear, and testable.
7. Management – Handle changes and updates to requirements throughout the project.

Challenges in Requirements Engineering:

❌ Users may not always know what they need.

❌ Requirements may conflict among stakeholders.
❌ Requirements can change frequently, affecting project timelines.
2. Class-Based Modelling
Class-based modeling is a technique used in object-oriented software design to represent real-world
entities as classes​.

Key Elements of Class-Based Modelling:

1. Classes – Represent real-world objects (e.g., "Car," "Customer," "Product").

2. Attributes – Define properties of a class (e.g., a "Car" class may have "color" and "model").
3. Operations (Methods) – Actions that an object can perform (e.g., "startEngine()" for a Car class).
4. Relationships – Define associations between classes (e.g., a "Customer" can have multiple
"Orders").

Example of a Class Diagram:

diff

Class: Car
-----------------
+ color

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 + model
+ speed
-----------------
+ startEngine()
+ stopEngine()

Benefits:
✅ Helps visualize the structure of the system.
✅ Makes code reusable and modular.
Challenges:
❌ Complex relationships between classes can make systems difficult to manage.
3. Behavioural Modelling
Behavioural modeling represents how a software system behaves in response to external events​.

Types of Behavioural Models:

1. State Diagrams – Show how an object transitions between different states (e.g., an order
moving from "Pending" → "Shipped" → "Delivered").
2. Sequence Diagrams – Show interactions between objects over time.
3. Activity Diagrams – Represent workflow or business processes using flowcharts.

Example – State Diagram for an Online Order

css

[New Order] → [Processing] → [Shipped] → [Delivered]

Benefits:
✅ Helps in understanding complex workflows.
✅ Useful for debugging and testing interactions.
Challenges:
❌ Hard to model complex, real-time behaviors accurately.
4. Requirement Analysis
Requirement analysis involves examining gathered requirements to ensure they are feasible, clear,
and complete​.

Steps in Requirement Analysis:

1. Identify Stakeholders – Who will use or be affected by the system?

2. Define Functional & Non-functional Requirements
Functional: What the system must do (e.g., user login).
Non-functional: Performance, security, usability constraints.
3. Prioritize Requirements – Rank them based on business value.
4. Feasibility Study – Assess technical and financial viability.
5. Document and Validate – Ensure no conflicts or ambiguities exist.

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Benefits:
✅ Reduces project failure risks.
✅ Helps avoid scope creep (uncontrolled expansion of features).
Challenges:
❌ Changing requirements can affect project timelines.
❌ Stakeholders may struggle to express their needs clearly.
5. Scenario-Based Modelling
Scenario-based modeling describes how users interact with the system under different situations​.

Key Components:

1. Use Cases – Describe specific interactions users have with the system.
2. Actors – People or systems interacting with the software.
3. Scenarios – Step-by-step sequences of actions users perform.

Example Use Case: Online Shopping

Actor: Customer
Use Case: Add item to cart
Steps:

1. User selects a product.

2. Clicks "Add to Cart."
3. System updates the cart.
4. User proceeds to checkout.

Benefits:
✅ Helps in user-centric design.
✅ Makes software requirements clear and structured.
Challenges:
❌ Some user actions may be unpredictable.
❌ Difficult to anticipate every possible scenario.
Would you like any additional explanations or diagrams to illustrate these models? 😊

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write detailed answers for these topics and questions

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Your notes cover key topics in software engineering, including software development models and agile
methodologies. Let me know which topic you'd like an explanation for, or if you need a summary of
everything!

Nature of software, definition

S/W Application Domains
Legacy software
Software engineering Layers
Framework activities
Umbrella activities
Myths explain everything in detail

Here’s a detailed explanation of each topic from your notes:

1. Nature of Software & Definition

Definition:
Software is a collection of computer programs, data, and instructions that enable users to perform
specific tasks. It consists of well-structured code designed to interact with hardware to perform
functionalities.

Nature of Software:

Intangible: Unlike hardware, software has no physical existence.

Customizable: Software can be modified, updated, and improved to meet evolving needs.
Engineering & Art: It requires both technical skills and creativity for design and problem-solving.
Complexity: Software development can be highly complex due to millions of lines of code.
Changeable: Software evolves over time with updates, bug fixes, and new features.
No Wear & Tear: Unlike hardware, software does not degrade over time but can become outdated.

2. Software Application Domains

Software is used across various domains, including:

1. System Software - Operating systems (Windows, Linux, macOS), device drivers, and utilities.
2. Application Software - Word processors, media players, accounting software, etc.
3. Embedded Software - Used in consumer electronics, automobiles, and medical devices.
4. Web Applications - E-commerce platforms, social media, web-based email clients.
5. Enterprise Software - ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship
Management).
6. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning - Predictive analytics, natural language processing.
7. Real-time Software - Used in flight control systems, industrial automation, stock trading.

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3. Legacy Software

Legacy software refers to outdated or old software that is still in use despite being replaced by modern
solutions.

Characteristics of Legacy Software:

Still functional but often inefficient.

Difficult to maintain and upgrade.
Runs on old technologies that may no longer be supported.
Expensive to replace or rewrite.

Examples:

COBOL-based banking systems.

Old Windows XP applications still used in government offices.
Mainframe applications in insurance companies.

Challenges with Legacy Software:

Security vulnerabilities.
Lack of support and updates.
Incompatibility with modern hardware.
High maintenance costs.

4. Software Engineering Layers

Software engineering consists of multiple layers that ensure structured development:

1. Quality Focus - The foundation that emphasizes high-quality software with best practices.
2. Process Layer - Defines frameworks, methodologies, and workflows used to develop software.
3. Methods Layer - Includes techniques, principles, and practices for software development.
4. Tools Layer - Supports development through IDEs (Integrated Development Environments),
debugging tools, version control, etc.

5. Framework Activities

Framework activities are the fundamental stages of software development:

1. Communication - Understanding requirements through client meetings and analysis.

2. Planning - Creating timelines, cost estimation, and resource allocation.
3. Modeling - Designing system architecture, database models, and UI wireframes.
4. Construction - Writing code, testing, and debugging.
5. Deployment - Releasing the software for user access and monitoring for issues.

6. Umbrella Activities

Umbrella activities support the core framework activities and enhance the development process:

1. Risk Management - Identifying and mitigating potential software project risks.

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 2. Quality Assurance - Ensuring the software meets required standards.
3. Configuration Management - Managing code versions and system configurations.
4. Software Reviews - Code reviews, design walkthroughs, and peer reviews.
5. Measurement & Metrics - Tracking development progress through productivity metrics.
6. Reusability Management - Encouraging the use of pre-existing modules to save time.

7. Myths About Software Development

Misconceptions about software engineering can lead to unrealistic expectations:

1. “Adding more people to a late project will speed it up.”

Myth! Adding new developers increases communication overhead and delays progress.
2. “The client knows exactly what they want.”
Myth! Clients often discover their needs during development, requiring changes.
3. “Once software is built, the job is done.”
Myth! Software requires continuous maintenance, updates, and bug fixes.
4. “Software can be developed without formal documentation.”
Myth! Lack of documentation leads to difficulties in maintenance and scaling.
5. “More features mean better software.”
Myth! Too many features can make software bloated and hard to use.

This breakdown provides a structured explanation of each topic. Let me know if you need further details
or examples! 🚀

Generic Process Model (Process Frame)

Different Flows: Process Flows
Prescriptive Process Models
Waterfall
Incremental
Prototyping
Evolutionary Process Models
Prototyping Model
Spiral Model
Unified Process Model

Here’s a detailed explanation of each topic:

1. Generic Process Model (Process Framework)

A Generic Process Model provides a basic structure for software development, consisting of
fundamental activities applicable to all development approaches.
Key Activities in the Generic Process Model:

1. Communication – Understanding requirements through meetings with clients and stakeholders.

2. Planning – Defining timelines, cost estimation, and resource allocation.
3. Modeling – Creating designs, system architectures, and prototypes.

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 4. Construction – Writing the actual code, testing, and debugging.
5. Deployment – Delivering the product and handling maintenance.

This model serves as the foundation for all software development processes.

2. Different Flows: Process Flows

Process flows define how activities are executed in a software development process.

Linear Flow – Activities occur sequentially, completing one phase before moving to the next.
Iterative Flow – Software is developed in small cycles, refining it through feedback loops.
Parallel Flow – Multiple activities are performed simultaneously to speed up development.
Evolutionary Flow – Software evolves over time, adding features gradually based on user
feedback.

Each flow is used based on project requirements, complexity, and team structure.

3. Prescriptive Process Models

Prescriptive models define structured steps that developers must follow. These include:

1. Waterfall Model – A sequential, phase-based approach.

2. Incremental Model – Development occurs in small, functional increments.
3. Prototyping Model – A rough version of the software is created for user feedback.
4. Evolutionary Models – Software evolves over multiple iterations.
5. Spiral Model – A risk-driven, iterative process.

These models provide discipline and structure to software development.

4. Waterfall Model

The Waterfall Model is the oldest and most structured software development model.
Phases of Waterfall:

1. Requirement Analysis – Collecting and documenting project requirements.

2. System Design – Creating architecture and technical specifications.
3. Implementation (Coding) – Writing and compiling the software.
4. Testing – Identifying and fixing bugs.
5. Deployment – Delivering the final product.
6. Maintenance – Providing support and updates.

Advantages:
✔ Simple and easy to manage.
✔ Works well for small projects with clear requirements.
Disadvantages:
❌ Rigid and difficult to modify once a phase is completed.
❌ High risk, as errors detected late can be costly.
5. Incremental Model

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The Incremental Model builds software in small, functional parts (increments) rather than a single
delivery.
Phases in Incremental Development:

1. Requirement Analysis – Define core features for the first increment.

2. Design & Development – Develop the first version with limited features.
3. Testing – Ensure functionality and stability.
4. Deployment – Release and gather feedback.
5. Next Increment – Add features in the next cycle and repeat the process.

Advantages:
✔ Faster release of a working product.
✔ Easier to incorporate feedback and changes.
✔ Lower risk compared to the Waterfall model.
Disadvantages:
❌ Needs proper planning to manage dependencies between increments.
❌ Can lead to inconsistent design if not managed well.
6. Prototyping Model

The Prototyping Model creates an early working version (prototype) of the software before final
development.
Steps in Prototyping:

1. Requirement Gathering – Identify key functionalities.

2. Quick Design – Develop a rough user interface and core logic.
3. Prototype Development – Create a simplified working model.
4. User Evaluation – Gather feedback on the prototype.
5. Refinement – Improve and finalize the design based on feedback.
6. Final Development – Convert the prototype into the actual product.

Advantages:
✔ Helps understand user needs early.
✔ Reduces risks by identifying issues before full-scale development.
Disadvantages:
❌ Requires extra effort to build and refine prototypes.
❌ Users might expect the prototype to be the final product.
7. Evolutionary Process Models

These models develop software gradually, refining and expanding features over multiple iterations.
Types of Evolutionary Models:

Prototyping Model (covered above)

Spiral Model (risk-driven iterative approach)
Unified Process Model (structured object-oriented approach)

These models help in adaptive software development, allowing continuous improvements.

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8. Spiral Model

The Spiral Model is a risk-driven software development approach that combines iterative development
with risk management.

Phases of the Spiral Model:

1. Planning – Define objectives, requirements, and constraints.

2. Risk Analysis – Identify potential risks and mitigation strategies.
3. Engineering (Development & Testing) – Develop a functional version of the system.
4. Evaluation & Feedback – Gather user feedback and refine the design.
5. Repeat the Cycle – Expand the system incrementally with reduced risks.

Advantages:
✔ Excellent for high-risk projects.
✔ Allows continuous improvement.
✔ Incorporates user feedback at each phase.
Disadvantages:
❌ Expensive and time-consuming.
❌ Requires skilled risk assessment.
9. Unified Process Model (UP)

The Unified Process (UP) is an object-oriented development framework used in software engineering.
Phases of the Unified Process Model:

1. Inception – Define project goals and high-level architecture.

2. Elaboration – Create detailed designs and prototypes.
3. Construction – Develop, test, and refine the product.
4. Transition – Deploy the software and handle maintenance.

Key Features of Unified Process:

Uses UML (Unified Modeling Language) for design.

Follows iterative and incremental development.
Focuses on risk management and high-quality output.

Advantages:
✔ Well-structured for object-oriented development.
✔ Reduces risks through iterative feedback.
✔ Provides better project control and scalability.
Disadvantages:
❌ Complex and requires skilled developers.
❌ High cost for small projects.
Summary Table

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 Model Approach Key Feature Best For Limitations
One phase at a Small projects with fixed
Waterfall Sequential Rigid, no flexibility
time requirements

Projects requiring early

Incremental Iterative Build in small parts Needs proper planning
delivery
Early working Projects where user needs Users may misunderstand
Prototyping Evolutionary
model are unclear prototype

Focuses on risk
Spiral Risk-driven Large, high-risk projects Expensive and complex
analysis
Unified Object-oriented, Large-scale structured High cost, requires
Iterative
Process UML-based projects expertise

Conclusion

Each software process model has its strengths and weaknesses. Choosing the right model depends on:
✅ Project size & complexity
✅ Client involvement & feedback
✅ Risk factors
✅ Budget & timeline constraints
Let me know if you need more details or explanations! 🚀

Agility
Agile Process Models
Scrum
Other agile models
XP (Extreme Programming)
Kanba

Agility & Agile Process Models

What is Agility?

Agility in software development refers to the ability to quickly adapt to changing requirements,
customer needs, and market conditions. Agile methodologies prioritize collaboration, flexibility, and
iterative development over rigid planning.
Key Characteristics of Agile Development:

Iterative & Incremental – Software is developed in short cycles called iterations.

Customer Collaboration – Continuous feedback from stakeholders.
Adaptive Planning – Flexible approach to changes.
Continuous Improvement – Regular evaluation and refinement of processes.
Working Software Over Documentation – Focus on delivering functional software frequently.

Agile Process Models

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Agile process models are lightweight frameworks designed to handle dynamic and evolving
requirements. The most widely used Agile methodologies include:

1. Scrum
2. Extreme Programming (XP)
3. Kanban
4. Lean Software Development
5. Crystal Methodology
6. Feature-Driven Development (FDD)

Each methodology has its own principles, but all follow the core Agile Manifesto values.

Scrum

Scrum is an Agile framework that organizes work into time-boxed iterations called Sprints (typically 2-4
weeks). It is based on empirical process control and encourages frequent inspection and adaptation.

Scrum Roles:

1. Product Owner – Defines the product backlog, prioritizes requirements, and represents
stakeholders.
2. Scrum Master – Facilitates Scrum processes, removes impediments, and ensures adherence to
Agile principles.
3. Development Team – Self-organizing group that delivers increments of the product.

Scrum Workflow:

1. Product Backlog – A list of prioritized features and tasks.

2. Sprint Planning – The team selects backlog items for the Sprint.
3. Sprint Execution – Development and testing within the Sprint duration.
4. Daily Standup (Scrum Meeting) – A 15-minute meeting to discuss progress, roadblocks, and
plans.
5. Sprint Review – Demonstration of the completed work to stakeholders.
6. Sprint Retrospective – Reflection on what went well and what needs improvement.

Advantages of Scrum:
✔ High adaptability to changing requirements.
✔ Encourages transparency and continuous feedback.
✔ Faster delivery of functional software.
Disadvantages of Scrum:
❌ Requires high team discipline and self-management.
❌ Difficult to manage for large teams without proper coordination.
Extreme Programming (XP)

Extreme Programming (XP) focuses on engineering best practices and frequent releases. It
emphasizes collaboration between developers and customers.

Key Practices in XP:

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 Pair Programming – Two developers work on the same code simultaneously.
Test-Driven Development (TDD) – Writing tests before coding to ensure quality.
Continuous Integration – Frequent merging of code changes to maintain stability.
Refactoring – Improving code structure without changing its functionality.
Small Releases – Delivering working software frequently.

Advantages of XP:
✔ Produces high-quality, bug-free code.
✔ Enhances team collaboration.
✔ Responds well to changing customer needs.
Disadvantages of XP:
❌ Requires highly skilled and disciplined developers.
❌ Not suitable for projects with fixed requirements.
Kanban

Kanban is a visual workflow management method used to optimize work efficiency. It focuses on
continuous delivery without fixed iterations like Scrum.

Principles of Kanban:

Visualize Work – Use a Kanban board to track progress (To Do → In Progress → Done).
Limit Work in Progress (WIP) – Prevents overloading the team with too many tasks.
Manage Flow – Ensure a smooth movement of tasks through the system.
Make Process Policies Explicit – Clear rules for managing tasks.
Implement Feedback Loops – Continuous feedback and improvement.

Advantages of Kanban:
✔ Improves workflow visibility and efficiency.
✔ Reduces bottlenecks in software development.
✔ Supports continuous improvement.
Disadvantages of Kanban:
❌ No fixed timeline, making it hard to predict delivery dates.
❌ Requires constant monitoring and management.
Other Agile Models

Apart from Scrum, XP, and Kanban, there are additional Agile methodologies:

1. Lean Software Development

Focuses on eliminating waste, optimizing processes, and delivering value faster.

Inspired by Toyota’s Lean Manufacturing principles.
Encourages small batch sizes, fast feedback, and continuous improvement.

2. Crystal Methodology

Prioritizes people and interactions over rigid processes.

Different variations: Crystal Clear, Crystal Orange, etc., depending on project size and complexity.
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3. Feature-Driven Development (FDD)

Development is based on features, with short cycles delivering individual functionalities.

Best suited for large, complex projects.

Conclusion: Choosing the Right Agile Model

Agile Model Best For Key Focus

Scrum Teams with fixed-length projects Iterations (Sprints), Team Collaboration
XP Teams requiring high-quality code Engineering Practices, Rapid Changes

Kanban Continuous work without sprints Workflow Visualization, Efficiency

Lean Reducing waste and maximizing value Process Optimization, Fast Delivery
Crystal Projects of different sizes and complexity Adaptability, Team Collaboration
FDD Large-scale feature-based projects Feature-driven Development

Each Agile methodology provides flexibility and efficiency but should be chosen based on the project
requirements and team dynamics. 🚀

Requirement Engineering Tasks

Establishing groundwork
Req's gathering
Use cases
Building Analysis Model

Requirement Engineering (RE) Tasks

Requirement Engineering (RE) is the process of defining, documenting, and maintaining software
requirements. It helps ensure that the final system meets user needs and business goals.

1. Establishing Groundwork

Before gathering requirements, the groundwork must be set by defining the scope, goals, and
constraints of the project.
Steps in Establishing Groundwork:
✔ Understanding Business Needs – Identify why the software is needed.
✔ Identifying Stakeholders – Users, developers, managers, customers, etc.
✔ Defining System Scope – What features and functionalities are in/out of scope?
✔ Feasibility Study – Evaluating technical, financial, and operational feasibility.
✔ Identifying Risks – Analyzing challenges that may impact requirements.
Outcome: A well-defined project scope that sets expectations and aligns stakeholders.

2. Requirements Gathering

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This step involves collecting information from stakeholders to define system requirements. Various
techniques can be used:

Techniques for Requirement Gathering:

Interviews – Direct discussion with stakeholders.

Surveys/Questionnaires – Collecting structured responses.
Observation – Watching users interact with current systems.
Workshops/Brainstorming – Group discussions to identify needs.
Prototyping – Creating a basic version of the system to gather feedback.
Document Analysis – Reviewing existing documents, reports, and system records.

Types of Requirements:

Functional Requirements – Features and functionalities of the system.

Non-Functional Requirements – Performance, security, usability constraints.
Domain Requirements – Industry-specific regulations or constraints.

Outcome: A Requirement Specification Document (SRS) detailing all gathered requirements.

3. Use Cases

Use cases describe how users (actors) interact with the system to achieve specific goals. They provide a
visual and textual representation of system behavior.

Use Case Elements:

Actors – Users or external systems interacting with the software.

Use Case Description – A brief explanation of what the use case does.
Preconditions – Conditions that must be met before execution.
Basic Flow (Main Scenario) – Step-by-step interactions between the actor and the system.
Alternate Flows – Variations in how the system handles the use case.
Exceptions – Error conditions or failure cases.

Example Use Case: ATM Withdrawal

Actors: Customer, Bank System

Steps:

1. The customer inserts the card.

2. The system prompts for a PIN.
3. The customer enters the PIN.
4. The system verifies the PIN and displays options.
5. The customer selects "Withdraw Cash."
6. The system dispenses cash and updates the account balance.

Outcome: A set of structured use cases that define how the system will be used.

4. Building an Analysis Model

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The analysis model helps visualize, refine, and structure requirements into a format that developers
can work with.

Types of Analysis Models:

1. Data Models – Represent data flow and relationships.

Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) – Shows how data entities relate.
Data Flow Diagram (DFD) – Depicts how data moves in the system.
2. Behavioral Models – Show how the system behaves.
State Transition Diagrams – Define system states and transitions.
Sequence Diagrams – Represent the interaction between system components.
3. Functional Models – Define system functionality.
Use Case Diagrams – Show actor interactions with the system.
Class Diagrams – Represent objects and their relationships.
4. Process Models – Define system workflows.
Activity Diagrams – Depict process sequences.

Outcome: A structured and visual representation of requirements, making it easier for developers
to build the system.

Conclusion
Requirement Engineering ensures software meets user expectations by establishing clear, well-
documented, and structured requirements.

Phase Purpose Outcome

Establishing
Define scope, stakeholders, and feasibility Clear project scope
Groundwork
Requirements Collect and document functional & non-functional
SRS document
Gathering needs

Use Case Diagrams &

Use Cases Define system interactions
Descriptions
Building Analysis
Visualize & structure requirements Diagrams & structured models
Model

A well-executed Requirement Engineering Process reduces miscommunication, errors, and costly

changes in software development. 🚀

Rules of Thumb
Principles of Requirements Modeling
Scenario Based Modeling
Class Based Modeling
Class diagrams
CRC cards
Functional Modeling
Activity diagrams

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 Sequence diagrams
Behavioral Modeling
State diagrams
Activity diagrams
Swimlane diagrams

Requirements Modeling & Diagrams Overview

1. Rules of Thumb in Requirements Modeling

Rules of thumb guide effective requirement modeling by ensuring clarity, completeness, and
consistency.
✔ Capture the essence, not the details – Focus on core system behavior.
✔ Be unambiguous – Ensure requirements are clear and testable.
✔ Balance abstraction and details – Avoid excessive complexity.
✔ Use diagrams to enhance understanding – Visuals simplify communication.
✔ Validate requirements with stakeholders – Ensure correctness.
✔ Adapt modeling techniques based on project needs – Choose suitable approaches.
2. Principles of Requirements Modeling
Principles guide how requirements are structured and analyzed for clarity and accuracy.
📌 Principle 1: Understand the Problem – Gather, analyze, and validate needs before modeling.
📌 Principle 2: Build Models Iteratively – Keep refining models based on feedback.
📌 Principle 3: Maintain Consistency – Ensure different models align with each other.
📌 Principle 4: Use Multiple Views – Functional, behavioral, and structural models should be combined.
📌 Principle 5: Focus on User Needs – Keep user expectations central.
📌 Principle 6: Simplify Complexity – Models should be easy to interpret and manage.
3. Scenario-Based Modeling
Scenario-based modeling describes real-world interactions between users and the system.

📌 Main Artifacts in Scenario-Based Modeling:

Use Case Diagrams – Show system interactions.
Use Case Descriptions – Detail steps of interactions.
User Stories – Short, informal descriptions from user perspectives.
Flowcharts – Show process steps in a structured way.

Example Use Case:

🟢 User Story: “As a customer, I want to search for products so I can find the best deal.”
🟢 Use Case: “Search for a Product” – Actors: Customer, System.
4. Class-Based Modeling

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Class-based modeling defines objects, attributes, and relationships within the system.
📌 Key Elements:
Classes – Represent entities (e.g., "User," "Product," "Order").
Attributes – Properties of a class (e.g., "Product Name," "Price").
Methods – Functions performed by a class (e.g., "Add to Cart").
Relationships – Connections between classes (e.g., association, inheritance).

Class Diagram Example:

pgsql

+-----------------+
| User |
+-----------------+
| - name |
| - email |
+-----------------+
| + login() |
| + register() |
+-----------------+
|
v
+-----------------+
| Order |
+-----------------+
| - orderID |
| - date |
+-----------------+
| + placeOrder() |
| + cancelOrder()|
+-----------------+

5. CRC Cards (Class-Responsibility-Collaborator)

CRC cards help identify class responsibilities and collaborations.
📌 Structure of CRC Cards:
Class Name Responsibilities Collaborators
User Login, Register Order, Product
Order Place order, Cancel User, Payment

6. Functional Modeling
Functional modeling represents how the system processes data and user inputs to generate outputs.
📌 Common Functional Models:
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) – Show how data moves through the system.
Activity Diagrams – Represent workflows and processes.

7. Activity Diagrams

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Activity diagrams visualize process flows in a system.
📌 Elements of Activity Diagrams:
Start/End Nodes – Represent process beginning and end.
Actions – Represent steps in the process.
Decision Nodes – Represent branching paths.
Arrows – Show flow direction.

Example:
🔹 User logs in → Selects a product → Adds to cart → Proceeds to payment → Order confirmed.

rust

[Start] --> (Login) --> (Select Product) --> (Add to Cart)

-->|Payment?|
Y | --> (Proceed to Payment) --> (Confirm Order) --> [End]
N | --> (Cancel)

8. Sequence Diagrams
Sequence diagrams show interactions between objects over time.
📌 Key Components:
Actors – Entities that initiate interactions.
Objects – System components involved.
Lifelines – Represent object existence.
Messages – Arrows showing communication.

Example: Online Shopping Checkout Process

sql

User ---> Website: Login

User ---> Website: Select Product
User ---> Cart: Add Product
User ---> Payment: Make Payment
Payment ---> Bank: Process Payment
Bank ---> Payment: Confirmation

9. Behavioral Modeling
Behavioral modeling describes how the system reacts to events.
📌 Common Behavioral Models:
State Diagrams – Show object states and transitions.
Activity Diagrams – Represent workflows.
Swimlane Diagrams – Divide workflow between actors.

10. State Diagrams

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State diagrams show object lifecycle changes.
📌 Example: ATM Transaction State Diagram
rust

(Idle) --> (Card Inserted) --> (PIN Entered) --> (Transaction Selected)
-->|Funds Available?|
Y | --> (Process Transaction) --> (Print Receipt) --> (End)
N | --> (Declined) --> (End)

11. Swimlane Diagrams

Swimlane diagrams divide activities among different actors or departments.
📌 Example: Online Order Processing Swimlane
Customer Website Warehouse Payment

Select Item Process Order Pick Item Validate Payment

Checkout Confirm Order Pack Item Approve Transaction
Make Payment Send Notification Ship Order Complete Payment

Conclusion
Model Purpose Common Diagrams

Scenario-Based Defines system interactions Use Case, Flowcharts

Class-Based Defines system structure Class Diagram, CRC Cards
Functional Represents system functionality Activity Diagram, DFD
Behavioral Shows how system reacts to events State Diagram, Sequence Diagram, Swimlane

These models enhance system design clarity, reduce errors, and ensure smooth development. 🚀

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