Physics

Physics is a branch of science that deals with the study of matter, energy and their interactions.

Branches of Physics
Physics is grouped into the following branches:
1. Mechanics (i.e. Motion and Properties of Matter).
2. Heat (i.e. Thermal Energy). A form of energy that causes rise in temperature.
3. Optics (i.e. Light, Waves and Sound).
4. Electricity (i.e. Electrostatics and Current electricity) and Magnetism.
5. Modern Physics (i.e. Atomic, Nuclear Physics and Electronics).

Why we study Physics

1. To understand scientific theories, principles and concepts.
2. To understand the applicability of Physics in other disciplines like security, medicine,
engineering, etc. and improve the world’s technology.
3. To help students develop an experimental attitude by performing experiments and acquire
skills such as observation, measuring, drawing logical conclusions.
4. To prepare students for further studies in Physics and Physics related courses.

Career Opportunities in Physics:

A student who has done physics has the following career opportunities in the following fields:
CASE A: Engineering
1. Electrical engineering.
2. Civil engineering.
3. Mechanical engineering.
4. Agricultural engineering
5. Chemical engineering.
6. Geology / Geological engineering.
7. Telecommunications engineering
8. Materials engineering / Materials science
9. Aerospace engineering
10. Petroleum engineering
11. Architecture.
12. Industrial laboratory technology
Page 1 of 100
CASE B: Medicine
1. General medicine
2. Pharmacy
3. Medical laboratory technology
4. Medical physics

CASE C: Education and Research

1. Teaching physics.
2. Research scientist

CASE D: Computer Science and Information Technology

1. Computer science
2. Information technology
3. Information, Communication and Technology
4. Software engineering.
5. Data science

CASE E: Astronomy
1. Astronomy
2. Meteorology

Page 2 of 100
 Physical Quantity
Physical quantity is a property of an object which can be measured with an instrument.

Expression for Physical Quantity

Physical quantity is expressed as a product of a numerical magnitude and a unit of the physical
quantity.
Mathematically
Physical quantity = numerical magnitude × unit of physical quantity --- (1)
For example:
Suppose a student measures his mass and record it as 65 kg.
This indicates that, the numerical magnitude for the physical quantity of the student which in
this case is its mass is 65. The unit of mass is the kilogram kg .

Examples of Physical Quantity

Examples of physical quantity are:
1. mass
2. length
3. time
4. electric current
5. thermodynamic temperature
6. amount of substance
7. luminous intensity

Basic Characteristics of Physical Quantity

1. Every physical quantity has a numerical magnitude.
2. Every physical quantity has a unit in which it is measured.

Unit
A unit is a standard quantity of the same kind with which a physical quantity is compared for
measuring it.
For example:
If length is to be measured it is compared with a standard metre scale.

Page 3 of 100
 Types of Physical Quantity
There are two types of physical quantity and these are:
1. Fundamental quantity or Base quantity
2. Derived quantity
Fundamental Quantity
Fundamental quantity is a physical quantity which is independent of other quantities.

Examples of Fundamental Quantity

Examples of fundamental quantity are:
1. mass
2. length
3. time
4. electric current
5. thermodynamic temperature
6. amount of substance
7. luminous intensity

Properties of Fundamental Quantities

1. Each fundamental quantity has only one unit which is different.
1. Fundamental quantity is also called Base Quantity.
2. The unit of the fundamental quantity is called Fundamental Unit or Base Unit.

Base Unit or Fundamental Unit

Base unit is a unit from which all other units are derived.

Examples of Base Unit

Examples of base unit are:
1. kilogram (kg)
2. metre (m)
3. second (s)
4. ampere (A)
5. kelvin (K)
6. mole (mol)
7. candela (cd)
Page 4 of 100
 Properties of Base Unit or Fundamental Unit
1. The base units may be multiplied together or divided by one another.
2. The base units should never be added or subtracted.

International System of Units (SI Unit)

International agreement has been reached by almost all scientific countries to adopt a common
system of units for all scientific measurements which is based on the metric system of
measurements. This common system of units is called the International System of Units which
is abbreviated SI Unit.
In the International System of Units, there are seven fundamental quantities and their units and
two supplementary quantities and their units.

The Seven Fundamental Quantities, their SI Units and Symbols

Fundamental Fundamental SI Unit SI Unit Physics

Quantity Quantity Name Symbol Discipline
or Symbol
Base Quantity or
Base
Quantity
Symbol
mass m kilogram kg mechanics
length metre m mechanics
time t second s mechanics
electric current I ampere A electricity
thermodynamic T kelvin K heat or thermal
temperature energy
amount of n mole mol mechanics
substance
luminous L candela cd light
intensity

Page 5 of 100
 The Two Supplementary Quantities, their SI Units and SI Unit Symbols

Supplementary Quantity SI Unit Name SI Unit Symbol

plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr

Basic Concepts for Fundamental or Base SI Units

The Kilogram kg
The kilogram is the unit of mass and is defined as the mass of an international prototype in the
form of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
at Sevres, France.

The Metre m
!
The metre is the unit of length and is defined as of the distance travelled by light in
"## $#" %&'

vacuum in one second.

The Second s
The second is the unit of time and is defined as the duration of exactly 9 192 631 770 periods
of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of a caesium – 133 atom.

The Ampere A
The ampere is the unit of electric current and is defined as that constant current which, if
maintained in two parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross – section
and placed 1 / apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to
2 × 100$ newton per metre of length.

The Kelvin K
!
The kelvin is the unit of thermodynamic temperature and is defined as the fraction "$2.!4
of

the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

Page 6 of 100
 The Mole mol
The mole is the unit of amount of substance and is defined as the amount of substance of a
system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 56 of carbon –
12.

The Candela cd
The candela is the unit of luminous intensity and is defined as the luminous intensity in a given
direction of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 10!" hertz and
!
that has a radiant intensity in that direction of watt per steradian.
4'2

Basic Concepts for Supplementary SI Units

The Radian rad

The radian is the unit of plane angle and 1 radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

The Steradian sr
The steradian is the unit of solid angle and 1 steradian is defined as the solid angle subtended
at the centre of a sphere by a surface of the sphere equal in area to that of a square having each
side equal to the radius of the sphere.

Some Professions that make Use of the SI System of Units

1. Scientists need to be able to make accurate measurements so that they can exchange
information.
2. Engineers need to be able to make accurate measurements so that they can exchange
information.

Reasons for Choosing a Standard System of Units

1. For accurate scientific measurements.
2. To promote an easy interchange of scientific information.

Page 7 of 100
 Properties of a Standard Unit
1. It must be easily accessible so that it can be easily compared.
2. It must be easily reproduced at exactly the same magnitude so that people all over the world
can check their instruments.
3. A standard of measurement must be invariant in time.
For example, a standard of length that keeps changing would be useless.

Reasons why it is Important to Convert all Units to their SI Units in Physics

Calculations
1. For consistency of the units.
2. To understand measurements in one set of unit system.

Derived Quantity
Derived quantity is a physical quantity which is derived from some combination of two or more
fundamental quantities.
Examples of Derived Quantity
Examples of derived quantity are:
1. area
2. velocity
3. force
4. acceleration
5. energy
6. power
7. momentum
8. density etc.

Properties of Derived Quantity

1. Each derived quantity has a combination of two or more base units.
2. The units of the derived quantities are called Derived Units

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 Derived Unit
Derived unit is a unit that results from some combination of two or more base units.

Examples of Derived Unit

Examples of derived unit are:
1. hertz Hz
2. newton N
3. metre per second m s 0! etc.

NOTE:
1. If k is a constant, then k has no base units, so k is represented simply as k.
!
2. All numerical factors such as , 1 , 2, 3 etc. have no base units, so they are ignored in
"

equations.

Some Examples of Derived Quantity, SI Unit Name, SI Unit Symbol and Base Units

Derived Quantity Derived SI Unit Name SI Unit Base Unit

Quantity Symbol Equivalent
Symbol
frequency f hertz Hz s 0!
velocity v metre per m s 0! m s 0!
second
acceleration a metre per m s 0" m s 0"
second squared
force F newton N kg m s 0"
energy E joule J kg m" s 0"
power P watt W kg m" s 02
area A metre squared m" m"
density ρ kilogram per kg m02 kg m02
metre cubed
or

Page 9 of 100
 kilograms per
cubic metre
pressure p pascal Pa kg m0! s 0"
Moment of inertia I kilogram metre kg m" kg m"
squared
Electric charge Q coulomb C As
capacitance C farad F kg 0! m0" s % A"
Potential V volt V kg m" s 02 A0!
difference
Electrical R ohm Ω kg m" s 02 A0"
resistance
Specific heat c joule per J kg 0! K 0! m" s 0" K 0!
capacity kilogram per
kelvin
Magnetic flux B tesla T kg s 0" A0!
density
Magnetic flux Φ weber Wb kg m" s 0" A0!
Permittivity of εJ farad per metre F m0! kg 0! m02 s % A"
free space
Permeability of μJ henry per H m0! kg m s 0" A0"
free space metre

Page 10 of 100
 Some Examples of Derived Quantity and their Derived Units

Derived Unit of Some Derived Quantities from Mechanics and Properties of Matter
Derived Quantity Derived SI Unit Special Name
area area = length × breadth = m × m = m" -
volume volume = length × length × length = m × -
m × m = m2
LMNN ST
density density = = = kg m02 -
OJPQLR LU

specific gravity density of material -

specific gravity =
density of water at 4 ℃
kg m02
= = 1 = no base unit
kg m02
specific volume volume m2 -
specific volume = = = kg 0! m2
mass kg
XYNZM[\R L
speed speed = = = m s 0! -
ZYLR N
XYN]PM\RLR[Z L
velocity velocity = ZYLR
= N
= m s 0! -

velocity gradient velocity m s 0! hertz Hz

velocity gradient = = = s 0!
distance m
acceleration ORPJ\YZ^ L N_` -
acceleration = = = m s 0"
ZYLR N

linear momentum linear momentum = mass × velocity = -

kg × m s 0! = kg m s 0!
force force = mass × acceleration = kg × newton N
m s 0" = kg m s 0"
force constant force newton per
force constant =
change in length metre N m0!
kg m s 0"
= = kg s 0"
m
thrust thrust = force = kg m s 0" newton N
tension tension = force = kg m s 0" newton N
impulse impulse = force × time = kg m s 0" × s newton second N s
= kg m s 0!
pressure aJb\R ST L N_c newton per square
pressure = = = kg m0! s 0"
MbRM Lc

Page 11 of 100
 metre N m0"
= pascal Pa
pressure gradient pressure kg m0! s 0" newton per cubic
pressure gradient = =
distance m metre N m02
= kg m0" s 0"
work or energy work or energy = force × distance = joule J
kg m s 0" × m = kg m" s 0"
kinetic energy 1 " joule J
kinetic energy = × mass × velocity
2
= kg × m s 0! "
= kg m" s 0"
potential energy potential energy = mass × joule J
acceleration due to gravity × height = kg ×
m s 0" × m = kg m" s 0"
energy gradient energy kg m" s 0" -
energy gradient = =
distance m
= kg m s 0"
energy density energy kg m" s 0" -
energy density = =
volume m2
= kg m0! s 0"
power R[RbT^ ST Lc N_c watt W
power = ZYLR
= N
= kg m" s 02

time period time period = time = s -

! !
frequency frequency = ZYLR ]RbYJX = = s 0! hertz Hz
N

moment of force moment of force newton metre N m

= force
× perpendicular distance
= kg m s 0" × m = kg m" s 0"
gravitational aJb\R × XYNZM[\R c ST L N_c × L c -
G= c = =
LMNN ST c
constant G
ST L N_c × Lc
= kg 0! m2 s 0"
STc

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gravitational gravitational potential -
potential gravitational constant × mass
=−
distance
kg 0! m2 s 0" × kg
= = m" s 0"
m
stress aJb\R ST L N_c -
stress = = = kg m0! s 0"
MbRM Lc

strain \gM[TR Y[ PR[TZg L -

strain = = =1=
JbYTY[MP PR[TZg L

no base unit
modulus of NZbRNN -
modulus of elasticity = NZbMY[ =
elasticity ST L_` N_c
= kg m0! s 0"
[J hMNR Q[YZ

surface tension aJb\R ST L N_c newton per

surface tension = PR[TZg = L
= kg s 0"
metre N m0!
surface energy energy kg m" s 0" joule per square
surface energy = =
area m" metre J m0"
0"
= kg s
coefficient of aJb\R×XYNZM[\R -
coefficient of viscosity = MbRM×ORPJ\YZ^
=
viscosity
ST L N_c × L
= kg m0! s 0!
Lc × L N_`
"
moment of inertia moment of inertia = mass × radius -
= kg × m" = kg m"
angle PR[TZg Ja Mb\ -
angle = bMXYQN
= rad

angular length of arc -

angular displacement =
displacement radius
= rad
angular velocity angular displacement -
angular velocity =
time
rad
= = rad s 0!
s
angular angular velocity -
angular acceleration =
acceleration time
rad s 0!
= = rad s 0"
s

Page 13 of 100
angular angular momentum -
momentum = moment of inertia
× angular velocity
= radius × linear momentum
= m × kg m s 0! = kg m" s 0!
Angular Angular frequency = 2π × frequency
frequency = rad s 0!
Torque or couple Torque or couple = newton metre N m
= force
× perpendicular distance
= kg m s 0" × m = kg m" s 0"

Page 14 of 100
 Derived Unit of Some Derived Quantities from Heat and Thermodynamics
Derived Quantity SI Unit Special
Name
temperature gradient temperature gradient -
temperature K
= =
distance m
= K m0!
quantity of heat or heat energy or heat quantity of heat = heat energy -
= heat = energy
= kg m" s 0"
heat capacity heat capacity = -
jQM[ZYZ^ Ja gRMZ ST Lc N_c
= =
\gM[TR Y[ ZRL]RbMZQbR k

kg m" s 0" K 0! = J K 0!
specific heat capacity specific heat capacity = -
jQM[ZYZ^ Ja gRMZ
=
LMNN ×\gM[TR Y[ ZRL]RbMZQbR

ST Lc N_c l
ST × k
= m" s 0" K 0! = ST × k =

J kg 0! K 0!
latent heat or specific latent heat of jQM[ZYZ^ Ja gRMZ -
latent heat = LMNN
=
fusion ST Lc N_c l
ST
= m" s 0" = ST = J kg 0!

specific latent heat of vapourisation specific latent heat of vapourisation -

jQM[ZYZ^ Ja gRMZ
= LMNN ×\gM[TR Y[ ZRL]RbMZQbR =
ST Lc N_c l
= m" s 0" K 0! = ST × k =
ST × k

J kg 0! K 0!
universal gas constant universal gas constant -
pressure × volume
=
temperature
kg m0! s 0" × m2
=
K
kg m" s 0" J
= =
K K
= J K 0!

Page 15 of 100
coefficient of thermal expansion coefficient of thermal expansion -
change in length
=
original length × temperature
m 1
= = = K 0!
m ×K K
coefficient of thermal conductivity coefficient of thermal conductivity -
quantity of heat
=
area × time × temperature gradient
kg m" s 0" kg m" s 02
= =
m" × s × K m0! m ×K
= W m0! K 0!

Derived Unit of Some Derived Quantities from Electricity and Magnetism

Derived Quantity SI Unit Special Name
electric charge electric charge = current × time coulomb C
=A×s= As
electric current electric current density
density electric current A
= = "
area m
= A m0"
electric potential electric potential difference = volt V
difference nJbS XJ[R ST Lc N_c
RPR\ZbY\ \gMbTR
= oN
=

kg m" s 02 A0!
electric field force newton per coulomb N C0!
electric field intensity =
intensity electric charge
kg m s 0"
=
As
= kg m s 02 A0!
electrical electrical resistance = ohm Ω
resistance RPR\ZbY\ ]JZR[ZYMP XYaaRbR[\R ST Lc N_U o_`
= =
RPR\ZbY\ \QbbR[Z o

kg m" s 02 A0"

Page 16 of 100
resistivity resistivity = ohm metre Ω m
RPR\ZbY\MP bRNYNZM[\R ×\bJNN0NR\ZYJ[MP MbRM
=
PR[TZg

ST Lc N_U o_c × Lc
= kg m2 s 02 A0"
L

conductance 1 siemen S
conductance =
electric resistance
1
=
kg m s 02 A0"
"

= kg 0! m0" s 2 A"
conductivity 1 siemen per metre S m0!
qonductivity =
resistivity
1
=
kg m2 s 02 A0"
= kg 0! m02 s 2 A"
capacitance RPR\ZbY\ \gMbTR farad F
capacitance = RPR\ZbY\ ]JZR[ZYMP XYaaRbR[\R =
oN
ST Lc N_U o_c
= kg 0! m0" s % A"

inductance RPR\ZbY\ ]JZR[ZYMP XYaaRbR[\R henry H

inductance = =
RPR\ZbY\ \QbbR[Z⁄ZYLR

ST Lc N_U o_` ST Lc N_U o_`

= =
o⁄N o N_`

kg m" s 0" A0"

magnetic field magnetic field strength = tesla T
strength aJb\R ST L N_c
= o N × L N_` =
RPR\ZbY\ \gMbTR × ORPJ\YZ^

kg s 0" A0!
R[RbT^
Planck’s constant Planck’s constant = = joule second J s
abRjQR[\^

ST Lc N_c
= kg m" s 0!
N_`

permittivity of permittivity of free space = farad per metre F m0!

free space \gMbTR ×\gMbTR oN×oN
= ST L N_c ×Lc =
%s ×aJb\R× XYNZM[\R c

kg 0! m02 s 0% A"
permittivity of a permittivity of a medium = farad per metre F m0!
medium relative permittivity ×
permittivity of free space =

Page 17 of 100
 permittivity of free space =
\gMbTR ×\gMbTR oN×oN
= =
%s ×aJb\R× XYNZM[\R c ST L N_c ×Lc

kg 0! m02 s 0% A"
permeability of permeability of free space = henry per metre H m0!
free space %s×aJb\R ST L N_c
= =
\QbbR[Z ×\QbbR[Z o ×o

kg m s 0" A0"

Derived Unit of Some Derived Quantities from Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Derived Quantity SI Unit Special Name
wavelength
wave number
work function
Planck’s constant
decay constant
half – life

Page 18 of 100
 Some Derived Quantities having the Same Base Units
Derived Quantities Base Unit
momentum kg m s 0!
impulse
frequency s 0! = hertz Hz
velocity gradient
angular frequency rad s 0!
angular velocity
square of velocity m" s 0"
gravitational potential
latent heat
work kg m" s 0"
energy
torque
heat or quantity of heat or heat energy
force kg m s 0"
weight
thrust
energy gradient
pressure kg m0! s 0"
stress
modulus of elasticity
energy density

Page 19 of 100
 Rules of Writing Units and their Symbols
1. In writing the unit of any physical quantity, small letters must be used for symbol of unit.
Example: m, m/s etc.
2. The full name of unit in honour of great scientists should always begin with a small letter.
Example: 5 newton
3. The symbols of unit named after great scientists should be written with capital initial letter.
Example: W for watt, N for newton, A for ampere etc.
4. The symbol of unit should be written either in full or in agreed abbreviation.
Example: For second either use s or second not sec.
5. Unit names can be pluralized but unit symbols cannot be pluralized.
For example: 200 metres can be written but not 200 ms.
The reason for this is that the ‘s’ would be mistaken for the unit, ‘s’, for the second and the
‘m’ treated as ‘milli’ rather than ‘metre’.
6. No hyphens (- ) should be used in units.
Example: N − m not permitted
7. Half space to be kept between different units in a derived unit.
Example: N s
8. No more than one slash should be used in a unit.
Example: m⁄s " and not /⁄w /w. It is better to express this as m s 0"
9. No full stop should be used after units. Example: N and not N.

Page 20 of 100
 Representation of Numerical Values
A convention that is recommended for writing numerical values is that a space is put between
every group of three digits, starting from the decimal point.
For example:
(i) 123456789 is written 123 456 789
(ii) 12345.6789 is written 12 345.678 9
(iii) 5000 is written as 5 000

Including Units in Calculations

Units should be included at all stages of calculations, not only at the end of a calculation.
For example:
XYNZM[\R ZbMORPPRX
An object travels 10 m in 2 s. Using speed = ZYLR ZMSR[
, determine the speed of the

object.
SOLUTION
Given:
Distance travelled = 10 m --------------------------------- (1)
Time taken = 2 s --------------------------------------------- (2)
Speed is given by the expression
XYNZM[\R ZbMORPPRX
speed = ---------------------------------- (3)
ZYLR ZMSR[

From (3), by correct substitution (i.e. substitution of figures and units),

!x L
speed = ------------------------------------------------ (4)
"N

From (4), hence,

speed = 5 m⁄s or 5 m s 0! ------------------------------- (5)
Comment:
Hence, (4), is correct. Units should be included at all stages of calculations, not only at the end
of a calculation.

Also, from (3), by wrong substitution (i.e. substitution of only figures),

!x
speed = "
-------------------------------------------------- (6)

From (4), hence,

speed = 5 m⁄s or 5 m s 0! ------------------------------- (7)
Comment:

Page 21 of 100
Hence, (6), is incorrect. Units should be included at all stages of calculations, not only at the
end of a calculation.

Scientific Notation or Standard Form

Scientific notation or standard form is a shorter method of expressing very large or very small
numbers.
Standard form is based on powers of the base number 10. In standard form, the magnitude
or numerical value of a physical quantity Q is expressed in the form
Q = A × 10[ ------------------------------------------------- (1)
or
Q = A. y × 10[ ----------------------------------------------- (2)
where
(i) A can be an integer value or a decimal number and 1 ≤ A ≤ 10 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 9
(ii) n is a positive integer for a number greater than one or a negative integer for a
number less than one.
All numbers can be written in the standard form where only one digit appears before the
decimal point, the value being adjusted by multiplying by the appropriate power of 10.

Examples of Numbers in Scientific Notation or Standard Form

1. 3.0 × 10' m s 0!
2. 5.1 × 100$ m

Usefulness of Scientific Notation

1. It is used for entering and displaying large and small numbers on calculators.
For example:
× 10z or {|} is often used on calculators to represent ‘times ten to the power of.
4.62 × 102 is punched on the calculator as 4.62{|}3 and the calculator displays it as
4.62{3 before displaying a result as 4620.
2. Is used for the communication of scientific information.
3. Is useful for making the number of significant figures clear.
4. It indicates the degree of precision to which a quantity is measured.

Page 22 of 100
 Conversion of Integer Numbers to Scientific Notation
Locate where the decimal point is and count leftwards until in front of the last integer value
where the decimal point will be located. The count value is always positive.
The last integer value, the decimal point at its new location and the integer values to the right
of the decimal point are written as the result Q in the form
Q = A. y × 10[ ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = last integer value where the counting stops in front
y = integer values to the right of the decimal point new location
n = count value obtained
For example:
Q1. Express this number 300 000 000 m s 0! in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 300 000 000 m s 0! ---------------------- (1)
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 300 000 000 m s 0! = 3.000 000 00 × 10' m s 0! - (2)

Q2. Express this quantity 3 236 000 000 000 km in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 3 236 000 000 000 km ------------------- (1)
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 3 236 000 000 000 km = 3.236 000 000 000 × 10!" km -- (2)

Q3. Express this quantity 2 452 m in scientific notation or standard form.

SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 2 452 m -------------------------------------- (1)
In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 2 452 m = 2.452 × 102 m --------------------------- (2)

Page 23 of 100
 Conversion of Decimal Numbers to Scientific Notation
Locate where the decimal point is and count rightwards until after the first integer value where
the decimal point will be located. The count value is always negative.
The first integer value, the decimal point at its new location and the integer values to the right
of the decimal point are written as the result ~ in the form
Q = A. y × 10[ ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = first integer value after which the counting stops
y = integer values to the right of the decimal point new location
n = count value obtained
For example:
Q1. Express this number 0.000 000 51 m in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 000 51 m ---------------------------- (1)
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 0.000 000 51 m = 5.1 × 100$ m ------------------- (2)

Q2. Express this number 0.000 000 000 521 m in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 000 000 521 m --------------------- (1)
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 0.000 000 000 521 m = 5.21 × 100!x m -------- (2)

Conversion of Numbers Consisting of both Integer Part and Fractional Part to

Scientific Notation
When a number consists of both an integer part and a fractional part, it is only the integer part
that is converted to the scientific notation or standard form.
For example:
Q1. Express this number 3 500.003 5 in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 3 500.003 5 -------------------------------- (1)

Page 24 of 100
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 3 500.003 5 = 3. 500 003 5 × 102 ---------------- (2)

Q2. Express this number 123 456.789 in scientific notation or standard form.
SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 123 456.789 -------------------------------- (1)
From (1), In scientific notation or standard form:
Q = 123 456.789 = 1.234 567 89 × 10& -------------- (2)

Writing a Scientific Notation Number or a Standard Form Number in Full

For a positive exponent number, the decimal point is moved rightwards the number of times of
the positive exponent and adding zeros if there are no numbers.
For a negative exponent number, the decimal point is moved leftwards the number of times of
the negative exponent and adding zeros if there are no numbers.
For example:
Q1. Write the numbers in full:
(i) 8.7 × 10&
(ii) 1.36 × 1004
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 8.7 × 10& ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), since the exponent is positive (i.e. 5), the decimal point is moved rightwards 5 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 8.7 × 10& = 870 000 --------------------------------- (2)
(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 1.36 × 1004 --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since the exponent is negative (i.e. −6), the decimal point is moved leftwards 6 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 1.36 × 1004 = 0.000 001 36 ----------------------- (2)

Page 25 of 100
 WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Write each of the following in scientific notation.
(i) 0.592
(ii) 12 000
(iii) 0.000 045
(iv) 0.024 13 J
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.592 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), in scientific notation or standard form, hence,
Q = 0.592 = 5.92 × 100! --------------------------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 12 000 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), in scientific notation or standard form, hence,
Q = 12 000 = 1.200 0 × 10% ----------------------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 045 ---------------------------------- (1)
From (1), in scientific notation or standard form, hence,
Q = 0.000 045 = 4.5 × 100& ---------------------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.024 13 J ----------------------------------- (1)
From (1), in scientific notation or standard form, hence,
Q = 0.024 13 J = 2.413 × 100" J ----------------------- (2)

Q2. Write the value 700 × 100# in standard form.

SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 700 × 100# --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), in scientific notation or standard form, hence,
Q = 700 × 100# = 7.00 × 10" × 100# ----------------- (2)

Page 26 of 100
From (2),
Q = 700 × 100# = 7.00 × 10"0# ------------------------ (3)
From (3), hence,
Q = 700 × 100# = 7.00 × 100$ ------------------------- (4)

Q3. Give each number in full.

(i) 10%
(ii) 2.5 × 10"
(iii) 1.5 × 1004
(iv) 3.5 × 100'
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 10% = 1.0 × 10% ---------------------------- (1)
From (1), since the exponent is positive (i.e. 4), the decimal point is moved rightwards 4 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 10% = 1.0 × 10% = 10 000 -------------------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 2.5 × 10" ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), since the exponent is positive (i.e. 2), the decimal point is moved rightwards 2 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 2.5 × 10" = 250 -------------------------------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 1.5 × 1004 --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since the exponent is negative (i.e. −6), the decimal point is moved leftwards 6 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 1.5 × 1004 = 0.000 001 5 ------------------------- (2)
(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 3.5 × 100' ----------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since the exponent is negative (i.e. −8), the decimal point is moved leftwards 8 times
and adding zeros if there are no numbers. Hence, in full,
Q = 3.5 × 100' = 0.000 000 035 × 100' ------------- (2)

Page 27 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. Write each of the following in scientific notation.
(i) 0.000000475 m
(ii) 0.0008 s
(iii) 0.000000000001
(iv) 0.000000001
(v) 0.000001
(vi) 0.001
(vii) 0.01
(viii) 0.1
(ix) 10
(x) 100
(xi) 1 000
(xii) 1 000 000
(xiii) 1 000 000 000
(xiv) 1 000 000 000 000
[ANS: see notes]
Q2. Write the following in scientific notation:
(i) 0.000 552
(ii) 73 000 000
(iii) 0.000 250
(iv) 3 500.003 5
(v) 350
(vi) 35
(vii) 3.50
(viii) 3.5
(ix) 0.35
(x) 0.003 50
(xi) 0.003 5
[ANS: see notes]

Page 28 of 100
Q3. Express the following numbers in standard form:
(i) 2 000
(ii) 0.000 001 000
(iii) 700 × 100#
(iv) 1 000 × 100'
(v) 123 456.789
[ANS: see notes]
Q5. Express the following in standard form.
(i) 555.22
(ii) 0.000 123
[ANS: see notes]
Q6. Give each number as a power of ten with one figure before the decimal point.
(i) 1 000
(ii) 225 000
(iii) 650
(iv) 15 000
[ANS: see notes]
Q7. Give each decimal as a power of ten with one figure before the decimal point.
(i) 0.001
(ii) 0.02
(iii) 0.001 2
(iv) 0.010 2
[ANS: see notes]
Q8. Write each of the following numbers in standard:
(i) 4 200 J kg 0! K 0!
(ii) 300 000 000
(iii) 384.400
[ANS: see notes]
Q9. Express the following in standard form.
(i) 555.22
(ii) 0.000 123
[ANS: see notes]

Page 29 of 100
Q10. Write the following in scientific notation:
!
(i)
!xx
"
(ii)
! xxx
2
(iii)
!x xxx
%
(iv)
& xxx

[ANS: see notes]

Q11. Write the following in scientific notation:
(i) 0.001
(ii) 0.02
(iii) 0.0012
(iv) 0.0102
[ANS: see notes]
Q12. Write out the following in full:
(i) 102
(ii) 2 × 104
(iii) 6.92 × 10%
(iv) 1.34 × 10"
(v) 10#
[ANS: see notes]
Q13. Write the following as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point:
(i) 100 000
(ii) 3500
(iii) 428 000 000
(iv) 504
(v) 27 056
[ANS: see notes]
Q14. Express the following decimals as powers of ten with one figure before the decimal point:
(i) 0.5
(ii) 0.084
(iii) 0.000 36
(iv) 0.001 04
[ANS: see notes]

Page 30 of 100
Q15. Write these fractions in scientific notation:
!
(i)
! xxx
$
(ii)
!xx xxx
!
(iii)
!x xxx xxx
2
(iv) 4x xxx

[ANS: see notes]

Q16. Write the following in scientific notation:
(i) 504
(ii) 608 000
(iii) 200
(iv) 0.000 305
(v) 0.005 900
[ANS: see notes]
Q17. Write the following quantities in standard form.
(i) 0.000000000521 m
(ii) 0.02413 J
(iii) 3 036 000 000 000 km
[ANS: see notes]

Page 31 of 100
 Prefixes
Sometimes the values of some quantities mean that the numbers involved are extremely large
or small.
The abbreviation of such large or small values by adding a prefix to the unit of the quantities
indicate that the unit of the quantities has been multiplied by large or small value.
Some examples of prefixes are shown below.

Prefix Name Symbol Multiplying Factor

yotta Y 10"%
zetta Z 10"!
exa E 10!'
peta P 10!&
tetra T 10!"
giga G 10#
mega M 104
kilo k 102
hecto h 10"
deka da 10!
deci d 100!
centi c 100"
milli m 1002
micro μ 1004
nano n 100#
pico p 100!"
femto f 100!&
atto a 100!'
zepto z 100"!
yocto y 100"%

For example:
1. The frequency of an FM radio band, 102.8 × 104 Hz, is abbreviated as 102.8 MHz (mega-
hertz).

Page 32 of 100
2. A honey bee raps its wings once every 0.004 s or 4 × 1002 s, which can be abbreviated as
4 ms (milliseconds.)

NOTE:
1. Double prefixes should not be used.
Example: μμs is not allowed write ps

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Write down using scientific notation, the values of the following quantities:
(i) 6.8 pF
(ii) 32 μC
(iii) 60 GW
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.8 pF ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.8 pF = 6.8 × 100!" F ---------------------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 32 μC ---------------------------------------- (3)
From (3), hence,
Q = 32 μC = 32 × 1004 C ----------------------------- (4)
(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 60 GW ---------------------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence,
Q = 60 GW = 60 × 10# W ----------------------------- (6)

Q2. Rewrite the following quantities using a suitable prefix;

(i) 0.003 s
(ii) 8 900 g
(iii) 6.2 × 10# m
(iv) 18 000 000 J
(v) 0.000 05 m

Page 33 of 100
 SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.003 s -------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 0.003 s = 3 × 1002 s -------------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
Q = 0.003 s = 3 ms ---------------------------------------- (3)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 8 900 g -------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 8 900 g = 8.900 × 102 g ---------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
Q = 8 900 g = 8.900 kg ----------------------------------- (3)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.2 × 10# m -------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.2 × 10# m = 6.2 Gm ------------------------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 18 000 000 J ------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 18 000 000 J = 18 × 104 J -------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
Q = 18 000 000 J = 18 MJ -------------------------------- (3)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 05 m --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 0.000 05 m = 0.05 × 1002 m ----------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
Q = 0.000 05 m = 0.05 mm ------------------------------ (3)

Page 34 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. Write the following in scientific notation:
(i) 1 345 100 m
(ii) 12 340 kW
(iii) 54.32 ps
[ANS: see notes]
Q2. Write the following as full decimal numbers without prefixes on the units:
(i) 286.6 mm
(ii) 85 μV
(iii) 760 mg
(iv) 62.1 ps
(v) 22.5 nm
(vi) 2.50 gigavolts
[ANS: see notes]
Q3. Express the following using the prefixes
(i) 1 × 104 volts
(ii) 2 × 1004 metres
(iii) 6 × 102 days
(iv) 7 × 100$ seconds
[ANS: see notes]
Q5. Express, in standard form:
(i) 10 000 milliseconds in seconds
(ii) 2000 km in metres
(iii) 6400 km in megametres
(iv) 0.002 g in micrograms
[ANS: see notes]
Q6. Express:
(i) 55 000 OOO J in MJ
(ii) 0.0333 mA in μA
(iii) 400 mW in kW
[ANS: see notes]
Q7. The output from a power station is 5.6 GW. Express this in watts, using standard form.
[ANS: see notes]

Page 35 of 100
Q8. The charge on an electron is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 16 C. Express this in standard
form.
[ANS: 1.6 × 100!# C]
Q9. Write the following in standard form:
(i) 9.2 GW
(ii) 43 mm
(iii) 6 400 km
(iv) 44 ns
[ANS: see notes]
Q10. Write the following using an appropriate prefix and unit symbol:
(i) 3 600 000 joules
(ii) 31 536 000 seconds
(iii) 105 000 hertz
(iv) 0.000 000 10 amperes
[ANS: see notes]
Q11. Complete this table of description of measurements with appropriate prefixes and
standard form.
Description Using prefixes SI unit and standard form
a force of 5 000 newton kN 5 × 102 N
a length of seven hundred mA 7.2 × 100$ m
and twenty nanometres
990 μg
[ANS: see notes]

Page 36 of 100
 Mass Measure Table
10 Milligrams (mg) – 1 Centigram (cg)
10 Centigram (cg) – 1 Decigram
10 Decigram – 1 Gram (g)
10 Grams – 1 Decagram
10 Decagram – 1 Hectogram
10 Hectogram – 1 Kilogram (kg)

Some Basic Mass Measure

1. 1 mg = 1 × 1002 g
2. 1 cg = 1 × 100" g
3. 1 kg = 1 × 102 g

The Linear Measure Table

10 Millimetres (mm) – 1 Centimetre (cm)
10 Centimetres (cm) – 1 Decimetre (dm)
10 Decimetres – 1 Metre (m)
10 Metres – 1 Decametre
10 Decametres – 1 Hectometre
10 Hectometres – 1 Kilometre (km)

Some Basic Linear Measure

1. 1 mm = 1 × 1002 m
2. 1 cm = 1 × 100" m
3. 1 km = 1 × 102 m

Time Measure Table

60 Seconds – 1 Minute
60 Minutes = 1 Hour
24 Hours – 1 Day
7 Days – 1 Week
4 Weeks – 1 Month
12 Months – 1 Year

Page 37 of 100
 Some Basic Time Measure
1. 1 h = 60 × 60 s
2. 52 Weeks = 1 Year
3. 365 days = 1 Year

Converting Units for Areas and Volumes

For example:
CASE I: Converting 1 mm" to m"
From,
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), squaring both sides,
"
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m "
------------------------------ (2)
From (2),
" " "
1 × mm = 1 × 1002 "
× m "
------------- (3)
From (3),
1 × mm" = 1 × 1004 × m" ----------------------------- (4)
From (4), hence
1 mm" = 1 × 1004 m" ------------------------------------ (5)

CASE II: Converting 1 mm2 to m2

From,
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), cubing both sides
2
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m 2
------------------------------ (2)
From (2), by expansion,
2 2 2
1 × mm = 1 × 1002 2
× m 2
------------- (3)
From (3),
1 × mm2 = 1 × 100# × m2 ----------------------------- (4)
From (4), hence,
1 mm2 = 1 × 100# m2 ------------------------------------ (5)

Page 38 of 100
CASE III: Converting 1 cm" to m"
From,
1 cm = 1 × 100" m ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), squaring both sides
"
1 cm = 1 × 100" m "
-------------------------------- (2)
From (2), by expansion,
" " "
1 × cm = 1 × 100" "
× m "
-------------- (3)
From (3),
1 × cm" = 1 × 100% × m" ------------------------------ (4)
From (4), hence,
1 cm" = 1 × 100% m" ------------------------------------- (5)

CASE IV: Converting 1 cm2 to m2

From,
1 cm = 1 × 100" m ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), cubing both sides,
2
1 cm = 1 × 100" m 2
-------------------------------- (2)
From (2), by expansion,
2 2 2
1 × cm = 1 × 100" 2
× m 2
-------------- (3)
From (3),
1 × cm2 = 1 × 1004 × m2 ------------------------------ (4)
From (4), hence,
1 cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ------------------------------------- (5)

Page 39 of 100
 WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Convert each of the following measurements to metres.
(i) 42.3 cm
(ii) 6.2 pm
(iii) 21 km
(iv) 0.023 mm
(v) 214 μm
(vi) 57 nm
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 42.3 cm ------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, c = centi = 100" , hence,
Q = 42.3 cm = 42.3 × 100" m -------------------------- (2)
Also, using proportion,
1 cm = 1 × 100" m
42.3 cm =
Hence,
%".2 \L × ! ×!x_c L
Q= ! \L
------------------------------------- (3)

From (3), hence,

Q = 42.3 × 100" m ---------------------------------------- (4)

(ii) Given:
Quantity ~ = 6.2 pm --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, p = pico = 100!" , hence,
Q = 6.2 pm = 6.2 × 100!" m ---------------------------- (2)
Also, using proportion,
1 pm = 1 × 100!" m
6.2 pm =
Hence,
4." ]L × ! ×!x_`c L
Q= ! ]L
------------------------------------ (3)

From (3), hence,

Q = 6.2 × 100!" m ----------------------------------------- (4)

Page 40 of 100
(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 21 km --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, k = kilo = 102 , hence,
Q = 21 km = 21 × 102 m -------------------------------- (2)
Also, using proportion,
1 km = 1 × 102 m
21 km =
Hence,
"! SL × ! × !xU L
Q= ---------------------------------------- (3)
! SL

From (3),
Q = 21 × 102 m -------------------------------------------- (4)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.023 mm ----------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, m = milli = 1002 , hence,
Q = 0.023 mm = 0.023 × 1002 m --------------------- (2)
Also, using proportion,
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m
0.023 mm =
Hence,
x.x"2 LL × ! × !x_U L
Q= ----------------------------------- (3)
! LL

From (3), hence,

Q = 0.023 × 1002 m -------------------------------------- (4)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 214 μm -------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, μ = micro = 1004 , hence,
Q = 214 μm = 214 × 1004 m ---------------------------- (2)
Also, using proportion,
1μm = 1 × 1004 m
214 μm =

Page 41 of 100
Hence,
"!% „L× !×!x_… L
Q= --------------------------------------- (3)
!„L

From (3), hence,

Q = 214 × 1004 m ------------------------------------------ (4)

(vi) Given:
Quantity Q = 57 nm -------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, n = nano = 100# , hence,
Q = 57 nm = 57 × 100# m ------------------------------ (2)
Also, using proportion,
1 nm = 1 × 100# m
57 nm =
Hence,
&$ [L×! ×!x_† L
Q= ! [L
---------------------------------------- (3)

From (3), hence,

Q = 57 × 100# m ------------------------------------------ (4)

Q2. Convert 3.6 mg to kg.

SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 3.6 mg --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), since, m = milli = 1002 , hence,
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 × 1002 g ------------------------------ (2)
From (2), using proportion,
1 kg = 102 g
= 3.6 × 1002 g
Hence,
2.4 ×!x_U T × ! ST
Q= --------------------------------------- (3)
!xU T

From (3), hence,

Q = 3.6 × 1004 kg ---------------------------------------- (4)

Page 42 of 100
 ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 3.6 mg --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1),
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 mg × 1 --------------------------------- (2)
From (2),
ST
1= --------------------------------------------------------- (3)
ST

Sub. (3) into (2),

ST
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 mg × ST -------------------------------- (4)

Note that the kg in the numerator is left intact since the kg is wanted as the answer.
From (4), re – arranging,
ST
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 m × --------------------------------- (5)
S

From (5), since, m = milli = 1002 and k = kilo = 102 , hence,

ST
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 × 1002 × !xU ------------------------- (6)

From (8), re – arranging,

Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 × 1002 × 1002 kg ------------------ (7)
From (7), re – arranging,
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 × 100202 kg ------------------------- (8)
From (8), re – arranging, hence,
Q = 3.6 mg = 3.6 × 1004 kg ---------------------------- (9)

Q3. Convert the following:

(i) 5.2 mm" to m"
(ii) 1 cm2 to m2
(iii) 4.1 μg to kg
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 5.2 mm" ------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × mm "
--------------------------- (2)
From (2), re – arranging,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × m "
× m "
------------------- (3)

Page 43 of 100
From (3), re – arranging,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × m "
× m" --------------------- (4)
Note that the m" in the far right is left intact since the m" is wanted as the answer.
From (4), since, m = milli = 1002 , hence,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × 1002 "
× m" ------------------ (5)
From (5), re – arranging,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × 1004 × m" ---------------------- (6)
From (6), re – arranging, hence,
Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × 1004 m" ------------------------ (7)

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 5.2 mm" ------------------------------------- (1)
But,
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m -------------------------------------- (2)
From (2), squaring both sides,
"
1 mm = 1 × 1002 m "
------------------------------ (3)
From (3), re – arranging,
" " "
1 × mm = 1 × 1002 "
m "
----------------- (4)
From (4),
1 × mm" = 1 × 1004 m" --------------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence
1 mm" = 1 × 1004 m" ------------------------------------ (6)
From (6), using proportion,
1 mm" = 1 × 1004 m"
5.2 mm" =
Hence,
&." LLc × !×!x_… Lc
Q= ------------------------------------ (7)
! LLc

From (7), hence,

Q = 5.2 mm" = 5.2 × 1004 m" ------------------------ (8)

Page 44 of 100
(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 1 cm2 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), re – arranging,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × cm 2
---------------------------------- (2)
From (2), re – arranging,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × c 2
× m 2
-------------------------- (3)
From (3), re – arranging,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × c 2
× m2 ---------------------------- (4)
From (4),
Note that the m2 in the far right is left intact since the m2 is wanted as the answer.
Since, c = centi = 100", hence,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × 100" 2
× m2 ----------------------- (5)
From (5), re – arranging,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × 1004 × m2 --------------------------- (6)
From (6), hence,
Q = 1 cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ------------------------------ (7)

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
Given:
Quantity Q = 1 cm2 ---------------------------------------- (1)
But,
1 cm = 1 × 100" m --------------------------------------- (2)
From (2), cubing both sides,
2
1 cm = 1 × 100" m 2
------------------------------ (3)
From (3), re – arranging,
2 2 2
1 × cm = 1 × 100" 2
m 2
------------------ (4)
From (4),
1 × cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ---------------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence
1 cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ------------------------------------- (6)

Page 45 of 100
(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 4.1 μg --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), Since, μ = micro = 1004, hence,
Q = 4.1 μg = 4.1 × 1004 g ------------------------------- (2)
From (2), using proportion,
1 kg = 1 × 102 g
= 4.1 × 1004 g
Hence,
%.!×!x_… T × ! ST
Q= !× !xU T
--------------------------------------- (3)

From (3), hence,

Q = 4.1 μg = 4.1 × 100# kg ----------------------------- (4)

Q4. Convert the following:

(i) 7.9 g cm02 to kg m02
(ii) 80 km h0! to m s 0!
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 7.9 g cm02 ---------------------------------- (1)
From (1),
$.# T
Q = 7.9 g cm02 = \LU
------------------------------------ (2)

From (2), but,

1 kg = 1 × 102 g ------------------------------------------- (3)
=1g
Hence,
! T × ! ST
= ------------------------------------------------- (4)
!×!xU T

From (4), hence,

1 g = 1 × 1002 kg ----------------------------------------- (5)
Also, from (2), but,
1 cm = 1 × 100" m ---------------------------------------- (6)
From (6), cubing both sides,
2
1 cm = 1 × 100" m 2
------------------------------ (7)
From (7), re – arranging,

Page 46 of 100
 2 2 2
1 × cm = 1 × 100" 2
m 2
------------------ (8)
From (8),
1 × cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ---------------------------------- (9)
From (9), hence
1 cm2 = 1 × 1004 m2 ------------------------------------ (10)
Sub. (5) and (10) into (2),
$.# × !×!x_U ST
Q = 7.9 g cm02 = ----------------------- (11)
! ×!x_… LU

From (11), re – arranging,

Q = 7.9 g cm02 = 7.9 × 1002 kg × 104 m02 ----- (12)
From (12), re – arranging,
Q = 7.9 g cm02 = 7.9 × 1002‡4 kg m02 ---------- (13)
From (13), hence,
Q = 7.9 g cm02 = 7.9 × 102 kg m02 = 7 900 kg m02 -- (14)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 80 km h0! ---------------------------------- (1)
From (1),
'x SL
Q = 80 km h0! = ----------------------------------- (2)
!g

From (2),
k = kilo = 102 ---------------------------------------------- (3)
1 h = 60 × 60 s ------------------------------------------ (4)
Sub. (3) and (4) into (2),
'x × !xU × L
Q = 80 km h0! = ---------------------------- (5)
4x×4x N

From (5), hence,

Q = 80 km h0! = 22.2 m s 0! ---------------------------- (6)

Page 47 of 100
Q5. Convert period T = 101 249.04 s to hours.
SOLUTION
Given:
Period T = 101 249.04 s ----------------------------------- (1)
From (1), Converting T to minutes using proportions:
60 s = 1 minute
101 249.04 s =
Hence,
!x! "%#.x% N × ! LY[QZR
T= ----------------------------------- (2)
4x N

From (2), hence,

T = 1 687.484 minutes ----------------------------------- (3)
From (3), Converting T to hours using proportions:
60 minutes = 1 hour
1 687.484 minutes =
Hence,
! 4'$.%'% LY[QZRN × ! gJQb
T= 4x LY[QZRN
-------------------------------- (4)

From (4), hence,

T = 28.1 hours ---------------------------------------------- (5)

Q6. Convert period T = 24 hours to seconds.

SOLUTION
Given:
Period T = 24 hours ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), converting T to minutes using proportion
60 minutes = 1 hour
= 24 hours
Hence,
4x LY[QZRN × "% gJQbN
T= ------------------------------------ (2)
! gJQb

From (2), hence,

T = 1440 minutes ------------------------------------------ (3)

Page 48 of 100
From (3), converting T to seconds using proportion
60 seconds = 1 minute
= 1440 minutes
Hence,
4x NR\J[XN × !%%x LY[QZRN
T= ! LY[QZR
------------------------------- (4)

From (4), hence,

T = 86400 s ------------------------------------------------- (5)

Q7. State the number of millimetres in each measurement.

(i) 2 cm
(ii) 0.5 m
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 2 cm ------------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), using the conversion and proportion,
10 mm = 1 cm
= 2 cm
Hence,
" \L × !x LL
Q= ! \L
-------------------------------------------- (2)

From (2), hence,

Q = 20 mm -------------------------------------------------- (3)

(ii) Given:

Quantity Q = 0.5 m ----------------------------------------- (1)

From (1), using the conversion and proportion,

1 mm = 1 × 1002 m
= 0.5 m

Hence,
x.& L × ! LL
Q= ----------------------------------------- (2)
!×!x_U L

From (2), hence,

Q = 0.5 × 102 mm = 500 mm ----------------------- (3)

Page 49 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. Convert 6.5 mm to m.
[ANS: see notes]
Q2. Complete the following, using power of 10 notations.
(i) 1 mm = m
(ii) 1 cm = m
(iii) 1 mm" = m"
(iv) 1 cm" = m"
(v) 1 mm2 = m2
(vi) 1 cm2 = m2
[ANS: see notes]
Q3. Convert each length to metres.
(i) 1 500 cm
(ii) 150 cm
(iii) 15 cm
(iv) 1.5 cm
[ANS: see notes]
Q4. State the number of millimetres in each measurement.
(i) 2 cm
(ii) 0.4 cm
(iii) 12 cm
(iv) 0.5 m
(v) 1.4 m
[ANS: see notes]
Q5. State each length in metres as scientific notation.
(i) 5 mm
(ii) 50 cm
(iii) 5 km
[ANS: see notes]

Page 50 of 100
Q6. How many millimetres are there in these measurements?
(i) 1 cm
(ii) 4 cm
(iii) 0.5 cm
(iv) 6.7 cm
(v) 1 m?
[ANS: see notes]
Q7. What are these lengths in metres?
(i) 300 cm
(ii) 550 cm
(iii) 870 cm
(iv) 43 cm
(v) 100 mm
[ANS: see notes]
Q8. Write down the following in s:
(i) 5 000 ms
(ii) 5 × 10$ μs
[ANS: see notes]
Q9. Write down the following in km:
(i) 2 000 m
(ii) 200 m
(iii) 2 × 10% m
[ANS: see notes]
Q10. Write down the value of:
(i) 1564 mm in m
(ii) 1750 g in kg
(iii) 62 μs in s
(iv) 3.65 × 10% g in kg
(v) 6.16 × 100$ mm in m
(vi) 40 cm" in m"
(vii) 0.02 m" in mm"
[ANS: see notes]

Page 51 of 100
Q11. Write down the number of:
(i) mg in 1 g
(ii) g in 1 kg
(iii) mg in 1 kg
(iv) mm in 4 km
(v) cm in 5 km
[ANS: see notes]
Q12. Write down the values of:
(i) 300 cm in m
(ii) 500 g in kg
(iii) 1 500 m in km
(iv) 250 ms in s
(v) 0.5 s in ms
(vi) 0.75 km in m
(vii) 2.5 kg in g
(viii) 0.8 m in mm
[ANS: see notes]
Q13. In each of the following pairs, which quantity is the larger?
(i) 2 km or 2 500 m
(ii) 2 m or 1 500 mm
[ANS: see notes]
Q14. Convert the following into metres (m) and write in standard form:
(i) 5585 km
(ii) 175 cm
(iii) 25.4 μm
[ANS: see notes]
Q15. Convert the following masses to kilograms (kg) and write in standard form:
(i) 200 g
(ii) 0.00001 g
[ANS: see notes]

Page 52 of 100
Q16. Express the following:
(i) 85.0 cm in m
(ii) 85 mm in m
(iii) 0.640 km in m
(iv) 25 cm" in m"
(v) 345 cm2 in m2
[ANS: see notes]
Q17. Convert
(i) 0.0008 Gm to μm.
(ii) 78 μm to Mm.
Express your answers in scientific notation.
[ANS: (i) 8 × 10!! μm (ii) 7.8 × 100!! Mm]
Q18. The density of sea water is 1.05 g cm02. Express this density in the unit kg m02 .
[ANS: 1.05 × 102 kg m02 ]
Q19. Convert
(i) 72 km h0! to m s 0! .
(ii) 15 m s 0! to km h0! .
[ANS: see notes]
Q20. Express the following measurements in the units specified.
(i) 1 s = ____________ ns
(ii) 1 ms = ____________ s
(iii) 3.86 ms = ____________ ns
(iv) 1 g = _____________ mg
(v) 1 kg = ____________ g
(vi) 643 mg = ____________ kg
[ANS: see notes]
Q21. Identify the smallest and the largest measurements from the following.
2.15 × 100" cm
2.15 × 10!x μm
2.15 × 102 km
2.15 × 10' nm
[ANS: see notes]

Page 53 of 100
Q22. Determine the number of cubic metres in one cubic kilometre.
[ANS: see notes]
Q23. The spacing between two atoms in a crystal is 3.8 × 100!x m. State this distance in pm.
[ANS: see notes]
Q24. Calculate the time of one day in Ms.
[ANS: see notes]

Page 54 of 100
 Decimal Places
The number of decimal places in a measured or calculated quantity indicates the number of
digits after the decimal point present in the value of the measured or calculated quantity.
For example:
(i) 123.45 has 2 decimal places.
(ii) 234.73 has 1 decimal place.
(iii) 54 564.9 has 1 decimal place.
(iv) 12.3426 has 4 decimal places.
(v) 4.762 × 10"x has 3 decimal places. Ignore the power term.

Rounding Off Numbers to Some Required Number of Decimal Places

Rounding off a number to some required number of decimal places is necessary so that the
accuracy of the result will be the same as that of the problem data.

General Rules for Rounding Off Numbers to Some Required Number of Decimal Places
CASE I:
As a general rule, any numerical digit ending in a number greater than five is rounded up and
a numerical digit less than five is not rounded up.
For example:
Suppose the number 3.5587 is to be rounded off to three decimal places.
Because the fourth digit (i.e. 7) after the decimal point is greater than 5, the third number (i.e.
8) is rounded up to 3.559.
Likewise: 0.5896 becomes 0.590 and 9.3866 becomes 9.387 when rounded to three decimal
places respectively.

For example:
If we round off 1.341 to two decimal places, because the fourth digit (i.e. 1) after the decimal
point is less than 5, then we get 1.34.
Likewise, 0.3742 becomes 0.37 and 9.871 becomes 9.87. when rounded to two decimal places
respectively.

Page 55 of 100
CASE II:
There is a special case for any number that ends in a 5.
As a general rule, if the digit preceding the 5 is an even number, then this digit is not rounded
up.
If the digit preceding the 5 is an odd number, then it is rounded up.
For example:
(i) 75.25 rounded off to one decimal places becomes 75.2
(ii) 0.1275 rounded off to three decimal places becomes 0.128
(iii) 0.2555 rounded off to three decimal places becomes 0.256

CASE III:
There is a special case for any number that ends in a 5 followed by more digits except an
immediate zero digit.
As a general rule, if there are more digits except an immediate zero digit following the 5, then
the digit before the 5 is rounded up.
For example:
(i) 6.451 rounded off to one decimal place becomes 6.5

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. How many decimal places are these numbers stated?
(i) 56 002
(ii) 65.78
(iii) 45 000
(iv) 45 000.0
(v) 0.000 000 87
(vi) 2.4 × 10#
(vii) 5 × 10&
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 56 002 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 56 002 has no decimal places ----------------------- (2)

Page 56 of 100
(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 65.78 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 65.78 has 2 decimal places -------------------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 45 000 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 45 000 has no decimal places --------------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 45 000.0 ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 45 000.0 has 1decimal place ---------------------- (2)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 000 87 ------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 0.000 000 87 has 8 decimal places ---------------- (2)

(vi) Given:
Quantity Q = 2.4 × 10# ---------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 2.4 × 10# has 1 decimal place --------------------- (2)

(vii) Given:
Quantity Q = 5 × 10& ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 5 × 10& has no decimal places --------------------- (2)

Page 57 of 100
Q2. Write the following numbers correct to two decimal places:
(i) 0.275
(ii) 5.454
(iii) 0.007 47
(iv) 19.617
(v) 20.041
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.275 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), correct to two decimal places, hence,
Q = 0.275 = 0.28 to 2 decimal places ------------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 5.454 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), correct to two decimal places, hence,
Q = 5.454 = 5.45 to 2 decimal places ------------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.007 47 ------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), correct to two decimal places, hence,
Q = 0.007 47 = 0.01 to 2 decimal places --------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 19.617 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), correct to two decimal places, hence,
Q = 19.617 = 19.62 to 2 decimal places ---------------- (2)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 20.041 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), correct to two decimal places, hence,
Q = 20.041 = 20.04 to 2 decimal places ---------------- (2)

Page 58 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. Write the following in decimal:
!
(i)
!xx
"
(ii)
! xxx
2
(iii)
!x xxx
%
(iv)
& xxx

[ANS: see notes]

Q2. Write the following numbers correct to one decimal place:
(i) 5.71
(ii) 0.761 4
(iii) 11.241
(iv) 0.008 1
(v) 11.12
[ANS: see notes]
Q3. Write the following numbers correct to two decimal places:
(i) 8.174
(ii) 0.085 1
(iii) 0.515 1
(vi) 3.555
(iv) 20.961
[ANS: see notes]
Q4. Express 0.054 73 correct to three decimal places.
[ANS: see notes]

Page 59 of 100
 Rounding off a Decimal Number to the Nearest Whole Number
To round off a decimal number to the nearest whole number, look at the immediate digit to the
right of the decimal point (i.e. tenth place digit). If that digit is equal to 5 or greater than 5, add
one (i.e. 1) to the digit to the immediate left of the decimal point (i.e. the ones place digit) and
remove the decimal part of the number.

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Write the following numbers correct to the nearest whole number.
(i) 5.71
(ii) 0.761 4
(iii) 11.241
(iv) 0.008 1
(v) 11.12

SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 5.71 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), to the nearest whole number, hence,
Q = 5.71 = 6 ----------------------------------------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.7614 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), to the nearest whole number, hence,
Q = 0.7614 = 1 --------------------------------------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 11.241 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), to the nearest whole number, hence,
Q = 11.241 = 11 ------------------------------------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.0081 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), to the nearest whole number, hence,

Page 60 of 100
 Q = 0.0081 = 0 --------------------------------------------- (2)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 11.12 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), to the nearest whole number, hence,
Q = 11.12 = 11 --------------------------------------------- (2)

EXERCISE
Q1. Write the following numbers correct to the nearest whole number:
(i) 8.174
(ii) 0.085 1
(iii) 0.515 1
(v) 3.555
(vi) 20.961
[ANS: ]
Q2. Write the following numbers correct to the nearest whole number:
(i) 0.275
(ii) 5.454
(iii) 0.007 47
(iv) 19.617
(v) 20.041
[ANS: ]

Page 61 of 100
 Significant Figures
The number of significant figures in a measured or calculated quantity indicates the number
of digits present in the value of the measured or calculated quantity.

Significance of Significant Figures

1. The number of significant figures used gives some idea of the maximum error in a value.
2. The number of significant figures is necessary so that the accuracy of the result will be the
same as that of the problem data.
3. The number of significant figures contained in any number determines the accuracy of the
number.

Rules Used for Obtaining the Number of Significant Figures

CASE I:
Start from the first nonzero digit and count from the left to the right. The number of digits
counted is the number of significant figures.
Ignore any power term at the right. All non-zero digits are considered significant.
For example:
(i) 25 has 2 significant figures (i.e. 2 and 5).
(ii) 123.45 has 5 significant figures (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
(iii) 234.73 has 5 significant figures (i.e. 2, 3, 4, 7 and 3).
(iv) 54 564.9 has 6 significant figures (i.e. 5, 4, 5, 6, 4 and 9).
(v) 12.342 6 has 6 significant figures (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 2 and 6).
(vi) 4.762 × 10"x has 4 significant figures (i.e. 4, 7, 6 and 2). Ignore the power term.
(vii) 851 has 3 significant figures.
(viii) 9673 has 4 significant figures.
(ix) 6 has 1 significant figure.
(x) 3.23 × 1004 has 3 significant figures. Ignore the power term.

Page 62 of 100
CASE II:
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant or for numbers less than one,
zeros before the decimal point or directly after the decimal point are not significant or (i.e.
Ignore any starting zeros at the left)
For example:
(i) 0.00034 has 2 significant figures (i.e. 3 and 4). Start counting from the 3. Ignore any
starting zeros at the left.
(ii) 0.000438 has 3 significant figures (i.e. 4, 3 and 8). Start counting from the 4. Ignore
any starting zeros at the left.
(iii) 0.0760 has 3 significant figures (i.e. 7, 6 and 0). Start counting from the 7. Ignore
any starting zeros at the left.
(iv) 0.00063 has 2 significant figures. (i.e. 6 and 3). Start counting from the 6. Ignore
any starting zeros at the left.

CASE III:
Zeros to the right of a decimal point and following a non-zero digit are significant.
For example:
(i) 0.0500 has 3 significant figures.
(ii) 0.0760 has 3 significant figures.

CASE IV:
Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant.
Zero values between non-zero numbers are significant.
When a non-zero digit appears at the end of a value, this makes all the zero digits between the
non-zero digits significant.
For example:
(i) 20.052 has five significant figures (i.e. 2, 0, 0, 5, 2).
(ii) 20 006 has 5 significant figures
(iii) 65 008 has 5 significant figures
(iv) 70 457.4 has 6 significant figures – the zero after the 7 is significant because it is
between other significant digits
(v) 5.064 06 has 6 significant figures

Page 63 of 100
CASE V:
Significant figures involving all zeros at the end of a number with a decimal point.
In a number with a decimal point and all zeros after the decimal point, all the zeros to the left
of the decimal point are significant.
For example:
(i) 30 000.0 is written to 6 significant figures.
The decimal point makes all the zero values to the left of it significant.

CASE VI:
Numbers that end in one or more zeros, without a decimal point have an ambiguous number of
significant figures.
When numbers are written with one or more zeros at the end of a number that has no decimal
point, the situation can become ambiguous. In other words, it is not possible to state with
certainty how many significant figures the number has.
A problem arises when there are zeros at the end of a number with no decimal point. If the
number is 600, then has this number can be quoted to one, two, or three significant figures?
This problem is overcome by using scientific notation.
For example:
(i) 600 = 6 × 10" is quoted to 1 significant figure.
(ii) 6.0 = 6 × 10" is quoted to 2 significant figures.
(iii) 6.00 = 6 × 10" is quoted to 3 significant figures.
(iv) 10 = 1.0 × 10! has 2 significant figures.
(v) 10 = 1 × 10! has 1 significant figure.

Express a Number to a Certain Required Number of Significant Figures

CASE I:
As a general rule, any numerical digit ending a number and it is greater than five is rounded
up and it is less than five is not rounded up.
For example:
Suppose the number 3.5587 is to be rounded off to three significant figures.
Because the fourth digit (i.e. 8) is greater than 5, the third digit (i.e. 5) is rounded up to 3.56.
Likewise: 0.5896 becomes 0.590 and 9.3866 becomes 9.39 when rounded to three significant
figures respectively.

Page 64 of 100
For example:
If 1.341 is rounded off to three significant figures, because the fourth digit (i.e. 1) is less
than 5, then 1.34 is obtained. Hence,
1.341 = 1.34 (to 3 significant figures)
Likewise: 0.3762 becomes 0.376 and 9.871 becomes 9.87 when rounded to three significant
figures respectively.

CASE II:
There is a special case for any number that ends in a 5.
As a general rule, if the digit preceding the 5 is an even number, then this digit is not
rounded up.
If the digit preceding the 5 is an odd number, then it is rounded up.
For example:
(i) 75.25 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 75.2
(ii) 0.1275 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 0.128
(iii) 0.2555 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 0.256

CASE III:
There is a special case for any number that ends in a 5 followed by more digits except an
immediate zero digit.
As a general rule, if there are more digits except an immediate zero digit following the 5, then
the digit before the 5 is rounded up.
For example:
(i) 6.451 rounded off to two significant digits becomes 6.5

CASE IV:
An easy way to express a number to a certain required number of significant figures is first to
write the number in standard form or scientific notation and applying CASE I, CASE II and
CASE III.
For example:
Express 317.112 to:
(i) 1 significant figure.
(ii) 2 significant figures.

Page 65 of 100
 (iii) 3 significant. figures.
SOLUTION
Given: 317.112
First we express the number in standard form:
317.112 = 3.171 12 × 10"
The power of 10 has nothing to do with the process, it is the first factor which needs
attention.
(i) To 1 significant figure the value is 3 × 10"
(ii) To 2 significant figures the value is 3.2 × 10"
(iii) To 3 significant figures the value is 3.17 × 10"

Obtaining the Required Number of Significant Figures for the Results from an
Arithmetic Operation
CASE I:
1. When adding and subtracting a series of measurements with decimal point, the least
accurate place value in the result can only be stated to the same number of significant
figures as the measurement of the series with the least number of decimal places.
Also, with regards to data series without the decimal point, the result should be equal to
the least number of significant figures in any of the data of the series.
For example:
Add 24.2 g and 0.51 g and 7.134 g to the correct number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given:
24.2 g + 0.51 g + 7.134 g -------------------------------- (1)
From (1),
24.2 g + 0.51 g + 7.134 g = 31.844 g ----------------- (2)
From (2),
The initial result is 31.844 g has increased in significant digits.
The least accurate place value in the data series (i.e. 24.2 g, 0.51 g and 7.134 g ) is 24.2 g with
only one number to the right of the decimal point.
So the result, 31.844 g can only be expressed to 3 significant figures which is the significant
figures of the 24.2 g. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,

Page 66 of 100
24.2 g + 0.51 g + 7.134 g = 31.844 g = 31.8 g = 3.18 × 10! g (to 3 significant figures) --
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
For example:
Add 24 g and 251 g and 7134 g to the correct number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given:
24 g + 251 g + 7 134 g ----------------------------------- (1)
From (1),
24 g + 251 g + 7 134 g = 7 409 g --------------------- (2)
From (2),
The initial result is 7 409 g has increased in significant digits.
The least number of significant figures in the data series (i.e. 24 g, 251 g and 7134 g ) is 24 g
which has 2 significant figures.
So the result, 7 409 g can only be expressed to 2 significant figures which is the significant
figures of the 24 g. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,
24 g + 251 g + 7 134 g = 7 409 g = 7.409 × 102 g = 7.4 × 102 g = 7 400 g (to 2
significant figures) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

CASE II:
When multiplying and dividing a series of measurements, the number of significant figures in
the result, should be equal to the least number of significant figures in any of the data of the
series.
For example:
Multiply 3.22 cm by 12.34 cm by 1.8 cm to find the volume of a piece of wood to the correct
number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given:
3.22 cm × 12.34 cm × 1.8 cm ------------------------- (1)
From (1),
3.22 cm × 12.34 cm × 1.8 cm = 71.52264 cm2 --- (2)
From (2),
The initial result, 71.52264 cm2 has increased in significant digits.

Page 67 of 100
However, the least significant measurement of the data series (i.e. 3.22 cm, 12.34 cm and
1.8 cm) is 1.8 cm with 2 significant figures.
So the result, 71.52264 cm2 can only be expressed to 2 significant figures which is the
significant figures of the 1.8 cm. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,
3.22 cm × 12.34 cm × 1.8 cm = 71.52264 cm2 ≈ 72 cm2 = 7.2 × 10! cm2 (to 2
significant figures) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

NOTE:
As a general rule, round off to the correct number of significant figures in the final step of a
series of calculations.
For example:
Q1. Determine the following to the correct number of significant figures:
(i) 3.74 – 1.3 × 2.12 × 17.65
(ii) 2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1 ÷ 0.134
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
3.74 – 1.3 × 2.12 × 17.65 --------------------------- (1)
From (1),
3.74 – 1.3 = 2.44 ---------------------------------------- (2)
Sub. (2) into (1),
2.44 × 2.12 × 17.65 ------------------------------------- (3)
From (3),
2.44 × 2.12 × 17.65 = 91.29992 --------------------- (4)
From (4),
Since, 2.44 and 2.12 both has the same least significant figures which is 3 significant figures,
so the result, 91.29992 can only be expressed to 3 significant figures which is the significant
figures of both 2.44 and 2.12. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,
2.4 4 × 2.12 × 17.65 = 91.3 (to 3 significant figures) -- (5)

(ii) Given:
2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1 ÷ 0.134 ---------------------------- (1)
From (1),
2.9 + 3.2 + 7.1 = 13.2 ------------------------------- (2)

Page 68 of 100
Sub. (2) into (1).
13.2 ÷ 0.134 ----------------------------------------------- (4)
From (4),
13.2 ÷ 0.134 = 98.5075 -------------------------------- (5)
From (5),
Since, 13.2 and 0.134 has the same least significant figures which is 3 significant figures, so
the result, 98.5075 can only be expressed to 3 significant figures which is the significant
figures of both 13.2 and 0.134. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,
13 ÷ 0.134 = 98.5 (to 2 significant figures) ----------- (6)

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Round off the following numbers to two significant figures:
(i) 6.42
(ii) 6.46
(iii) 6.451
(iv) 6.498
(v) 6.55
(vi) 6.45
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.42 ------------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.42 = 6.4 (to 2 significant figures) --------------- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.46 ------------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.46 = 6.5 (to 2 significant figures) --------------- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.451 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,

Page 69 of 100
 Q = 6.451 = 6.5 (to 2 significant figures) ------------- (2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.55 ----------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.55 = 6.6 (to 2 significant figures) --------------- (2)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 6.45 ------------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 6.45 = 6.4 (to 2 significant figures) --------------- (2)

Q2. Round the following values to 3 significant figures:

(i) 5 421
(ii) 5 428
(iii) 53 320 000
(iv) 43 480 000
(v) 3596
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 5 421 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 5 421 = 5 .421 × 102 = 5.42 × 102 = 5 420 (to 3 significant figures) --- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 5 428 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 5 428 = 5. 428 × 102 = 5.43 × 102 = 5430 (to 3 significant figures) -- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 53 320 000 --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,

Page 70 of 100
Q = 53 320 000 = 5.3 32 × 10$ = 5.33 × 10$ = 53 300 000 (to 3 significant figures) ----
----(2)

(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 43 480 000 --------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 43 480 000 = 4.348 × 10$ = 4.35 × 10$ = 43 500 000 (to 3 significant figures) -----
--- (2)

(vi) Given:
Quantity Q = 3596 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 3596 = 3.596 × 102 = 3.6 × 102 = 3 600 (to 2 significant figures) --- (2)

Q3. Round the following values to 3 significant figures:

(i) 4.696 × 10#
(ii) 1.6056 × 100%
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 4.696 × 10# ------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 4.696 × 10# = 4.70 × 10# to 3 significant figures ---- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 1.6056 × 100% ---------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 1.6056 × 100% = 1.61 × 100% to 3 significant figures ---- (2)

Q4. Round the following values to 3 significant figures:

(i) 0.000 000 87
(ii) 2 400 000 000
SOLUTION
(i) Given:

Page 71 of 100
 Quantity Q = 0.000 000 87 ------------------------------- (1)
From (1), converting to standard form and three significant figures, hence,
Q = 0.000 000 87 = 8.7 × 100$ = 8.70 × 100$ (to 3 significant figures) ---
(2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 2 400 000 000 ---------------------------- (1)
From (1), converting to standard form and three significant figures, hence,
Q = 2 400 000 000 = 2.4 × 10# = 2.40 × 10# (to 3 significant figures) --- (2)

Q5. How many significant figures and decimal places are these numbers stated?
(i) 56 002
(ii) 65.78
(iii) 45 000
(iv) 45 000.0
(v) 0.000 000 87
(vi) 2.4 × 10#
(vii) 5 × 10&
SOLUTION
(i) Given:
Quantity Q = 56 002 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 56 002 has 5 significant figures and no number of decimal places ---- (2)

(ii) Given:
Quantity Q = 65.78 ---------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 65.78 has 4 significant figures and 2 decimal places ---- (2)

(iii) Given:
Quantity Q = 45 000 --------------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 45 000 has 5 significant figures and no number of decimal places ---- (2)

Page 72 of 100
(iv) Given:
Quantity Q = 45 000.0 ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 45 000.0 has 6 significant figures and 1 decimal place -- (2)

(v) Given:
Quantity Q = 0.000 000 87 ------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 0.000 000 87 has 2 significant figures and 8 decimal places ---- (2)

(vi) Given:
Quantity Q = 2.4 × 10# ---------------------------------- (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 2.4 × 10# has 2 significant figures and 1 decimal place ---- (2)

(vii) Given:
Quantity Q = 5 × 10& ------------------------------------ (1)
From (1), hence,
Q = 5 × 10& has 1 significant figure and no number of decimal places ---- (2)

Q5. Add 2.76 × 1004 cm and 3.4 × 100& cm to the correct number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given:
2.76 × 1004 cm + 3.4 × 100& cm ---------------------- (1)
From (1),
2.76 × 1004 cm + 3.4 × 100& cm = 3.676 × 100& cm -- (2)
From (2),
Since, 3.4 × 100& cm has the least significant figures which is 2 significant figures, so the
result, 3.676 × 100& cm can only be expressed to 2 significant figures which is the
significant figures of the 3.4 × 100& cm. Hence, to the correct number of significant figures,
2.76 × 1004 cm + 3.4 × 100& cm = 3.7 × 100& cm -- (2)

Page 73 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. Round 1.263 m to:
(i) one significant figure.
(ii) two significant figures.
(iii) three significant figures.
[ANS: (i) 1 m (ii) 1.3 m (iii) 1.26 m]
Q2. Round off the following to three significant figures:
(i) 7.1249
(ii) 2561
(iii) 2001
(iv) 21256
(v) 6.5647
[ANS: (i) 7.12 (ii) 256 (iii) 200 (iv) 213 (v) 6.56 ]
Q3. State the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements:
(i) 1.53 m
(ii) 2.5 × 10% m
(iii) 0.016 m
[ANS: (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 2]
Q4. Round the following values to 3 significant figures:
(i) 60.02
(ii) 60.00
(iii) 60.07
(iv) 542.3
(v) 542.8
[ANS: ]
Q5. How many significant figures are there in a length measurement of?
(i) 2.5 cm
(ii) 5.32 cm
(iii) 7.180 cm
(iv) 0.042 cm
[ANS: ]
Q6. A measurement is stated as 0.0125 mm. State the number of significant figures.
[ANS: 3]

Page 74 of 100
Q7. How many significant figures are the following numbers stated?
(i) 0.000 438
(ii) 70 457.4
(iii) 3.23 × 1004
(iv) 5.064 06
(v) 0.076 0
[ANS: (i) 3 (ii) 6 (iii) 3 (iv) 6 (v) 3]
Q8. Add the following lengths of 2.35 cm and 7.62 m and 14.2 m to the correct number of
significant figures
[ANS: 2 ]
Q9. Using scientific notation, write down the following to two significant figures:
(i) 1 500 m
(ii) 1 500 000 m
(iii) 0.15 m
(iv) 0.015 m
[ANS: ]
LTg
Q10. Use the equation p=
Z

to determine to the correct number of significant figures the power, p, of an electric

motor that raises a mass, m, of 1.5 kg a distance, h, of 1.128 m in a time, t, of 4.79 s
[ANS: 3.5 W to 2 significant figures]
Q11. State the number of significant figures in each of the following:
(i) 504
(ii) 608 000
(iii) 200
(iv) 0.000 305
(v) 0.005 900
[ANS: (i) 3, (ii) 3, (iii) 1, (iv) 3, (v) 4]
Q12. Determine the following to the correct number of significant figures.
(i) 23 × 578
4."%%
(ii)
!."&

(iii) 12.32
(iv) √58900

Page 75 of 100
 (v) 3.21 + 4.1
(vi) 12.367 − 3.15
[ANS: (i) 1.3 × 10% , (ii) 5.00, (iii) 1.86 × 102 , (iv) 2.43 × 10" , (v) 7.3, (vi) 9.22]
Q13. Solve the following problems using the correct number of significant digits.
(i) 6.201 cm + 7.4 cm + 0.68 cm + 12.0 cm
(ii) 1.6 km + 1.62 m + 1200 cm
(iii) 10.8 g − 8.264 g
(iv) 4.75 m − 0.4168 m
(v) 139 cm × 2.3 cm
(vi) 3.2145 km × 4.23 km
(vii) 13.78 g ÷ 11.3 mL
(viii) 18.21 g ÷ 4.4 cm2
[ANS: ]
Q14. Simplify the following expressions using the correct number of significant digits.
(i) 5.012 km + 3.4 km + 2.33 km
(ii) 45 g − 8.3 g
(iii) 3.40 cm × 7.125 cm
(iv) 54 m × 6.5 s
[ANS: ]
Q15. Simplify the following expressions
(i) 3.2 × 10& + 4.8 × 10%
(ii) 5.2 × 100% 4.8 × 10'
(iii) 2.4 × 102 + 8.0 × 10%
(iv) 4.0 × 100' 1.2 × 10&
#.4x×!x•
(v)
!.4x×!xU

[ANS: ]
Q16. How many significant figures are there in a length measurement of?
(i) 2.5 cm
(ii) 5.32 cm
(iii) 7.180 cm
(iv) 0.042 cm
[ANS: ]

Page 76 of 100
Q17. State the number of significant digits in the following measurements:
(i) 9.809 060 m⁄s "
(ii) 9.8 m⁄s"
(iii) 9.80 m⁄s "
(iv) 9.801 m⁄s "
(v) 9.8 3 1026 m⁄s "
[ANS: ]
Q18. Indicate how many significant figures there are in each of the following measured values.
(i) 246.32
(ii) 107.854
(iii) 100.3
(iv) 0.678
(v) 1.008
(vi) 0.00340
[ANS: ]
Q19. Indicate how many significant figures there are in each of the following measured values.
(i) 14.600
(ii) 0.0001
(iii) 700000
(iv) 350.670
(v) 1.0000
(vi) 320001
[ANS: ]
Q20. Calculate the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures.
(i) 32.567 + 135.0 + 1.4567 =
(ii) 246.24 + 238.278 + 98.3 =
(iii) 658.0 + 23.5478 + 1345.29 =
[ANS: ]
Q21. Calculate the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures.
(i) 23.7 x 3.8 =
(ii) 45.76 x 0.25 =
(iii) 81.04 x 0.010 =
(iv) 6.47 x 64.5 =

Page 77 of 100
 [ANS: ]
Q22. Calculate the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures.
(i) 43.678 x 64.1 =
(ii) 1.678 / 0.42 =
(iii) 28.367 / 3.74 =
(iv) 4278 / 1.006 =
[ANS: ]

Page 78 of 100
 Some Regular Shaped Objects
CASE I: For Square
An example of a square block is shown below.

where = length of square block

b = breadth or width of square block
h = height of square block
From the diagram of the square block:
(i) Area of square block is given by the expression
A = × b ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = area of square block
= length of square block
b = breadth or width of square block
(ii) Volume of square block is given by the expression
V = × b × h ------------------------------------------------ (2)
where V = volume of square block
= length of square block
b = breadth or width of square block
h = height of square block

Page 79 of 100
CASE II: For Rectangle
A diagram of a rectangular block is shown.

where = length of rectangular block

b = breadth or width of rectangular block
h = height of rectangular block

From the diagram of the rectangular block:

(i) Area of rectangular block is given by the expression
A = × b ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = area of rectangle
= length of rectangle
b = breadth or width of rectangle
(ii) Volume of rectangular block is given by the expression
V = × b × h ------------------------------------------------ (2)
where V = volume of rectangle
= length of rectangle
b = breadth or width of rectangle
h = height of rectangle

Page 80 of 100
CASE III: For Cuboid
A diagram of a cuboid is shown.

where • = length of cuboid

b = breadth or width of cuboid
c = height of cuboid
From the diagram of the cuboid:
(i) Surface area of cuboid is given by the expression
A = 2 ab + bc + ac --------------------------------------- (1)
where A = surface area of cuboid
a = length of cuboid
b = breadth or width of cuboid
c = height of cuboid
(ii) Volume of cuboid is given by the expression
V = • × b × c ------------------------------------------------ (2)
where V = volume of cuboid
a = length of cuboid
b = breadth or width of cuboid
c = height of cuboid

Page 81 of 100
CASE IV: For Triangle
A diagram of a triangular block is shown below.

b
where b = base of triangle
h = height of triangle
From the diagram of the triangular block:
(i) Area of triangle is given by the expression
!
A = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)
"

where A = area of triangle

b = base of triangle
h = height of triangle

Page 82 of 100
CASE V: For Circle
A diagram of a circle is shown below.

D
where r = radius of circle
D = diameter of circle
C = centre of circle
From the diagram of the circle:
(i) Area of circle is given by the expression
A = πr " ------------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = area of circle
r = radius of circle
""
π = constant = $
= 3.142

(ii) Also, area of a circle is given by the expression

s’c
A= ------------------------------------------------------- (2)
%

where A = area of circle

D = diameter of circle
""
π = constant = $
= 3.142

(iii) Also, the radius of a circle relates the diameter of a circle by the relation
’
r= ---------------------------------------------------------- (3)
"

where r = radius of circle

D = diameter of circle
(iv) Circumference of circle is given by the expression
C = 2πr ------------------------------------------------------- (2)
where C = circumference of circle

Page 83 of 100
 r = radius of circle
""
π = constant = = 3.142
$

CASE VI: For Sphere

A diagram of a sphere is shown below.

D
where r = radius of sphere
D = diameter of sphere
c = centre of circle
From the diagram of the sphere:
(i) Surface area of sphere is given by the expression
A = 4πr " ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = surface area of sphere
r = radius of sphere
""
π = constant = $
= 3.142

(ii) Volume of sphere is given by the expression

%
V = 2 πr 2 ----------------------------------------------------- (2)

where V = volume of sphere

r = radius of sphere
""
π = constant = = 3.142
$

(iii) Also, the radius of a sphere relates the diameter of a sphere by the relation
’
r= ---------------------------------------------------------- (3)
"

where r = radius of sphere

D = diameter of sphere

Page 84 of 100
CASE VII: Cylinder
A diagram of a cylinder is shown below.

where r = radius of cylinder

h = height of cylinder
D = diameter of cylinder
From the diagram of the cylinder:
(i) Volume of cylinder is given by the expression
V = πr " h ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where V = volume of cylinder
r = radius of cylinder
h = height of cylinder
""
π = constant = = 3.142
$

(ii) Also, volume of cylinder is given by the expression

’c
V=π h --------------------------------------------------- (2)
%

where V = volume of cylinder

D = diameter of cylinder

Page 85 of 100
 h = height of cylinder
""
π = constant = = 3.142
$

(iii) Also, the radius of a cylinder relates the diameter of a cylinder by the relation
’
r= ---------------------------------------------------------- (3)
"

where r = radius of cylinder

D = diameter of cylinder
(iv) Surface area of a cylinder is given by the expression
A = 2πr h + r ---------------------------------------------- (4)
where A = surface area of cylinder
r = radius of cylinder
h = height of cylinder
""
π = constant = $
= 3.142

(v) Area of a hollow cylinder is given by the expression

A = 2πh ------------------------------------------------------ (5)
where A = area of hollow cylinder
h = height of cylinder
""
π = constant = $
= 3.142

WORKED EXAMPLES
Q1. Calculate the area of a triangle whose base is 8 cm and height is 12 cm.
SOLUTION
Given: Base of triangle b = 8 cm
Height of triangle h = 12 cm
Area of triangle is given by the expression
!
A = " × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)

where A = area of triangle

b = base of triangle
h = height of triangle
From (1), by substitution,
!
A = " × 8 cm × 12 cm ------------------------------------ (2)

Page 86 of 100
From (2),
!
A = × 8 cm × 12 cm = 48 cm" ---------------------- (3)
"

From (3), to required number of significant figures, hence,

!
A = × 8 cm × 12 cm = 48 cm" = 50 cm" (to 1 significant figure) -- (4)
"

Q2. Calculate the area of a rectangle of length 6.0 cm and width 4.5 cm, giving your answer
to an appropriate number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given: Length of rectangle = 6.0 cm
Width of rectangle b = 4.5 cm
Area of rectangle is given by the expression
A = × b ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = area of rectangle
= length of rectangle
b = breadth or width of rectangle
From (1), by substitution,
A = 6.0 cm × 4.5 cm --------------------------------------- (2)
From (2),
A = 6.0 cm × 4.5 cm = 27 cm" -------------------------- (3)
From (3), to required number of significant figures, hence,
A = 6.0 cm × 4.5 cm = 27 cm" = 27 cm" (to 2 significant figures) ------ (4)

Q3. A rectangular block measures 4.1 cm by 2.8 cm by 2.1 cm. Calculate its volume giving
your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
SOLUTION
Given: For a rectangular block measuring 4.1 cm by 2.8 cm by 2.1 cm, hence,
Length of rectangular block = 4.1 cm
Width of rectangular block b = 2.8 cm
Height of rectangular block h = 2.1 cm
Volume of rectangular block is given by the expression
V = × b × h ------------------------------------------------ (1)
where V = volume of rectangular block
= length of rectangular block

Page 87 of 100
 b = breadth or width of rectangular block
h = height of rectangular block
From (1), by substitution,
V = 4.1 cm × 2.8 cm × 2.1 cm --------------------------- (2)
From (2),
V = 4.1 cm × 2.8 cm × 2.1 cm = 24.108 cm2 -------- (3)
From (3), to required number of significant figures, hence,
V = 4.1 cm × 2.8 cm × 2.1 cm = 24.108 cm2 = 24 cm2 (to 2 significant figures) --- (4)

Q4. Calculate the circumference of a circle of radius 6 cm.

SOLUTION
Given: Radius of circle r = 6 cm
Circumference of circle is given by the expression
C = 2πr ------------------------------------------------------- (1)
where C = circumference of circle
r = radius of circle
From (1), by substitution,
C = 2π × 6 cm ---------------------------------------------- (2)
From (2),
C = 2π × 6 cm = 37.699 cm ---------------------------- (3)
From (3), to required number of significant figures, hence,
C = 2π × 6 cm = 37.699 cm = 3.7699 × 10! cm = 4 × 10! cm = 40 cm (to 1
significant figure) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Q5. Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 10 mm and height 5.0 cm in cubic metres.
SOLUTION
Given: Radius of cylinder r = 10 mm = 10 × 1002 m
Height of cylinder h = 5.0 cm = 5.0 × 100" m
Volume of cylinder is given by the expression
V = πr " h ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where V = volume of cylinder
r = radius of cylinder
h = height of cylinder

Page 88 of 100
From (1), by substitution,
V = π × 10 × 1002 m "
× 5.0 × 100" m ------------ (2)
From (2),
V = 3.14 × 100 × 1004 m" × 5.0 × 100" m --------- (3)
From (3),
V = 3.14 × 100 × 1004 m" × 5.0 × 100" m = 1.57 × 100& m2 --- (4)
From (4), to required number of significant figures, hence,
V = 3.14 × 100 × 1004 m" × 5.0 × 100" m = 1.57 × 100& m2 = 2 × 100& m2 (to 1
significant figure) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (5)
Q6. Calculate how many bricks of size 5 cm × 2 cm × 3 cm a child would need to build a
rectangular block of dimensions 15 cm × 15 cm × 10 cm. Show your working.
SOLUTION
Given: For one brick of size 5 cm × 2 cm × 3 cm
Length of brick = 5 cm
Width of brick W = 2 cm
Height of brick h = 3 cm
Volume of one brick is given by the expression
Vh = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where Vh = volume of one brick
= length of one brick
b = breadth or width of one brick
h = height of one brick
From (1), by substitution,
Vh = 5 cm × 2 cm × 3 cm --------------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
Vh = 30 cm2 ------------------------------------------------- (3)
Given: For rectangular block of dimensions 15 cm × 15 cm × 10 cm
Length of rectangular block = 15 cm
Width of rectangular block W = 15 cm
Height of rectangular block h = 10 cm
Volume of rectangular block is given by the expression
V“ = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (4)
where V“ = volume of rectangular block

Page 89 of 100
 = length of rectangular block
b = breadth or width of rectangular block
h = height of rectangular block
From (4), by substitution,
V“ = 15 cm × 15 cm × 10 cm ------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence,
V“ = 2 250 cm2 --------------------------------------------- (6)
Number N of bricks needed to build a rectangular block is given by the expression
OJPQLR Ja bR\ZM[TQPMb hPJ\S ”•
N= OJPQLR Ja J[R hbY\S ”–
------------------------- (7)

From (7),
”
N = ”• -------------------------------------------------------- (8)
–

where N = number of bricks needed to build a rectangular block

V“ = volume of rectangular block
Vh = volume of one brick
From (8), by substitution,
" "&x \LU
N= 2x \LU
------------------------------------------------- (9)

From (9), hence,

N = 75 bricks ----------------------------------------------- (10)

Q7. A chocolate bar measures 10 cm long by 2 cm wide and is 2 cm thick.

(i) Calculate the volume of one bar.
(ii) How many bars each 2 cm long, 2 cm wide and 2 cm thick have the same total
volume?
SOLUTION
Given: For one chocolate bar that measures 10 cm long by 2 cm wide and is 2 cm thick.
Length of one chocolate bar = 10 cm
Width of one chocolate bar W = 2 cm
Height of one chocolate bar h = 2 cm
(i) Volume of one chocolate bar is given by the expression
V— = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where V— = volume of one chocolate bar
= length of one chocolate bar

Page 90 of 100
 b = breadth or width of one chocolate bar
h = height of one chocolate bar
From (4), by substitution,
V— = 10 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm ----------------------------- (2)
From (5), hence,
V— = 40 cm2 ------------------------------------------------- (3)
Given: For chocolate bar of size 2 cm long, 2 cm wide and 2 cm thick
Length of chocolate bar = 2 cm
Width of chocolate bar W = 2 cm
Height of chocolate bar h = 2 cm
Volume of chocolate bar is given by the expression
V = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (4)
where V = volume of chocolate bar
= length of chocolate bar
b = breadth or width of chocolate bar
h = height of chocolate bar
From (4), by substitution,
V = 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm ------------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence,
V = 8 cm2 ---------------------------------------------------- (6)
(ii) Number N of chocolate bar having the same total volume as the one chocolate bar is given
by the expression
”JPQLR Ja J[R \gJ\JPMZR hMb ”˜
N= ------------------------- (7)
OJPQLR Ja \gJ\JPMZR hMb ”

From (7),
”˜
N= ”
-------------------------------------------------------- (8)

where N = number of chocolate bar having the same total volume as the one chocolate bar
V— = volume of one chocolate bar
Vh = volume of chocolate bar
From (8), by substitution,
%x \LU
N= ---------------------------------------------------- (9)
' \LU

From (9), hence,

N = 5 chocolate bars --------------------------------------- (10)

Page 91 of 100
Q8. Calculate how many blocks of ice cream each 10 cm long, 10 cm wide and 4 cm thick can
be stored in the compartment of a freezer measuring 40 cm deep, 40 cm wide and 20 cm
high.
SOLUTION
Given: For blocks of ice cream each 10 cm long, 10 cm wide and 4 cm thick
Length of one block of ice cream = 10 cm
Width of one block of ice cream W = 10 cm
Height of one block of ice cream h = 4 cm
Volume of one block of ice cream is given by the expression
V = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where V = volume of one block ice cream
= length of one block ice cream
b = breadth or width of one block ice cream
h = height of one block ice cream
From (1), by substitution,
V = 10 cm × 10 cm × 4 cm ---------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
V = 400 cm2 ------------------------------------------------- (3)
Given: For compartment of a freezer measuring 40 cm deep, 40 cm wide and 20 cm high.
Length of compartment of freezer = 40 cm
Width of compartment of freezer W = 40 cm
Height of compartment of freezer h = 20 cm
Volume of compartment of freezer is given by the expression
V— = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (4)
where V— = volume of compartment of freezer
= length of compartment of freezer
b = breadth or width of compartment of freezer
h = height of compartment of freezer
From (4), by substitution,
V = 40 cm × 40 cm × 20 cm -------------------------- (5)
From (5), hence,
V = 32 000 cm2 --------------------------------------------- (6)

Page 92 of 100
Number N of blocks of ice cream be stored in a compartment of a freezer is given by the
expression
OJPQLR Ja \JL]MbZLR[Z Ja abRR™Rb ”˜
N= OJPQLR Ja J[R hPJ\S Y\R \bRML ”
------------------ (7)

From (7),
”˜
N= -------------------------------------------------------- (8)
”

where N = number of blocks of ice cream be stored in a compartment of a freezer

V— = volume of compartment of freezer
V = volume of one block ice cream
From (8), by substitution,
2" xxx \LU
N= ------------------------------------------------ (9)
%xx \LU

From (9), hence,

N = 80 ------------------------------------------------------ (10)

Q9. The diagram below shows a block of metal on a solid surface.

Calculate the area of the block of metal in contact with the solid surface.
SOLUTION
Given: Length of block of metal in contact with the solid surface = 20 cm
Breadth or width of block of metal in contact with the solid surface b = 12 cm
Height of block of metal in contact with the solid surface h = 2.0 cm
The area of the block of metal in contact with the solid surface is given by the expression
A = × b ----------------------------------------------------- (1)
where A = area of the block of metal in contact with the solid surface

Page 93 of 100
 = length of the block of metal in contact with the solid surface
b = breadth or width of the block of metal in contact with the solid surface
From (1), by substitution,
A = 20 cm × 12 cm --------------------------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
A = 240 cm" = 2.40 × 10" cm" = 2 × 10" cm" = 200 cm" (to 1 significant figure) -- (3)

Q10. The diagram below shows a metal block and its dimensions.

Calculate the volume of the metal block.

SOLUTION
Given: Length of rectangular metal block = 12.0 cm
Breadth or width of rectangular metal block b = 2.0 cm
Height of rectangular metal block h = 2.0 cm
The volume of the rectangular metal block is given by the expression
V = × b × h ----------------------------------------------- (1)
where V = volume of the rectangular metal block
= length of the rectangular metal block
b = breadth or width of the rectangular metal block
h = height of the rectangular metal block
From (1), by substitution,
V = 12.0 cm × 2.0 cm × 2.0 cm ----------------------- (2)
From (2), hence,
V = 48.0 cm2 = 48 cm2 (to 2 significant figures) ------ (3)

Page 94 of 100
Page 95 of 100
 EXERCISE
Q1. A rectangular block of wood, has dimensions 240 mm x 20.5 cm x 0.040 m. Calculate
its volume in cm2 giving your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
[ANS: ]
Q2. Calculate the area of a triangle whose base is 8 cm and height is 12 cm.
[ANS: ]
Q3. Calculate the volume of a rectangular box which is 30 cm long, 25 cm wide and 15 cm
high in cubic metres.
[ANS: ]
Q4. Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 50 mm and height 25 cm in cubic metres.
[ANS: ]
Q5. Calculate the volume of a block of wood which is 40 cm long, 12 cm wide and 5 cm
high in cubic metres.
[ANS: 2.4 × 1002 m2 ]
Q6. Calculate the area of a right-angled triangle of sides 30 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm. Show your
working.
[ANS: see notes]
Q7. The volume of a rectangular block can be calculated using this equation:
volume = length × width × height
Using this information, copy and complete the table below.
length⁄cm width⁄cm height⁄cm volume of rectangular block⁄cm2
2 3 4 ?
5 5 ? 100
6 ? 5 300
? 10 10 50

[ANS: see notes]

Page 96 of 100
Q8. The diagram below shows a metal block and its dimensions.

Calculate the area of the metal block in contact with the ground.
[ANS: ]
Q9. Calculate the volume, in m2 , of a block of wood with dimensions
4.0 cm × 1.5 cm × 1.4 cm.
[ANS: ]
Q10. A pipe has an internal radius of 3.6 cm and a length of 14.58 m. Paying attention to
significant figures, and giving your answer in scientific notation, calculate the volume of
the pipe:
(i) in cm2 .
(ii) in m2 .
Take: volume of pipe, V = πr " , i.e. area of cross-section × length
[ANS: ]
Q11. Calculate the area, in cm" , of the top of a table with sides of 1.2 m and 0.9 m.
[ANS: ]
Q12. Calculate the volume in m2 of a wire of length 75 cm and diameter 0.38 mm.
[ANS: ]

Page 97 of 100
 Some Mathematical Formulae
CASE I: The Cosine Rule and the Sine Rule
Consider the triangle ABC shown in the diagram below.

•
£

A ¡ q

Ž
¢

The Cosine Rule

From the diagram:
The Cosine Rule can be stated with the sides of the triangle ABC as follows:
a" = b" + c " − 2bc cos α --------------------------------- (1)
b" = a" + c " − 2ac cos β -------------------------------- (2)
c " = a" + b" − 2ab cos θ -------------------------------- (3)

The Sine Rule

From the diagram:
The Sine Rule can be stated with the sides of the triangle ABC as follows:
M h \
= = --------------------------------------- (1)
NY[ ž NY[ Ÿ NY[

From (4), It follows that:

M h
= ------------------------------------------------- (2)
NY[ ž NY[ Ÿ

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 M \
= --------------------------------------------------- (3)
NY[ ž NY[
h \
= -------------------------------------------------- (4)
NY[ Ÿ NY[

CASE II: Pythagoras Theorem and Trigonometry Ratios

Consider the right – angled triangle ABC shown in the diagram below.

•
A
B

Ž q
¡

Pythagoras Theorem
From the diagram:
Pythagoras theorem states that,
c " = a" + b" ------------------------------------------------ (1)
NOTE:
1. Pythagoras theorem holds only for right – angled triangles.

Trigonometry Ratios
From the diagram:
The trigonometry ratios with respect to the angle θ are given by the expressions
J]]JNYZR M
sin θ = g^]JZgR[QN
= \
------------------------------------- (1)
MX¤M\R[Z h
cos θ = g^]JZgR[QN = ------------------------------------- (2)
\
J]]JNYZR M
tan θ = MX¤M\R[Z
= h ----------------------------------------- (3)

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NOTE:
1. The trigonometry ratios are usually remembered using acronym as follow:
J]]JNYZR
SOH = -------------------------------------------- (4)
g^]JZgR[QN
MX¤M\R[Z
CAH = ------------------------------------------- (5)
g^]JZgR[QN
J]]JNYZR
TOA = ----------------------------------------------- (6)
MX¤M\R[Z

2. The side – length of the right – angled triangle where the angle θ is facing always becomes
the opposite of the right –angled triangle.

Some Trigonometry Properties

NY[
tan θ = -------------------------------------------------- (7)
\JN

sin" θ + cos " θ = 1 ---------------------------------------- (8)

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